MBA FINANCE

Semester 3

MB0034 Research Methodology

Assignment Set- 1 & Set- 2

Submitted By:

Name

: Jojo Joy

Reg No

: 511035886

Center Name

: Sensorium

Center Code

: 205

Date of Submission

: 22/06/2011

SET - 1

Q.1. Why should a manger know about research when the job entails managing people, products,
events, environments, and the like?
Ans. Research simply means a search for facts answers to questions and solutions to
problem. It is a purposive investigation. It is an organized inquiry. Managing people is only a
fraction of a manager's responsibility - they have to manage the operations of the department,
and often have responsibilities towards the profitability of the organization. Knowledge of
research can be very helpful for a good manager.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

The research extends knowledge of human beings, social life and environment. The
search is for answers for various types of questions.

Research brings into light information that might never be discovered fully during the
ordinary course of life.

Research establishes generalization and general laws and contributes to theory building in
various fields of knowledge

Research verifies and tests existing facts and theory and those help improving our
knowledge and ability to handle situations and events.

General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable predictions of
events yet to happen

Research aims to analyze inter-relationships between variables and to derive casual

explanations: and thus enable us to have a better understanding of the world in which we
live.

Applied research aims at finding solutions to problems, such as socio-economic

problems, health problems, human relations problems in organizations and so on.

Research also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for a better study of
unknown phenomena.

Research aids planning and thus contributes to national development.

Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning
problems associated with business and industry. In several ways operational research, marketing
research, and motivational research are vital and their result assist in taking business decisions.
Operational research relates to the application of logical, mathematical and analytical techniques
to find solutions to business problems such as cost minimization or profit maximization or the
optimization problems.

Q.2. a. How do you evolve research design for exploratory research? Briefly analyze?
b. Briefly explain Independent dependent and extraneous variables in a research design?
Ans:
a.) EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
The central purpose is to formulate hypotheses regarding potential problems and
opportunities present in the decision situation. The hypotheses can be tested at a later phase with
a conclusive research design (Leinhardt and Leinhardt, 1980).
Exploratory research design applies when the research objectives include the following:
a. identifying problems (threats or opportunities)
b. developing a more precise formulation of a vaguely identified problem(threat or opportunity)
c. gaining perspective regarding the breath of variables operating in a situation
d. establishing priorities regarding the potential significance of various problems (threats or
opportunities)
e. gaining management and researcher perspective concerning the character of the problem
situation
f. identifying and formulating alternative courses of action; and
g. gathering information on the problems associated with doing conclusive research.
h. identification of problems (threats or opportunities) can be assisted through the following:
i) Searching secondary sources
ii) Interviewing knowledgeable persons
iii) Compiling case histories.
b.)

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

A variable that you believe might influence your outcome measure. This might be a variable that
you control, like a treatment, or a variable not under your control, like an exposure. It also might
represent a demographic factor like age or gender. Contrast this with the definition of the
dependent variable. An independent variable is a hypothesized cause or influence on a dependent
variable. One way to distinguish these variables is to ask yourself what you are want to learn
from this research. The dependent variable is a variable you are trying to predict. Any variable
that you are using to make those predictions is an independent variable. A recently published
research study examined the relationship of dietary fat consumption and the development of
ischemic stroke in a cohort of 832 men who were free of cardiovascular disease at baseline
(1966-1969) and who were followed for a twenty year period. In this study, the independent
variables were:
percentage of total fat in the diet,

percentage of saturated fat, and

the percentage of monounsaturated fat.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE
In a research study, the variable that you believe might be influenced or modified by some
treatment or exposure. It may also represent the variable you are trying to predict. Contrast this
with the definition of an independent variable. Sometimes the dependent variable is called the
outcome variable. This definition depends on the context of the study. In a study of prenatal care,
the birthweight is an outcome or dependent variable, but in neonatology, it is more likely to be an
independent variable. A recently published research study examined the relationship of dietary
fat consumption and the development of ischemic stroke in a cohort of 832 men who were free
of cardiovascular disease at baseline (1966-1969) and who were followed for a twenty year
period. In this study, the dependent variable was: incidence of ischemic stroke.
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but
affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For eg, if a researcher wants to
test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school performance and their
self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former is the dependent
variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since
it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be
known as extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent
variable is technically called as an experimental error. Therefore, a research study should
always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change
in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables.

