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RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Hu a , N. K., A h m a d, R. & Ism a il, A . (2 0 1 1 ). T h e Im pa ct of t h e Su per v isor s Role in T r a in in g Pr og r a m m es

on t h e T r a n sfer of T r a in in g : A Ca se St u dy in Fou r Ea st Ma la y sia n Loca l Gov er n m en t s, Res earch and
Practice in Hum an Res ource Managem ent, 1 9 (2 ), 2 4 -4 2 .

The Impact of the Supervisors Role in Training

Programmes on the Transfer of Training: A Case Study in
Four East Malaysian Local Governments
Ng Kueh Hua, Rusli Ahm ad & Azm an Ism ail

ABSTRACT
The Malaysian public sector plays a key role in the government's
vision to enhance the economic status, assist the growth of industrial
and private sectors, and support the country's human capital needs.
Extant studies advocated that a supervisor plays an important role
in enhancing the transfer of training among employees, and
although the nature of this relationship has been studied, it is has
been given less attention especially in the context of the Malaysian
public sector. Hence, this study attempted to rectify the lack of
literature by investigating the relationship between a supervisor's
role in training programmes, and the transfer of training in four
East Malaysian local governments. Indepth interviews were
conducted with a total of 12 employees to develop the self report
questionnaire, and a pilot study was conducted with the
participation of 60 employees to pre test the questionnaire. The
questionnaire was then used to gather quantitative data from 1100
management and non management employees working in the
administrative and technical divisions for hypotheses testing.
Pearson correlation analysis showed a positive and significant
relationship between supervisor's role in training programmes and
the transfer of training. Multiple regression analysis demonstrated
among the studied variables, supervisor communication acted as a
dominant factor in enhancing the transfer of training. These
findings have implications for human resource management (HRM)
policies and practices by detailing guidelines to improve
organisational remuneration system as well as pathways for
enhancing the role of supervisors in training programmes in order
to facilitate the transfer of training, particularly within the
Malaysian public sector.

INTRODUCTION
Human resource scholars adv ocate that superv isors hav e important roles that can determine the
success of training programmes (Glitten 2001 , Nijman, V ognum & V eldkamp 2006). That is, a proper
administration and implementation of training programmes by superv isors could ensure return on
inv estment for training (Cheng & Ho 2001 , Chen, Sok & Sok 2007 ). Traditionally , superv isors hav e
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often focused on operational activ ities (Adair 1 988). Hence, the responsibility of superv isors has
centred on identify ing employ ees daily and short term skill deficiencies in performing their job and
reporting any problems to the management (Adair 1 988, Pfeffer 1 998). The management often take
further actions by conducting training needs analy sis, designing and implementing training courses,
and ev aluating the training programmes to ov ercome such employ ees skills deficiencies (Berge,
V erneil, Berge, Dav is & Smith 2002).
In the era of global competition, contemporary management is v iewing training and dev elopment as
a tool to enhance employ ees career dev elopment and meet organisational strategic goals (Robbins &
Coulter 2005). As a result, superv isors regularly work with top management, training managers, and
trainers in designing and administering as well as implementing training programmes (Martins 2007 ,
Ismail, Bakar & Bongogoh 2008). With respect to the design of training programmes, superv isors
hav e long been empowered in assessing the needs of training, identify training objectiv es, dev eloping
training contents, and choosing appropriate training deliv ery techniques (Adair 1 988). In training
administration, superv isors are responsible to organise training, ev aluate the training effectiv eness
and to prov ide opportunities for employ ees to grow. This activ ity is done by encouraging staff to
attend relev ant training programmes by creating an open and trusting climate that may facilitate the
dev elopment of employ ees and consulting frequently with these people about the objectiv es and
methods of improv ing their job performance (Huang 2001 ). In the implementation of training
programmes, superv isors are required to augment the training by practical interv entions such as on
the job training to employ ees.
Ex tant research shows that the ability of superv isors to properly implement their role in training
programmes may lead to a higher degree of the transfer of training (Smith-Jentsch, Salas & Brannick
2001 , Gumuseli & Ergin 2002, Arthur, Bennett, Edens & Bell 2003). Within the framework of training
programmes, many scholars adv ocate that the ex tent to which factors such as support,
communication, and assignment decisions prov ided by superv isors may elev ate the employ ees
lev el of transferring the training(Smith-Jentsch, et al. 2001 , Gumuseli & Ergin 2002, Hashim,
Mohamad, Saemi, Ahmad & Rashid 2009).
The objectiv e of this paper is to ex plore the relationship between the superv isors role in training
programmes and the the transfer of training. Particularly , the main aim of this paper is to ex amine
the effects of superv isors in prov iding support, communication and assignment decisions on the
lev el of the transfer of training among employ ees in four local gov ernments of East Malay sia.
Additionally , this paper identifies the dominant superv isors role in predicting the transfer of
training. This paper also rev iews the training literature by detailing the constructs under
inv estigation as well as prov iding empirical and theoretical support for the relationship between the
superv isors role in training programmes and the transfer of training. Then discussed are the
research gaps in the transfer of training, which motiv ated the authors to ex plore the nature of the
superv isors role and the transfer of training with a conceptual framework and research hy potheses.
The paper outlines the research methodology , which is followed by the results, a discussion and a
concluding section succinctly adv ancing implications and consequences for HRM policies in
contemporary organisations.