Q 3. a. Differentiate between Census survey and Sample Survey.

b. Analyze multi-stage and sequential sampling.
Ans:
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CENSUS AND SAMPLING
Practically every country in the world conducts censuses and sampling surveys on a
regular basis in order to get valuable data from and about their populations. This data is used by
the federal and state governments in making numerous decisions with regard to various health
care, housing, and educational issues, among others. While both these two data-gathering
methods essentially serve the same purpose, they have a number of differences with regard to
approach and methodology, as well as scope. These two methods may also differ in terms of the
variance in the data gathered, as you will see later.
A census involves the gathering of information from every person in a certain group.
This may include information on age, sex and language among others. A sample survey on the
other hand commonly involves gathering data from only a certain section of a particular group.
Scope :

The main advantage of a census is a virtually zero sampling variance,

mainly because the data used is drawn from the whole population. In addition, more precise
detail can generally be gathered about smaller groups of the population.As for sampling, there is
a possibility of sampling variance, since the data used is drawn from only a small section of the
population. This makes sampling a much less accurate form of data collection than a census. In
addition, the sample may be too small to provide an accurate picture of the population.
Sampling Variance :

A census can be quite expensive to conduct, particularly for large

populations. In most cases, they are also a lot more time-consuming than sample surveys. Adding
considerably to the timetable is the necessity of gathering data from every single member of the
population. The huge scope of a census also makes it harder to maintain control of the quality of
the data. For instance, anyone who does not complete a census form will be visited by a
government representative whos only job to is to gather census data.
A sample survey for its part costs quite a bit less than a census, since data
is gathered from a much smaller group of people. In addition, sample surveys generally take a
much shorter time to conduct, again given the smaller scope. This also means reduced
requirements for respondents, which in turn leads to better data monitoring and quality control.
Cost And Timetable :

Summary :
Census
Gathers information from every individual in a certain group

Since data from the entire population is used, there is no sampling variance

Provides detailed information about smaller groups

Can be quite costly, particularly for large populations, due to census tally workers as
well as hiring temporary census home visitors

Includes an uncomfortable visit from a government worker if the census is not filled
out on time

Sampling
Gathers information from only a section of the population

May have a significant degree of sample variance, since the data is derived from only
a small section of a population

May not provide enough information about smaller groups or smaller geographical
sections of a place

b.) MULTISTAGE SAMPLING

Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling. Using all the sample
elements in all the selected clusters may be prohibitively expensive or not necessary. Under these
circumstances, multistage cluster sampling becomes useful. Instead of using all the elements
contained in the selected clusters, the researcher randomly selects elements from each cluster.
Constructing the clusters is the first stage. Deciding what elements within the cluster to use is the
second stage. The technique is used frequently when a complete list of all members of the
population does not exist and is inappropriate.
In some cases, several levels of cluster selection may be applied before the final sample
elements are reached. For example, household surveys conducted by the Australian Bureau of
Statistics begin by dividing metropolitan regions into 'collection districts', and selecting some of
these collection districts (first stage). The selected collection districts are then divided into
blocks, and blocks are chosen from within each selected collection district (second stage). Next,
dwellings are listed within each selected block, and some of these dwellings are selected (third
stage). This method means that it is not necessary to create a list of every dwelling in the region,
only for selected blocks. In remote areas, an additional stage of clustering is used, in order to
reduce travel requirements.[1]
Although cluster sampling and stratified sampling bear some superficial similarities, they
are substantially different. In stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from all the strata,
where in cluster sampling only the selected clusters are studied, either in single stage or multi
stage.
SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING
Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher picks
a single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study, analyzes the results
then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on.This sampling technique gives the
researcher limitless chances of fine tuning his research methods and gaining a vital insight into
the study that he is currently pursuing.

Q 4. List down various measures of central tendency and explain the difference between them?
Ans:
ARITHMETIC MEAN
The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum
of the numbers divided by the number of numbers. The symbol m is used for the mean of a
population. The symbol M is used for the mean of a sample. The formula for m is shown below:

where X is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and N is the number of
numbers in the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers

regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample from the
population. The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD)
passes thrown by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season. The
mean number of touchdown passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below.

Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometic mean), it is by far
the most commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is
the arithmetic mean, the geometic mean, or some other mean, it is assumed to refer to the
arithmetic mean.
MEDIAN
The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint of
a distribution: the same numbers of scores are above the median as below it. For the data in the
table, Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals

20) is the median because there are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th
score. The median can also be thought of as the 50th percentile. Let's return to the made up
example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed previously in the module Introduction
to Central Tendency and shown in Table 2.

For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4.
Therefore, your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class.
Finally for Dataset 3, the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above the median and
therefore in the upper half of the distribution.
When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply
the middle number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number
of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the
numbers
Computation of the Median:

MODE
The mode is the most frequently occuring value.For the data in the table, Number of touchdown
passes, the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number of
touchdown passes. With continuous data such as response time measured to many decimals, the
frequency of each value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same. Therefore the mode
of continuous data is normally computed from a grouped frequency distribution. The Grouped
frequency distribution table shows a grouped frequency distribution for the target response time
data. Since the interval with the highest frequency is 600-700, the mode isthe middle of that
interval (650).

Q 5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and primary
sources to gather the required information.?
Ans:
PRIMARY SOURCES OF DATA
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that
has not been previously collected, e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand
awareness, brand preference, and brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behavior, from a
sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data is first hand information collected
through various methods such as surveys, experiments and observation, for the purposes of the
project immediately at hand.
The advantages of primary data are
1 It is unique to a particular research study
2 It is recent information, unlike published information that is already available
The disadvantages are
1 It is expensive to collect, compared to gathering information from available
sources
2 Data collection is a time consuming process
3 It requires trained interviewers and investigators
SECONDARY SOURCES OF DATA
These are sources containing data, which has been collected and compiled for another
purpose. Secondary sources may be internal sources, such as annual reports, financial statements,
sales reports, inventory records, minutes of meetings and other information that is available
within the firm, in the form of a marketing information system. They may also be external
sources, such as government agencies (e.g. census reports, reports of government departments),
published sources (annual reports of currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of
India, publications of international organizations such as the UN, World Bank and International
Monetary Fund, trade and financial journals, etc.), trade associations (e.g. Chambers of
Commerce) and commercial services (outside suppliers of information).
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
The researcher directly collects primary data from its original sources. In this case, the
researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research needs and he can
collect them when he wants and in the form that he needs it. But the collection of primary data is
costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research, required data is not
available from secondary sources and it has to be directly gathered from the primary sources.
Primary data has to be gathered in cases where the available data is inappropriate, inadequate or
obsolete. It includes: socio economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural
communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social
institutions, marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, radio

listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm
management studies, business management studies etc.
There are various methods of primary data collection, including surveys, audits and panels,
observation and experiments.
1. Survey Research

A survey is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly

from a population or a sample at a particular time. A survey has certain characteristics:
1 It is always conducted in a natural setting. It is a field study.
2 It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
3 It can cover a very large population.
4 It may include an extensive study or an intensive study
5 It covers a definite geographical area.
A survey involves the following steps 1 Selection of a problem and its formulation
2 Preparation of the research design
3 Operation concepts and construction of measuring indexes and scales
4 Sampling
5 Construction of tools for data collection
6 Field work and collection of data
7 Processing of data and tabulation
8 Analysis of data
9 Reporting
There are four basic survey methods, which include:
1 Personal interview
2 Telephone interview
3 Mail survey and
4 Fax survey

Q 6. a. Explain the role of Graphs and Diagrams?