LITERATURE R EVIEW
It is broadly known that the transfer of training is of utmost important to increase performance and
return on inv estment to an organisation. In the literature it is generally agreed that the transfer of
training is a multidimensional construct, and in the contex t of training, the transfer of training is the
ex tent to which an indiv idual is able to repeat behav iour learned from training programmes in new
situations (Fox on 1 993, Subedi 2004). To be precise, it is the ability of employ ees to effectiv ely
apply , adapt and reproduce the knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA) gained from training
programmes into a job env ironment (Baldwin & Ford 1 988, Wex ley & Latham 2001 ). Research
interest on this issue has been growing since Baldwin and Ford (1 988) proposed a comprehensiv e
model to ex plore factors affecting the transfer of training. In the model they hy pothesised trainee
characteristics, training design and work env ironment as important antecedents for the transfer of
training.
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training.
Trainee characteristics are div ided into ability related factors, motiv ation related factors and
personality related factors that hav e an impact on the transfer of training (Elangov an & Karakowsky
1 999). Ev idence that a trainee characteristic is related to the transfer of training has been
demonstrated by Facteau, Dobbins, Russell, Ladd and Kudisch (1 995), and Chiaburu and Tekleab
(2005) found that employ ees can be motiv ated to attend and apply what they hav e learned from
training. In addition to trainee characteristics, training design factors include the principle of
learning, sequencing and the training content, which is much influenced by the classical learning
theories. According to Baldwin and Ford (1 988), work env ironmental factors, which include
superv isor support and opportunity to apply training into the job (Elangov an & Karakowsky 1 999),
hav e been the least ex amined v ariables due to the lack of a robust research framework. Despite the
relev ant emerging research Elangov an and Karakowsky (1 999), and Subedi (2004) urge that there is
a need to identify the important superv isors roles and behav iours that are v ital to facilitate
employ ees in apply ing training into the job.

Supervisor Support
Prev ious research has shown that superv isor support is an important factor that can facilitate the
transfer of training (Subedi 2004). Many researchers (e.g., Facteau, et al. 1 995, Chiaburu & Tekleab
2005, Switzer, Nagy & Mullins 2005) hav e generally , agreed that superv isor support is one of the
important factors that effect the transfer of training, which can be div ided into emotional and
instrumental support (Baldwin & Ford 1 988). Specifically , superv isors prov ide emotional support in
terms of encouragement to attend and learn in training programmes, and they may reinforce and
facilitate employ ees to apply newly acquired KSA into the job (Rahman 2004, Merriam & Leahy
2005, Switzer, et al. 2005). On the other hand, instrumental support is specifically referring to the
ability of the superv isors to max imise the similarity between training programmes and workplace
situations (Elangov an & Karakowsky 1 999, Wex ley & Latham 2001 ). Support may be prov ided to
employ ees in different times such as before, during and after training programmes (Subedi 2004,
Nijman, et al. 2006). With adequate superv isor support, employ ees are likely to hav e better
preparation and time to apply training into the job (Gumuseli & Ergin 2002).
Su per v i sor Su ppor t a n d t h e T r a n sfer of T r a i n i n g

There hav e been local and more geographical dispersed studies on superv isor support. These studies
were conducted on different samples and settings, such as the 1 20 respondents serv ing in v arious
Ministries located in the Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajay a, Malay sia (Haslinda &
Mahy uddin 2009); 1 31 employ ees who attended occupational health and safety training
programmes in an organisation in Germany (Festner & Gruber 2008); 81 employ ees from 1 5 sister
companies of a Korean conglomerate (Lim & Morris 2006);and 1 30 employ ees of Tenaga Nasional
Berhad Johor Bahru area, who hav e attended technical training programmes held between 2001 to
2004 located at the Sultan Ahmad Shah Training Institute (ILSAS), Bangi, Selangor, Malay sia
(Rahman 2004). Results of these studies adv ocated that superv isor support had increased the
transfer of training. That is, the ability of superv isors to prov ide support such as encouragement to
attend training, guidance on how to apply training, and sufficient opportunities and time to apply
training was able to motiv ate employ ees to apply training onto the job. According to these studies it
was found that when employ ees receiv ed such support from superv isors they had more chances,
clearer direction and adequate time to learn how to make use of the training in the workplace. This in
turn resulted in better job performance and work attitudes.

Supervisor Communication
In addition to support, research has indicated that communication between superv isors and
employ ees is v ital in facilitating the transfer of training (V elada, Caetano, Michel, Ly ons & Kav anagh
2007 , Hashim, et al. 2009, Ismail, Mohamed & Sulaiman 201 0). In an organisational setting,
superv isors communicate with employ ees by practising open discussion and prov iding feedback
(Harris, Simon & Bone 2000, Sisson 2001 ). Open discussion can be seen as superv isors who prov ide
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realistic information about training programmes in order to increase employ ees preparations for
training (Tai 2006). Open discussion prov ides employ ees with the opportunity to prov ide input and
raise questions related to training to ov ercome any obstacles that may prev ent them from learning
new KSA (Robbins & DeCenzo 2006). Moreov er, superv isors can prov ide feedback about the quality
of the employ ees performance (London & Smither 2002). Feedback from superv isors could prov ide
information about the ty pe, ex tent and direction of errors to employ ees so it can be corrected in the
future (Forza and Salv ador 2000). This may rouse employ ees to set higher goals and inv oke greater
effort to apply training outcomes (London & Smither 2002). When employ ees hav e more
preparation for training and receiv e adequate information on their performance they are assisted to
learn and apply knowledge into the job (Gumuseli & Ergin 2002).
Su per v i sor Com m u n i ca t i on a n d t h e T r a n sfer of T r a i n i n g

Prev ious studies hav e directly ex amined the effect of superv isor communication and the transfer of
training from different samples and settings. For instance, the 1 1 0 employ ees who had participated
in training programmes in a state public work agency in Sarawak, Malay sia (Ismail, et al. 201 0), 90
employ ees from public and priv ate sectors who hav e attended Dual National Training Sy stem course
in Malay sia (Hashim, et al. 2009), 1 82 employ ees from a large grocery organisation in Portugal
(V elada, et al. 2007 ), and 1 0 Korean human resource practitioners who attended a training
programme that addressed performance improv ement technology in Korea (Lim 2000). These
studies concluded that communication play ed an important role in enhancing the transfer of
training. The ex tent to which superv isors practised open communication such as prov iding feedback
and information of training programmes significantly elev ated the transfer of training. In an open
communication, employ ees were prov ided with detailed information about training programmes
beforehand, which prepared them to learn from the training programmes. After the training
commenced, a series of feedback was giv en to employ ees that assisted them in improv ing their KSA.
These methods enhanced their ability to the transfer of training into the job that resulted in
increased job performance.