b. What are the Types and General rules for graphical representation of data?
Ans:
a.) ROLES OF GRAPHS
Graph is a diagram, as a curve, broken line, or series of bars, representing various kinds
of quantitative information and relationships, such as the successive changes in a variable
quantity or quantities.The graphs which are most commonly used in visual aids are Bar graphs,
Pie Charts, Line graphs and Scatter diagrams. Graphs play a very important role during
presentations because they make the data easier to understand and interpretations and
comparisons can be made quickly. They are useful in presentations also because they can
summarize large amounts of data and can convey the basic idea of the research.
Graphs really help the audience in absorbing the data as they are simple to interpret and
are appealing. By using graphs, variations and trends in data can be showed clearly and they
show how the values of particular variables change over time. Graphs also help in determining
the relationship between variables. A graph is an abstract data structure that is meant to
implement the graph and hypergraph concepts from mathematics. A graph data structure consists
of a finite (and possibly mutable) set of ordered pairs, called edges or arcs, of certain entities
called nodes or vertices. As in mathematics, an edge (x,y) is said to point or go from x to y. The
nodes may be part of the graph structure, or may be external entities represented by integer
indices or references. A graph data structure may also associate to each edge some edge value,
such as a symbolic label or a numeric attribute (cost, capacity, length, etc.).
ROLES OF DIAGRAMS
Diagram is a graphic representation of an algebraic or geometric relationship. Role
Activity Diagrams (RADs) are a useful way of describing processes. They are valuable in
documenting processes as they are now, and as they might be in the future. The main part of the
SPRINT BPR Methodology describes the ways in which Role Activity Diagrams can be used
within a broader change project. This guide tells you how to draw Role Activity Diagrams. The
guide will show you that Role Activity Diagrams are a reasonably simple diagramming
technique. It is not difficult to learn how to draw them and it is not difficult for most people to
interpret them. The guide progresses by introducing each of the main constructs of the Role
Activity Diagram. It describes these in turn, giving advice about the drawing conventions. This is
syntactic guidance. In addition to these syntactic skills, the creation of Role Activity Diagrams
relies upon an ability to scope a study, to decide on the level of interest and to determine the
boundaries of each role in a diagram. This is where the real skill of using Role Activity Diagrams
comes in but such issues are addressed only partially in this report. In reality the reader will rely
upon experience gained through using Role Activity Diagrams in projects. This experience will
teach how Role Activity Diagrams can best be used, and what they are most useful for.
b.) REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Besides the tabular form, the data may also be presented in some graphic or diagrammatic form.
The transformation of data through visual methods like graphs, diagrams, maps and charts is
called representation of data.
The need of representing data graphically:

Graphics, such as maps, graphs and diagrams, are used to represent large volume of data. They
are necessary:
If the information is presented in tabular form or in a descriptive record, it becomes difficult
to draw results.
Graphical form makes it possible to easily draw visual impressions of data.
The graphic method of the representation of data enhances our understanding.
It makes the comparisons easy.
Besides, such methods create an imprint on mind for a longer time.
It is a time consuming task to draw inferences about whatever is being presented in non
graphical form.
It presents characteristics in a simplified way.
These makes it easy to understand the patterns of population growth, distribution and the
density, sex ratio, agesex composition, occupational structure, etc.
General Rules for Drawing Graphs, Diagrams and Maps

Each characteristic of the data can only be

suitably represented by an appropriate graphical method. For example,
1. Selection of a Suitable Graphical Method :

To show the data related to the temperature or growth of population between different periods in
time line graph are used.
Similarly, bar diagrams are used for showing rainfall or the production of commodities.
The population distribution, both human and livestock, or the distribution of the crop producing
areas are shown by dot maps.
The population density can be shown by choropleth maps.
Thus, it is necessary and important to select suitable graphical method to represent data.
2. Selection of Suitable Scale : Each diagram or map is drawn to a scale which is used to
measure the data. The scale must cover the entire data that is to be represented. The scale
should neither be too large nor too small.

3. Design

The diagram or map should have following design:

Title: The title of the diagram/map must be clear and include o The name of the area,
o Reference year of the data used and
o The caption of the diagram.
These are written with different font sizes and thickness. The title, subtitle and the
corresponding year is shown in the centre at the top of the map/diagram.
Legend or Index: The index must clearly explain the colours, shades, symbols and signs
used in the map and diagram. A legend is shown either at the lower left or lower right side
of the map sheet.
Direction the maps should show the direction North and properly placed on the top.
Types of Diagrams
The diagrams and the maps is of following types:
(i) One-dimensional diagrams such as line graph, poly graph, bar diagram, histogram, age,
sex, pyramid, etc.;
(ii) Two-dimensional diagram such as pie diagram and rectangular diagram;
(iii) Three-dimensional diagrams such as cube and spherical diagrams.
The most commonly drawn diagrams and maps are:
Line graphs
Bar diagrams
Pie diagram
Wind rose and star diagram
Flow Charts

SET - 2

Q 1. What is questionnaire? Discuss the main points that you will take into account while
drafting a questionnaire?
Ans:
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other
prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often
designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire
was invented by Sir Francis Galton.
Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap,
do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have
standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers
may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be
able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a
survey by questionnaire may not be practical.
As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to
question construction and wording that exist in other types of opinion polls. Questionnaires may
be classified as:
Structured/ Standardized Questionnaire:

Structured questionnaires are those in which there are definite, concrete and preordained
questions with additional questions limited to those necessary to clarify inadequate answers or to
elicit more detailed responses. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in
the same order to all the respondents.
Unstructured Questionnaire:

In unstructured questionnaires the respondent is given the opportunity to answer in his

own terms and in his own frame of reference.
Points to take into account while drafting a questionnaire:

Writing an effective questionnaire is not a task for novices. At the very least it requires an
understanding of four basics. These are:
Considering the differences that exist when writing a questionnaire that respondents will
fill out themselves as opposed to when a professional interviewer administers the
questionnaire to the respondent.
Knowing what questions should be asked early on in the questionnaire,
in the middle or toward the end.
Understanding how to phrase questions.
Being sensitive to questionnaire length.

There are some basic differences in how the questionnaire should be constructed if it is to
be filled out personally by the respondent or if an interviewer is going to administer it. These are:
Self-administered questionnaires should be simple, straightforward and logical. Question
2 should follow question 1. Question 3 should follow question 2, and so forth. Further,
the going-in assumption with self-administered questionnaires should be that respondents
will not complete a questionnaire when there are complex skip patterns, when pages are
crowded or hard to read or when instructions for completion are overly complex.
It has been estimated that as many as 50% of respondents who start a self-administered
questionnaire will not complete it because they become irritated and annoyed at the way
it is constructed. When writing a self-administered questionnaire, then, every care must
be taken to ensure that it is easy to complete in that it almost answers itself.
Self-administered questionnaires should be written with an eighth grade mentality in
mind while interviewer-administered questionnaire can be quite complex. Because
interviewers are trained in the flow of the questionnaires they administer and will conduct
a number of practice interviews prior to confronting a respondent, developing a complex
questionnaire that is interviewer-administered does not present a problem for the
respondent.
Keep the respondent in one mind-set at a time. If at all possible, complete all your
questions about one topic before moving on to the next. For example, dont ask about a
favorite place to shop, then about brands used and then go back to additional questioning
on favorite place to shop.
Save sensitive questions for the end. Again, this might not always be possible, but when it
doesnt matter, be aware that sensitive questions such as race or income can alienate
respondents and turn them off to the entire interview process. If asked at the end,
respondents are more likely to answer as they are wholly invested in the questionnaire.
Biased question: What do you like about the last airline flight you took? Assumption here
is that respondent liked something and the question tends to push for a positive response.
Unbiased question. What, if anything, do you like the last airline flight you took? By
simply using if anything as part of the question phrasing, the respondent is not put on the
spot to find something to like.
When conducting telephone interviews, its relatively easy to keep respondents on the phone and
answering questions for 15, 20 or 25 minutes if the questionnaire has a good flow and is
thoughtfully written. But try keeping a respondent on the phone for 3 minutes with a
questionnaire that is the least bit confusing, seems redundant or is insensitive to sensitive issues.

Q 2. What do you mean by primary data? What are the various methods of collecting primary
data?
Ans:
Primary Date is data that has not been previously published, i.e. the data is derived from a
new or original research study and collected at the source, e.g., in marketing, it is information
that is obtained directly from first-hand sources by means of surveys, observation or
experimentation. Data observed or collected directly from first-hand experience. Published data
and the data collected in the past or other parties are called secondary data. Primary data are
directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. In this case, the researcher can
collect the required date precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he
wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time
consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research required data are not available from
secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.
Primary data are always collected from the source. It is collected either by the
investigator himself or through his agents. There are different methods of collecting primary
data. Each method has its relative merits and demerits. The investigator has to choose a particular
method to collect the information. The choice to a large extent depends on the preliminaries to
data collection some of the commonly used methods are discussed below.
1)

Direct Personal observation:

This is a very general method of collecting primary data. Here the investigator directly
contacts the informants, solicits their cooperation and enumerates the data. The information are
collected by direct personal interviews. The novelty of this method is its simplicity. It is neither
difficult for the enumerator nor the informants because both are present at the spot of data
collection. This method provides most accurate information as the investigator collects them
personally. But as the investigator alone is involved in the process, his personal bias may
influence the accuracy of the data. So it is necessary that the investigator should be honest,
unbiased and experienced. In such cases the data collected may be fairly accurate. However, the
method is quite costly and time-consuming. So the method should be used when the scope of
enquiry is small.
2)

Indirect Oral Interviews:

This is an indirect method of collecting primary data. Here information is not collected
directly from the source but by interviewing persons closely related with the problem. This
method is applied to apprehend culprits in case of theft, murder etc. The information relating to
one's personal life or which the informant hesitates to reveal are better collected by this method.
Here the investigator prepares 'a small list of questions relating to the enquiry. The answers
(information) are collected by interviewing persons well connected with the incident. The
investigator should cross-examine the informants to get correct information. This method is time
saving and involves relatively less cost. The accuracy of the information largely depends upon

the integrity of the investigator. It is desirable that the investigator should be experienced and
capable enough to inspire and create confidence in the informant to collect accurate data.
3)