Supervisor Assignment Decisions

Although research on assignment decisions is relativ ely scarce, sev eral stud ies hav e suggested this
knowledge is influential in promoting the transfer of training (Baldwin & Magjuka 1 991 , Baldwin,
Magjuka & Loher 1 991 , Tai 2006). Assignment decisions can be in the form of superv isors assigning
employ ees to attend v oluntary or mandatory training programmes. Specifically , v oluntary training
refers to the employ ees choices to attend or not to attend training programmes (Tsai & Tai 2003,
Saks & Belcourt 2006), and employ ees tend to show more enthusiasm and commitment when they
hav e the choice of attendance. This condition is because employ ees feel that the choice and option
giv en to them are fair (Quinones 1 997 ). While mandatory training assignment refers to compulsory
training programmes whereby employ ees had no choice, but to attend and learn from the training
programmes (Baldwin & Magjuka 1 991 , Tsai & Tai 2003, Machin & Treloar 2004). Baldwin and
Magjuka (1 991 ,) and Tsai and Tai (2003) argue that employ ees hav e high motiv ation and are able to
achiev e the transfer of training when they are mandated to attend training programmes by
superv isors. This result is due to employ ees who perceiv ed training as important and bring desired
outcomes whenev er superv isors decide to mandate the attendance of training programmes (Baldwin
& Magjuka 1 991 , Tsai & Tai 2003).
In addition to training attendance modes employ ees hav e the option to select the content of training
programmes according to their needs and/ or preferences (Baldwin, et al. 1 991 , Quinones 1 997 ,
Muchinsky 2008). That is, employ ees are either giv en the opportunities or prohibited by
superv isors from contributing requests and suggestions regarding future training contents (Baldwin,
et al. 1 991 , Quinones 1 997 , Guerrero & Sire 2001 , Machin 2004). Baldwin, et al. (1 991 ) argue that
although employ ees are allowed to choose training that they wanted, their motiv ation to the transfer
training would be decreases if superv isors do not fulfil their choice of training. This implies that in
addition to the training attendance mode, employ ees participation in decision making regarding
training programmes ex ert an t impact on the transfer of training.
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Rel a t i on sh i p bet ween Su per v i sor A ssi gn m en t Deci si on s a n d t h e T r a n sfer of T r a i n i n g

A limited number of studies that directly ex amine superv isor assignment decisions hav e been
undertaken. Two studies that directly ex amined superv isor assignment decisions were undertaken in
North America. One study was undertaken with 1 50 members of a large training and dev elopment
society in Canada (Saks & Belcourt 2006), and a second inv estigation was conducted with 7 85 human
resource professionals from the Society for HRM in the United States (Ry nes & Rosen 1 995). These
studies reported that the ability of superv isors in determining appropriate training assignment
(v oluntary and mandatory ) had enhanced the transfer of training. It is likely employ ees more
successfully the transferred training into the job because with appropriate training assignment, they
tended to be more motiv ated to attend and learn from training programmes.

Supervisors Role in the Transfer of Training

Mertons self fulfilling prophecy conceptualises the importance of behav ioural mechanism through
which an indiv iduals ex pectancy affects another indiv idual (McShane & V on Glinow 2005). The
application of this theory in a training model shows that superv isors who ex pect employ ees to the
transfer training into the job tend to create a positiv e work climate (e.g., supportiv e treatment,
frequent communication and more opportunities for employ ees to prov ide input in training
decisions) (McShane & V on Glinow 2005). Consequently , employ ees learn more from training, hav e
more opportunities and time to practise what they learned from training, receiv ed frequent
performance feedback as well as benefited from training programmes that they wanted to attend
(Campbell & Simpson 1 992, Campbell 1 997 ).
Skinners reinforcement theory articulates that an indiv idual has a choice in selecting a giv en
responses and often he or she will choose a response that is associated with positiv e outcomes in the
past (Huitt & Hummel 1 997 ). The application of this theory in a training contex t shows superv isors
can prov ide positiv e support, performance feedback and training assignments when employ ees
successfully applied training. When employ ees acknowledged that ev ery successful application of
training is followed by positiv e reinforcement, they are more likely to practise harder into the job
what they learned from training (Lim & Morris 2006, Saks & Belcourt 2006, Festner & Gruber 2008,
Haslinda & Mahy uddin 2009).

R ESEARCH GAPS
A range of studies hav e been done in this area with regard to the role of superv isors in training
programmes and its impact on the transfer of training (Elangov an & Karakowsky 1 999, Cheng & Ho
2001 , Subedi 2004). Nev ertheless, there are gaps in the relev ant theoretical, methodological and
practical literature.

Theoretical Gaps
The role of superv isors in training programmes has been giv en limited attention because prev ious
studies often emphasised on the effects of training design factors and indiv idual factors on the
transfer of training (Baldwin & Ford 1 988, Elangov an & Karakowsky 1 999, V elada, et al. 2007 ). In
other words, the predictiv e role of superv isors role in training programmes has been giv en less
attention due a primary focus on training design factors (e.g., relev ancy of instructional methods)
and trainees characteristics (e.g., motiv ational lev els) in influencing the transfer of training. Despite
this situation there hav e been a growing number of studies on superv isors roles since Baldwin and
Ford (1 988) adv ocated the importance of such factors in the transfer of training. But more effort is
needed in order to reach a fuller understanding about the impact on the transfer of training (Cheng &
Ho 2001 , Burke & Huchins 2007 ). Research on the transfer of training is critical particularly in the
contex t of Malay sian public sector, where studies on this particular issue are relativ ely lacking
(Baharim 2008). Additionally , prev ious studies hav e not prov ided consistent results on the
relationship between superv isors role in training programmes and the transfer of training (Chiaburu
& Tekleab, 2005). Sev eral studies hav e found positiv e and significant effect of the superv isors role in
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training programmes on the transfer of training (e.g., V elada, et al. 2007 , Festner & Gruber 2008,
Haslinda & Mahy uddin 2009). But other inv estigations hav e found weak or no significant ev idence of
such relationships (e.g., Chiaburu & Marinov a 2005, Nijman, et al. 2006). The mix ed findings
prompt further assessments in v arious contex ts to further determine the nature of such
relationships.

Methodological Gaps
Past studies that often used students and/ or conducted under laboratory conditions limit the
ecological v alidity of research findings (Cheng & Ho 2001 , Klein, Noe & Wang 2006, Stansfield &
Longenecker 2006). Cheng and Ho (2001 ), and Sekaran (2003) argue that data collected from
students and/ or under laboratory conditions is significantly different from the data gathered from
organisational personnel. Another concern is related to the lack of well adapted and v alidated
research instrument to measure the transfer of training due to the lack of research attention on the
transfer of training in the Malay sian public sector (Baharim 2008). Research instruments that are not
well adapted and properly v alidated could lead to bias and decrease goodness of data (Cresswell
1 998). As a result, this could lead to the lack of a comprehensiv e understanding about the effect of
superv isors role in training programmes, and in aparticular on the transfer of training in business
settings.

Practical Gaps
Prev ious studies hav e not prov ided sufficient ev idence to be used as guidelines by human resource
practitioners in enhancing employ ees training and dev elopment activ ities and to achiev e
organisational goals (Subedi 2004, V uuren, de Jong & Sey del 2007 ). Consequently , questions hav e
arisen in terms of the ability of superv isors in facilitating the transfer of training and return on
inv estment (Fox on 1 993, Short 1 997 ). For instance, the reinforcement of new KSA by superv isors in
Malay sian local gov ernments is a challenging task due to the fact that employ ees come from different
background and motiv ational lev els (Ali 1 997 ). This outcome has caused Malay sian likely
gov ernments to be criticised by national leaders and the public. Indeed employ ees from the local
gov ernments hav e been unable to substantially improv e their KSA ev en though they had gone for
many ty pes of in house and ov erseas training programmes (Lim 2006).

Conceptual Framework
The empirical and theoretical ev idence presented in the earlier sections has been used as a
foundation to propose a conceptual model for this study as shown in Figure 1 .
Figure 1
Conceptual Fram ework

Research Hypotheses
Alternativ e hy potheses were used because there is a strong empirical and theoretical support that
adv ocated the positiv e relationship between a superv isors role in the training programmes and the
transfer of training. Based on the literature rev iew and conceptual framework Figure 1 was
dev eloped. Withinsia.html
Figure
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dev eloped. Within Figure 1 four main hy potheses are delineated.

Hypothesis 1 : Supervisor support positively affects the transfer of training.
Hypothesis 2: Supervisor communication positively affects the transfer of training.
Hypothesis 3: Supervisor assignment decisions positively affect the transfer of training.
Hypothesis 4: There is a dominant supervisors role that positively affects the transfer of
training.

R ESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Respondents and Site
The authors obtained official authorisation to conduct a study from four city based local
gov ernments located at Sabah and Sarawak, Malay sia. The respondents of this study were
management and non management employ ees who were working in administrativ e and technical
div isions. A total of 1 1 00 questionnaires were distributed and 7 06 usable questionnaires were
returned, y ielding a 64 per cent of response rate.
The respondents demographic background is shown in Table 1 . The majority respondents were male,
and most were aged between 30 to 49 y ears old. A large number (51 .4 per cent) of respondents held
the Malay sia Certificate of Education. Ov er on quarter (25.2 per cent) of the respondents serv ed for
their organisation for more than 21 y ears. The biggest group or 90.9 percent of respondents were
non management employ ees. A majority or 62.9 per cent of respondents worked in administrativ e
div isions.
Table 1
Respondent profiles
Gender

Age (years)

Level of education

Length of service (years)

Category of position
Division

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Male

53.4

Female

46.6

Less than 20

0.6

20 to 29

21.1

30 to 39

32.7

40 to 49

34.3

More than 50

11.3

LCE/ SRP/ PMR

18.6

MCE/ SPM

51.4

Diploma/ STPM

20.4

Bachelor Degree

7.9

Masters Degree

1.1

Others

0.6

Less than 1

7.1

1 to 5

20.0

6 to 10

11.0

11 to 15

17.3

16 to 20

18.6

More than 21

25.1

Management group

9.1

Non management group 90.9

Administrative division

62.9

Technical division

37.1
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Note. SRP/LCE/PMR = Sijil Rendah Pelajaran/Lower Certificate of Education/ Penilaian Menengah

Rendah, SPM/MCE + Sijil Pelajaran Malay sia/ Malay sian Certificate of Education, and STPM = Sijil
Tinggi Pelajaran Malay sia/ Malay sian Higher School Certificate

Procedure
A cross sectional study was utilised to collect data from the respondents at a single point of time.
This design was suitable due to its ability to collect a large number of respondents from different
organisations (Easterby -Smith, Thorpe & Lowe 2002, Sekaran 2003) with quantitativ e processes,
and elucidate the responses with qualitativ e procedures. The quantitativ e and qualitativ e processes
were mix ed within the design and employ ed at appropriate times. A quantitativ e method in the form
of a self report questionnaire was chosen to collect data for both a pilot study and the actual study .
The quantitativ e method in the form of self report questionnaire was able to reduce bias because
questions are uniformly presented and the respondents answers were not influenced by the authors
opinion. The mechanism allows respondents to answer the questionnaire in their personal timetable
(Sekaran 2003, Kothari 2008). This procedure is in accordance with the positiv ism research model,
where observ ations of the world must be carried out objectiv ely and bias should be remov ed as
much as possible (Marlow 201 0). Qualitativ e methods in the form of indepth interv iews and
discussions were conducted to assist the authors in understanding the nature of the studied v ariables
in the organisations and to assist the authors in dev eloping unbiased research instrument for this
study . According to Burgess (1 982: 1 07 ), an indepth interv iew is an important qualitativ e method
because it brings the opportunity for the researcher to probe deeply to uncov er new clues, open
up new dimensions of a problem and secure v iv id, accurate inclusiv e accounts that are based on
personal ex perience.. This is in line with phenomenological research model, which stress on an
indiv iduals subjectiv e v iews and ex periences of the world (Rubin & Babbie 201 0).
Qu a l i t a t i v e Met h od