Mailed Questionnaire method:

This is a very commonly used method of collecting primary data. Here information is
collected through a set of questionnaire. A questionnaire is a document prepared by the
investigator containing a set of questions. These questions relate to the problem of enquiry
directly or indirectly. Here first the questionnaires are mailed to the informants with a formal
request to answer the question and send them back. For better response the investigator should
bear the postal charges. The questionnaire should carry a polite note explaining the aims and
objective of the enquiry, definition of various terms and concepts used there. Besides this the
investigator should ensure the secrecy of the information as well as the name of the informants,
if required. Success of this method greatly depends upon the way in which the questionnaire is
drafted. So the investigator must be very careful while framing the questions. The questions
should be:
Short and clear
Few in number
Simple and intelligible
Corroboratory in nature or there should be provision for cross check
Impersonal, non-aggressive type
Simple alternative, multiple-choice or open-end type
4)

Schedule Method:

In case the informants are largely uneducated and non-responsive data cannot be
collected by the mailed questionnaire method. In such cases, schedule method is used to collect
data. Here the questionnaires are sent through the enumerators to collect information.
Enumerators are persons appointed by the investigator for the purpose. They directly meet the
informants with the questionnaire. They explain the scope and objective of the enquiry to the
informants and solicit their cooperation. The enumerators ask the questions to the informants and
record their answers in the questionnaire and compile them. The success of this method depends
on the sincerity and efficiency of the enumerators. So the enumerator should be sweet-tempered,
good-natured, trained and well-behaved. Schedule method is widely used in extensive studies. It
gives fairly correct result as the enumerators directly collect the information. The accuracy of the
information depends upon the honesty of the enumerators. They should be unbiased. This
method is relatively more costly and time-consuming than the mailed questionnaire method.
5)

From Local Agents:

Sometimes primary data are collected from local agents or correspondents. These agents
are appointed by the sponsoring authorities. They are well conversant with the local conditions
like language, communication, food habits, traditions etc. Being on the spot and well acquainted
with the nature of the enquiry they are capable of furnishing reliable information. The accuracy
of the data collected by this method depends on the honesty and sincerity of the agents because
they actually collect the information from the spot. Information from a wide area at less cost and

time can be collected by this method. The method is generally used by government agencies,
newspapers, periodicals etc. to collect data. Information is like raw materials or inputs in an
enquiry. The result of the enquiry basically depends on the type of information used. Primary
data can be collected by employing any of the above methods.
Q 3. a. Analyze the case study and descriptive approach to research.
b. Distinguish between research methods & research Methodology.
Ans:
a.) CASE STUDY AND DESCRIPTIVE APPROACH TO RESEARCH

Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics
about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions
who, what, where, when and how. Although the data description is factual, accurate and
systematic, the research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive research
cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words,
descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity. The description is
used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the best approach, prior to
writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative research often has
the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of why the observations
exist and what the implications of the findings are.
In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But
there are always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the lives of the people
around you e.g. finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader
of the research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus; more people will live a healthy
life. Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or
qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize elements of both, often within the
same study. The term descriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, and
data analysis that will be applied to a given topic. Descriptive statistics tell what is, while
inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect. A case study is a research method common
in social science. It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event.
Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory. The latter type is used to explore causation in
order to find underlying principles. They may be prospective, in which criteria are established
and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available, or retrospective, in which
criteria are established for selecting cases from historical records for inclusion in the study.
Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol (strict set of rules) to examine
limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal (over a long
period of time) examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way
of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result
the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and
what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend
themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses. Another suggestion is that case study
should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon
within its real-life context. Case study research means single and multiple case studies, can
include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior
development of theoretical propositions. Case studies should not be confused with qualitative

research and they can be based on any mix of quantitative and qualitative evidence. Singlesubject research provides the statistical framework for making inferences from quantitative casestudy data
Research Methods

Research Methodology

Research methods are the various procedures,

schemes, algorithms, etc. used in research. All
the methods used by a researcher during a
research study are termed as research methods.
They are essentially planned, scientic and
value-neutral. They include theoretical
procedures, experimental studies, numerical
schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research
methods help us collect samples, data and nd
a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientic
research methods call for explanations based
on collected facts, measurements and
observations and not on reasoning alone. They
ac- cept only those explanations which can be
veried by experiments.

Research methodology is a systematic way to

solve a problem. It is a science of studying
how research is to be carried out. Essentially,
the procedures by which researchers go about
their work of describing, explaining and
predicting phenomena are called research
methodology. It is also dened as the study of
methods by which knowledge is gained. Its
aim is to give the work plan of research.

b.) DISTINCTION BETWEEN RESEARCH METHODS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

Q 4. Explain the important concepts in Research design?

Ans:
The research designer understandably cannot hold all his decisions in his head. Even if he
could, he would have difficulty in understanding how these are inter-related. Therefore, he
records his decisions on paper or record disc by using relevant symbols or concepts. Such a
symbolic construction may be called the research design or model. A research design is a logical
and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. It constitutes the blue print for the
plan is the overall scheme or program of research. A research design is the program that guides
the investigator in the process of collecting, analysing and interpreting observations. It provides a
systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow elltiz, Jahoda and Destsch and Cook
describe, A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data
in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
Components of Research Design:

It is important to be familiar with the important concepts relating to research design. They are:
1.

Dependent and Independent variables:

A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different
quantitative values, like height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in
the strictest sense of objectivity. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in
terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different
values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as continuous variables. But, all
variables need not be continuous. When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in
one or more other variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables
that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or
exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent
variable, while price is the independent variable.
2.

Extraneous variable:

The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but
affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a
researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school
performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the
former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school
performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by
the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the
extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an experimental errors
Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent
variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous
variable or variables.

3.

Control:

One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of
extraneous variable. Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the study in
such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous independent variables. The term control
is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.
4.

Confounded relationship:

The relationship between dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an

extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.

When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by

adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis
is a predictive statement which relates a dependent variable and an independent variable.
Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one
independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not be tested are
predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified are not classified as research
hypothesis.
Experimental and control groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in
an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as control group. On the other
hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an
experimental group. In the afore-mentioned example, the Group A can be called a
control group and the Group B an experimental one. If both the groups A and B are
exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as experimental
groups. A research design may include only the experimental group or the both
experimental and control groups together.
Treatments: Treatments are referred to the different conditions to which the
experimental and control groups are subject to. In the example considered, the two
treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with no regular earnings.
Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine through an experiment regarding the
comparative impacts of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then
the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments.
Experiment: An experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical
hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, experiment may be
conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further,
Experiments may be categorized into two types namely, absolute experiment and
comparative experiment. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical
fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute
experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical
fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a
comparative experiment.
Experiment unit: Experimental units refer to the predetermined plots, characteristics or
the blocks, to which the different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that
such experimental units must be selected with great caution.
Research hypothesis:

Q 5. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data
collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or interviewing
would be more appropriate.
Ans:
OBSERVATION VS. INTERVIEWING AS METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Collection of data is the most crucial part of any research project as the success or failure
of the project is dependent upon the accuracy of the data. Use of wrong methods of data
collection or any inaccuracy in collecting data can have significant impact on the results of a
study and may lead to results that are not valid. There are many techniques of data collection
along a continuum and observation and interviewing are two of the popular methods on this
continuum that has quantitative methods at one end while qualitative methods at the other end.
Though there are many similarities in these two methods and they serve the same basic purpose,
there are differences that will be highlighted in this article.
Observation, as the name implies refers to situations where participants are
observed from a safe distance and their activities are recorded minutely. It is a time consuming
method of data collection as you may not get the desired conditions that are required for your
research and you may have to wait till participants are in the situation you want them to be in.
Classic examples of observation are wild life researchers who wait for the animals of birds to be
in a natural habitat and behave in situations that they want to focus upon. As a method of data
collection, observation has limitations but produces accurate results as participants are unaware
of being closely inspected and behave naturally.
Observation:

Interviewing is another great technique of data collection and it involves asking

questions to get direct answers. These interviews could be either one to one, in the form of
questionnaires, or the more recent form of asking opinions through internet. However, there are
limitations of interviewing as participants may not come up with true or honest answers
depending upon privacy level of the questions. Though they try to be honest, there is an element
of lie in answers that can distort results of the project. Though both observation and interviewing
are great techniques of data collection, they have their own strengths and weaknesses. It is
important to keep in mind which one of the two will produce desired results before finalizing.
Interviewing:

Observation vs. interviewing:

Observation

Interviewing

Observation requires precise analysis by the Interviewing is easier but suffers from the
researcher and often produces most accurate fact that participants may not come up with
results although it is very time consuming.
honest replies.