The first phase of this study was a qualitativ e method v ia an indepth interv iew. The main purpose of
conducting the indepth interv iew was to gather qualitativ e information on how each of the
respondents constructed the meanings of the v ariables under inv estigation (Easterby -Smith, et al.
2002). This assisted the authors in dev eloping a suitable research instrument for the study . A
purposiv e sampling technique was utilised to identify six personnel that hav e v ast knowledge and
ex periences about training programmes and the roles of superv isors in the organisations. This
sampling technique was utilised to identify these employ ees because information gathered from
them assisted the authors in comprehending the nature of the studied v ariables in the organisations.
The findings from the indepth interv iews were compared to the relev ant training literature in order
to integrate the research results in an appropriate contex t, and the results of the triangulated
information were presented in a content analy sis table in order to clearly understand the particular
phenomena under study . Then, the authors modified the research instrument from prev ious
research according to the information gathered from the indepth interv iews, and once the
instrument (i.e., self report questionnaire) was dev eloped the nex t phase was the v alidation of the
self report questionnaire.
In the second phase of the qualitativ e method, the authors conducted a discussion on the self report
questionnaire. Qualitativ e feedback in the form of discussion can be used in establishing and
improv ing the v alidity of research instruments (Rubio, Berg-Weger, Tebb, Lee & Rauch 2003,
ODonnell, Lufney , Marceau & McKinlay 2006). Hence, the purpose of the discussion was to gather
feedback from the respondents about the items in the questionnaire. Again, a purposiv e sampling
technique was utilised to identify the six employ ees who had ex tensiv e working ex perience as the
respondents. Rubio, et al. (2003) argue that employ ees from the studied organisations should be
selected for the discussion to ensure the population for whom the questionnaire is being dev eloped is
represented. Consequently , during the discussion the respondents were asked about the relev ancy of
items, which is useful in v alidating the questionnaire (Rubio, et al 2003, ODonnell, et al. 2006).
Items that were deemed irrelev ant were rev ised or omitted from the self report questionnaire. After
the discussion was conducted the authors refined the self report questionnaire and began the
quantitativ e phase.
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quantitativ e phase.
Qu a n t i t a t i v e Met h od

The third phase of the study inv olv ed a quantitativ e method, which was the distribution of a total of
60 self report questionnaires for pilot testing. The rationale of pilot testing the self report
questionnaire was to pre test the questionnaire (Baker 1 999) so that the items were easily
understood by the respondents, detect obv ious problems regarding the len gth and sequencing of
questions, av oid sensitiv e questions, and ensure the data produced by the questionnaire was
possible to be analy sed (Easterby -Smith, et al. 2002, Cooper & Schindler 2006). A total of 60 self
report questionnaires were distributed to the employ ees working in administrativ e and technical
div isions and 30 usable questionnaires were returned, y ielding a 50 percent of response rate.
Assessing the pilot study responses gav e the Cronbach alpha for the v ariables of 1 ) support (0.99), 2)
communication (0.96), 3) assignment decisions (0.96), and 4) the transfer of training (0.98),
signify ing that the research instrument met the acceptable standards of reliability (Kline 2000,
Fraenkel & Wallen 2006). After the completion of pilot study , the self report questionnaire was
deemed robust for the actual study .
The fourth and final phase of this study was the actual study where distribution of self report
questionnaires was conducted in the studied organisations. Due to the organisations policy that
treated employ ees information as strictly confidential, the authors could not access the employ ees
name list for random sampling. In non probability sampling, Salkind (201 0) recommends that a
researcher should choose a sample size as large as possible in v ary ing settings to increase the
statistical power for hy pothesis testing and to increase the representativ eness of the sample.
Therefore, a conv enience sampling technique was utilised to distribute 1 1 00 self report
questionnaires to management and non management employ ees from administrativ e and technical
div isions v ia contact persons (i.e., human resource manager, secretary or assistant of human
resource manager, secretary of department heads and superv isors) in four local gov ernments. The
self report questionnaires were answered by the respondents based on their consent and on
v oluntary basis. The data collected from the self report questionnaire was used for data analy sis to
test the research hy potheses.

Measures
Back translation technique was utilised to translate the surv ey questionnaire in Malay and English to
increase the v alidity and reliability of the research instrument (Wright 1 996). Adaptation of research
instrument was required because the population in this study was different from the original
population in which the instrument was dev eloped, in terms of country , culture, and language
(Geisinger 1 994, Dav is 1 996). The adaptation was performed by modify ing ex isting scales based on
the information gathered from indepth interv iew. This was necessary to reflect the nature of
superv isors roles and the transfer of training from the local gov ernments in the final self report
questionnaire. Each v ariable were measured using a sev en point Likert scale ranging from Strongly
disagree (1 ) to Strongly agree (7 ). A Likert scale it was deemed to be a reliable mechanism that
prov ided more details than other scales because respondents can answer each statement included in
the instrument and the authors can identify the different response prov ided by each respondent
(Kothari 2008).
The surv ey questionnaire had four sections to measure the studied v ariables. The first section had
nine items that measured superv isor support. All items were modified from prev ious research
(Holton, Bates & Ruona 2000, Guerrero & Sire 2001 , Ay res 2005, Chiaburu & Tekleab 2005). The
dimensions used to measure superv isor support were the ex tent to which superv isors encourage
employ ees to attend training, encourage employ ees to apply training, and encourage employ ees to
share what they learned from training. The ex amples of the items include Superv isor recommends
me to attend training programmes that he or she felt useful for my job and Superv isor allocates the
required resources (e.g., assignment, tools, materials) for me to put into practise what I hav e learned
from training programmes..
The second section of the questionnaire had nine items that measured superv isor communication,
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which were adapted from prev ious research (Machin & Fogarty 1 998, Wex ley & Latham 2001 , Tsai &
Tai 2003, Ismail, et al. 2008). Superv isor communication was measured by the ability of superv isors
to prov ide detailed and accurate information of training, prov ide feedback to employ ees and conv ey
the benefits of attending training. The questions included Superv isor giv es detailed information
about training programmes and Superv isor prov ides feedback about the way I apply what I hav e
learned from training programmes..
The third section of the surv ey instrument was superv isor assignment decision. This section had nine
items modified from prev ious research (Guerrero & Sire 2001 ). The dimensions used to measure
assignment decisions were the ability of superv isors to decide the mode of training attendance (i.e.,
v oluntary or mandatory ) and to seek employ ees input for future training. Two ex amples of these
items were Superv isor giv es me the freedom to attend training programmes and Superv isor enrols
my name in training programmes..
In the transfer of training section, it consisted of nine items that were modified from prev ious
research (Facteau, et al. 1 995, Chiaburu & Tekleab 2005, Switzer, et al. 2005). The transfer of
training was measured through the ability of employ ees to apply training onto the job, adapt what
they learned in workplace, know the appropriate situation to apply training, know the appropriate
time to apply training and hav e confidence in apply ing training onto the job. Ex amples of the
questions in this section were I effectiv ely use what I hav e learned from training programmes onto
my job and I hav e changed my work behav iour in order to be consistent with the materials taught
in training programmes.
Table 2 shows the results of the v alidity and reliability tests for the research instrument. Based on
Costello and Osborne (2005), Ford, MacCallum and Tait (1 986), and Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson
and Tatham (2006), of the psy chometric assessment guidelines, these statistical analy ses showed
that the items for each research v ariables ex ceeded the factor loadings of 0.40 which indicated
that all the studied v ariables hav e met the acceptable standard of v alidity analy sis. All studied
v ariables ex ceeded the acceptable standard of KMO v alue of 0.60 and were significant in Bartletts
test of sphericity , and all research v ariables hav e ex ceeded an acceptable standard eigenv alue of 1 .0.
Furthermore, all the studied v ariables ex ceeded the Cronbach alpha v alue of 0.7 0, indicating that
the v ariables met the acceptable standard of reliability analy sis (Kline 2000, Fraenkel & Wallen
2006). The results of these statistical analy ses demonstrated that the research instrument employ ed
in this study was robust, reliable, and therefore, the scales were considered fit to be used in data
collection for hy potheses testing.
Table 2
Result of validity and reliability analyses for research instrument
Variables

Support

Communication

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Items #

Factors
1

0.86

-0.10

0.11

0.09

0.96

0.50

-0.40

0.10

0.74

0.00

0.02

-0.20

0.60

-0.50

0.16

-0.14

0.80

0.04

-0.03

-0.12

0.64

0.06

0.04

-0.18

0.50

0.03

0.09

-0.28

-0.04

-0.03

0.05

-0.95

-0.05

0.02

0.04

-0.94

0.02

0.04

0.05

-0.86

0.20

0.08

0.00

-0.74

0.25

0.07

-0.02

-0.67

0.20

0.05

0.02

-0.53
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Assignment decisions

The transfer of training

-0.07

0.04

0.88

0.03

-0.01

-0.20

0.91

0.01

0.11

0.08

0.52

-0.11

0.01

0.00

0.89

0.03

-0.05

-0.01

0.92

-0.04

0.08

0.01

0.79

-0.05

0.10

-0.00

0.82

-0.01

0.04

0.80

-0.07

-0.10

0.05

0.83

-0.04

-0.07

0.01

0.87

-0.02

-0.00

0.01

0.89

0.01

0.02

-0.02

0.90

0.00

0.02

0.02

0.88

0.04

0.06

-0.08

0.88

0.04

-0.04

-0.03

0.88

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.83

0.04

0.07

0.89

0.95

Kaiser Mayer Olkin

0.91

0.90

Bartletts Test of Sphericity

3819.97, 4845.98, 4513.56, 6112.46,

p = 0.000 p = 0.000 p = 0.000 p = 0.000

Eigenvalue

5.00

4.95

5.14

6.72

Variance explained

71.45

82.50

73.47

74.63

Cronbachs Alpha

0.93

0.96

0.94

0.96

Analysis
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) v ersion 1 7 .0 was used to analy se the construct
v alidity and reliability , and subsequently test the research hy potheses. Ex planatory factor analy sis
was used to determine the v alidity of the research instrument (Hair, et al. 2006). Ex ploratory factor
analy sis can be used when a researcher v alidates a newly dev eloped research instrument (Costello &
Osborne 2005) or adapts a prev iously used research instrument in the current research settings
(Conway & Huffcutt 2003). A factor analy sis with Direct Oblimin rotation was performed on all items
in ev ery v ariable under inv estigation (Frankael & Wallen 2006). Oblique rotation can accurately
represent the complex ity of the studied v ariables because in reality constructs are commonly
correlated to each other (Conway & Huffcutt 2003). The items used in this study were considered
v alid if the v alue of factor loading is 0.40 or greater (Ford, et al. 1 986, Hair, et al. 2006).
After factor analy sis was performed both the Kaiser May er Olkin test (KMO) and the Bartlett test of
sphericity were conducted for each v ariable to determine a sampling adequacy . KMO was performed
to determine the sufficiency of sample size in this study (Rasli 2006). Bartletts test of sphericity was
used to ex amine whether or not an R matrix is significant enough to be worthy of factor analy sis
(Child 2006). Sampling adequacy of the v ariables were accepted if the v alue of KMO analy sis was
0.60 or greater and Bartletts test of sphericity was large and significant (Coakes & Steed 2003, Rasli
2006). This procedure was followed by estimating the Cronbach alpha to determine the reliability of
each v ariable in the research instrument (Coakes & Steed 2003). The reliability of research
instrument is acceptable if the alpha v alue is between 0.7 0 and 1 .0 (Kline 2000, Fraenkel & Wallen
2006).
Pearson correlation analy sis is able to measure the degree of association and the relationship
between two constructs (Coakes & Steed 2003). In this study the procedure was used to test the
correlation between the superv isors role in training programmes and the transfer of training.
Pearson correlation analy sis was also used to ex amine the data free from multicollinearity error that
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could reduce the accuracy of results deriv ed from multiple regression analy sis (Hair, et al. 2006).
Apart from the Pearson correlation, the data were analy sed by multiple regression analy sis due to its
ability to quantify the magnitude and direction of multiple independent v ariables on one dependent
v ariable (Aiken & West 1 991 , Foster, Stine & Waterman 2001 ). This study specifically employ ed
multiple regression analy sis to delineate the most critical factor that contributed to the transfer of
training in the studied organisations.

R ESULTS
The result of the analy sis of the constructs was shown in Table 3. The correlation coefficients for the
relationship between the independent v ariables (i.e., support, communication and assignment
decisions), and the dependent v ariable (i.e., the transfer of training) were less than 0.90. The result
suggested that the data were free from serious multicollinearity issue (Hair, et al. 2006). Therefore, it
was deemed appropriate to run multiple regression analy sis.
Table 3
Results for correlation matrix of research variables
Variable

Mean Standard deviation

1. Support

5.25

1.15

2. Communication

5.18

1.26

0.86**

3. Assignment decisions 4.73

1.33

0.69** 0.72**

4. Transfer of training

0.90

0.45** 0.47** 0.43**

5.63

Note. Correlation v alue ** is significant at the 0.01 lev el (2 tailed).

Supervisors Role in Training Programmes and The transfer of Training

The result of Pearson correlation analy sis was shown in Table 3. The analy sis demonstrated that
superv isor support (r = 0.45, p < 0.01 ), communication (r = 0.47 , p < 0.01 ), and assignment
decisions (r = 0.43, p < 0.01 ) were positiv ely and significantly correlated with the transfer of
training. Ov erall, this study found support for the relationship between superv isors role in training
programmes and the transfer of training in the studied organisations. The result indicated that the
ex tent to which superv isors prov ide sufficient support, practise communication openness and
perform appropriate decisions about training assignments had elev ated employ ees ability in
apply ing training onto the job.

Dominant Supervisors Role that Influence transfer of Training

Table 4 demonstrated the result of multiple regression analy sis. The analy ses indicated that support,
communication, and assignment decisions were significantly correlated with the transfer of training.
Communication ( = 0.23, p = 0.001 ) had a strong impact on the transfer of training, as well as
assignment decisions ( = 0.1 7 , p < 0.001 ) and support ( = 0.1 4, p < 0.05); respectiv ely .
Accordingly , superv isors role in terms of communication substantially contributed to the transfer
of training in the ex amined organisational settings.
Table 4
Result of multiple regression analysis
Independent variables Standardised coefficients (Beta) p <
Support

0.14*

0.037

Communication

0.23***

0.001

Assignment decisions

0.17***

0.000

Note. * = p < 0.05, and *** = p < 0.001 .

DISCUSSION
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The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the superv isors role in training
programmes and the transfer of training. The authors employ ed Pearson correlation to measure the
correlation between the superv isors role in training programmes and the transfer of training,
whereas multiple regression analy sis was utilised to identify the strongest superv isors role that
influenced the transfer of training in the studied organisations. Firstly , Pearson correlation analy sis
demonstrated that the ability of superv isors to support employ ees positiv ely and significantly
correlated with their transfer of training. Therefore, hy pothesis H1 was accepted. Secondly , the
Pearson correlation analy sis demonstrated that superv isor communication had a positiv e and
significant association with the degree of the transfer of training. In this case hy pothesis H2 was
accepted. Thirdly , according to the results of the analy ses, it was found that when superv isors made
appropriate decisions regarding training assignments, the lev el of the transfer of training was
influenced. Thus, hy pothesis H3 was supported by this finding. Lastly , the multiple regression
analy sis identified superv isor communication as an important factor among the studied v ariables in
predicting the transfer of training. In this situation, hy pothesis H4 was accepted.
The findings of this study were consistent with prev ious empirical studies. In line with findings by
prev ious studies (i.e., Rahman 2004, Lim & Morris 2006, Festner & Gruber 2008, Haslinda &
Mahy uddin 2009), the result of Pearson correlation analy sis showed that superv isor support was an
important pre condition for the transfer of training in the studied organisations. One probable
ex planation for this finding was that in the studied organisations, employ ees perceiv ed their
superv isors as prox imal figures. It has been shown that superv isors who acted as prox imal figures
significantly increased the transfer of training (Chiaburu & Tekleab 2005). In particular, when
superv isors were perceiv ed as prox imal figures (hav ing the closest relationship to employ ees), they
were able to gain employ ees confidence and trust in the organisation this in turn assisted
superv isors in instilling employ ees to apply training onto the job due to the confidence and trust of
employ ees towards their superv isors.
Empirical studies (i.e., Lim 2000, V elada, et al. 2007 , Hashim, et al. 2009, Ismail, et al. 201 0) hav e
demonstrated the importance of superv isor communication on the transfer of training. Superv isors
who discussed the information of training before training programmes begin and gav e feedback after
training programmes was found to be associated with the ability of employ ees to practise what they
learned from training into the job. Such discussions and feedback perceiv ed by employ ees act as
cues about the importance of training programmes. For instance, discussions about the objectiv es of
training, content of training programmes, v enue and time of training sends a clear indication that
superv isors ex pected employ ees to learn from training, whereas feedback giv en by superv isors
showed how well employ ees benefited from training programmes. As a result, employ ees may be
more prepared to undertake the challenges before training programmes commence and become
more dev oted to apply ing training into the job.
Superv isors decisions related to attendance and participation of pre training programmes had a
positiv e correlation with the transfer of training. Employ ees changed their behav iour to the transfer
training when superv isors inv olv ed in making training attendance mode based on their preferences
and when they were granted by their superv isors to participate in making pre training decisions. This
was due to the fact that employ ees perceiv ed they were treated fairly and/ or training programmes
were v ery important when their superv isors made particular decisions about training assignments
(Tsai & Tai 2003, Machin & Treloar 2004, Aziz & Ahmad 201 1 ). This correlated with the studies by
Ry nes and Rosen (1 995) and Saks and Belcourt (2006) which found superv isors decisions in training
assignment directly influenced the transfer of training. One conclusion drawn from testing this
hy pothesis was that superv isors decisions on training attendance mode and participation of
employ ees in making pre training decisions were equally important to increase the transfer of
training in the contex t of the studied organisations.
Aside from supporting prev ious empirical studies, the finding of this study was in keeping with self
fulfilling prophecy theory and reinforcement theory . In line with the notion of self fulfilling prophecy
theory it was a natural behav iour of superv isors to prov ide sufficient and continuous support,
effectiv e communication and proper assignment decisions when they ex pected employ ees to
successfully applysia.html
what
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they learned from training into the job (McShane & V on Glinow 2005). When

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successfully apply what they learned from training into the job (McShane & V on Glinow 2005). When
employ ees perceiv ed that they receiv ed such treatments they were more ready as well as more
comfortable to practise new KSA on the job (Campbell & Simpson 1 992, Campbell 1 997 ). The concept
of reinforcement theory support that superv isors shaped employ ees behav iour (i.e., employ ees
were willing and continue to learn and apply training onto the job) by controlling the consequences
of their behav iour (i.e., superv isor prov ided encouragement, gav e positiv e feedback, and decided to
prov ide mandatory or v oluntary training assignments according to employ ees preferences)
whenev er employ ees were successfully applied training into the job. Thus, the findings generalised
the notions of self fulfilling prophecy theory and reinforcement theory in the contex t of the studied
organisations.
This study has established the positiv e and significant impact of superv isors role on the transfer of
training in the studied organisations. From the result of multiple regression analy sis, the authors
found that among the superv isors role ex amined in this study , communication was a dominant
predictor of the transfer of training. In this sense, the authors concluded that communication was
the key to the transfer of training in the studied organisational settings due to two reasons. First,
feedback giv en to employ ees prov ided important information on their current performance and
offered clear directions to improv e their application of training into the job. By using this
information, employ ees were able to rev ise their techniques in order to effectiv ely apply training in
the work settings. Second, positiv e feedback serv ed as a strong reinforcement that motiv ated
employ ees to learn and the transfer what they learned from training into the job. Further, supportiv e
work env ironment such as encouragement to attend and apply training onto the job as well as the
prov ision of training attendance mode according to employ ees preferences further reinforced the
effectiv eness of superv isor communication on the transfer of training. Ov erall, the results of this
study were consistent with research findings mostly published in the Western countries. That is, this
study has shown that the ability of superv isors in prov iding sufficient support, practising open
communications and appropriate assignment decisions assisted employ ees in apply ing what they
learned from training onto the job. The findings hav e important implications to the human resource
practice, theory , and methodology .
In the light of practical implication, the finding of this study serv ed as guidelines for human resource
practitioners in managing human capital performance. Giv en the importance of the superv isors role,
human resource practitioners are encouraged to intensify effort in enhancing the role of superv isors
in training programmes. First, training programmes aimed to upgrade superv isors knowledge and
skills in training need analy sis, ability to conduct training for subordinates and improv e their
understanding of employ ees cognitiv e, emotion and psy chomotor approaches should be conducted.
Second, human resource practitioners should rev ise organisational pay and rewards sy stems for
employ ees who managed to apply training onto the job. Third, superv isors should be giv en more
responsibilities in terms of supporting, communicating and making assignment decisions
particularly before and after training programmes.
From a theoretical perspectiv e, the finding of this study statistically supported the importance of
superv isors role in training programmes on the success of the transfer of training in the East
Malay sian local gov ernments. This situation showed that training design and indiv idual
characteristics alone are not the only important factors that hav e major contributions to the
effectiv eness of the transfer of training. More research is needed to delineate important superv isors
roles that underpinned the success of the transfer of training.
From methodological perspectiv e, the current study adapted and v alidated the research instrument
measuring superv isors role in training programmes and the transfer of training through in depth
interv iew and ex ploratory analy sis. The well v alidated research instrument could serv e as a
guideline for future research in dev eloping a better research instrument in measuring the transfer of
training.
Although this study brings important implications, it has some limitations that should be noted.
Firstly , cross sectional method that collect data in a single point of time was insufficient to capture
the pattern of change and the magnitude of causal relationships between the studied v ariables.
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Secondly , a conv enience sampling technique has its limitation such as the authors hav e no control
ov er the attributes of the sample which could promote bias from respondents background. Thirdly ,
this study solely used employ ees perceptions to assess the v ariables of interest and this might lead
to the risk of certain response tendencies such as social desirability . Howev er, Facteau, et al. (1 995),
and Chiaburu and Tekleab (2005) argue that employ ees were able to accurately assess their abilities
not observ able by others. Lastly , only respondents from the city based local gov ernments were
included in this study , which may limit the generalisation of the findings.

CONCLUSION
This study found superv isors role, particularly communication, play s a significant role in enhancing
employ ees ability to apply training. Hence, contemporary research and practice within training
management is likely to benefit when being mindful of the superv isors role in facilitating the transfer
of training. The findings and implications of this study may bring important insights into such
relationships as the superv isors role in training programmes and the transfer of training are not
triv ial topics. In the effort to reach a better understanding of the transfer of training from div erse
perspectiv es, future research should replicate and ex pand the research framework to further ex plore
the nature of such relationships in different settings.

AUTHORS
Ng Kueh Hua is a masters student in Human Resource Dev elopment at the Faculty of Cognitiv e
Sciences and Human Dev elopment, Univ ersiti Malay sia Sarawak. His research interest is in the area
of Training and Dev elopment.
Email: ahua_1 01 @y ahoo.com
Dr. Rusli Ahm ad holds the position of Associate Professor at the Faculty of Cognitiv e Sciences and
Human Dev elopment, Univ ersiti Malay sia Sarawak. His research interests include Performance
Appraisal, Performance Management, Training and Dev elopment, Cognitiv e Process, Decision
Making, and Research Methodology .
Email: arusli@fcs.unimas.my
Dr. Azm an Ism ail is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Defence and Management Studies,
National Defence Univ ersity of Malay sia. His research interests are in Compensation and Benefits,
Training and Dev elopment, Organisational Behav iour, and Human Resource Policies.
Email: azisma08@gmail.com

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