Interview format:

Interviews take many different forms. It is a good idea to ask the organisation in advance
what format the interview will take.
Competency/criteria based interviews:

These are structured to reflect the competencies or qualities that an employer is seeking
for a particular job, which will usually have been detailed in the job specification or advert. The
interviewer is looking for evidence of your skills and may ask such things as: Give an example
of a time you worked as part of a team to achieve a common goal.
Technical interviews:

If you have applied for a job or course that requires technical knowledge, it is likely that
you will be asked technical questions or has a separate technical interview. Questions may focus
on your final year project or on real or hypothetical technical problems. You should be prepared
to prove yourself, but also to admit to what you do not know and stress that you are keen to
learn. Do not worry if you do not know the exact answer - interviewers are interested in your
thought process and logic.
The Screening Interview:

Companies use screening tools to ensure that candidates meet minimum qualification
requirements. Computer programs are among the tools used to weed out unqualified candidates.
(This is why you need a digital resume that is screening-friendly. See our resume centre for
help.) Sometimes human professionals are the gatekeepers. Screening interviewers often have
honed skills to determine whether there is anything that might disqualify you for the position.
Remember they do not need to know whether you are the best fit for the position, only whether
you are not a match. For this reason, screeners tend to dig for dirt. Screeners will hone in on gaps
in your employment history or pieces of information that look inconsistent. They also will want
to know from the outset whether you will be too expensive for the company.
The Informational Interview:

On the opposite end of the stress spectrum from screening interviews is the informational
interview. A meeting that you initiate, the informational interview is underutilized by job-seekers
who might otherwise consider themselves savvy to the merits of networking. Jobseekers
ostensibly secure informational meetings in order to seek the advice of someone in their current
or desired field as well as to gain further references to people who can lend insight. Employers
that like to stay apprised of available talent even when they do not have current job openings, are
often open to informational interviews, especially if they like to share their knowledge, feel
flattered by your interest, or esteem the mutual friend that connected you to them. During an
informational interview, the jobseeker and employer exchange information and get to know one
another better without reference to specific job opening.

Q 6.Strictly speaking, would case studies be considered as scientific research? Why or why not?
Ans:

Case studies are a tool for discussing scientific integrity. Although one of the most
frequently used tools for encouraging discussion, cases are only one of many possible tools.
Many of the principles discussed below for discussing case studies can be generalized to other
approaches to encouraging discussion about research ethics.
Cases are designed to confront readers with specific real-life problems that do not lend
themselves to easy answers. Case discussion demands critical and analytical skills and, when
implemented in small groups, also fosters collaboration (Pimple, 2002). By providing a focus for
discussion, cases help trainees to define or refine their own standards, to appreciate alternative
approaches to identifying and resolving ethical problems, and to develop skills for analyzing and
dealing with hard problems on their own. The effective use of case studies is comprised of many
factors, including:
appropriate selection of case(s) (topic, relevance, length, complexity)
method of case presentation (verbal, printed, before or during discussion)
format for case discussion (Email or Internet-based, small group, large group)
leadership of case discussion (choice of discussion leader, roles and responsibilities for
discussion leader)
outcomes for case discussion (answers to specific questions, answers to general
questions, written or verbal summaries)
Research methods don't seem so intimidating when you're familiar with the terminology. This is
important whether you're conducting evaluation or merely reading articles about other studies to
incorporate in your program. To help with understanding, here are some basic definitions used.
Variable: Characteristics by which people or things can be described. Must have more
than one level; in other words, to be able to change over time for the same person/object,
or from person to person, or object to object. Some variables, called attributes, cannot be
manipulated by the researcher (e.g., socioeconomic status, IQ score, race, gender, etc.).
Some variables can be manipulated but are not in a particular study. This occurs when
subjects self-select the level of the independent variable, or the level is naturally
occurring (as with ex post facto research).
Manipulation: Random assignment of subjects to levels of the independent variable
(treatment groups).
Independent variable: The treatment, factor, or presumed cause that will produce a
change in the dependent variable. This is what the experimenter tries to manipulate. It is
denoted as "X" on the horizontal axis of a graph.
Dependent variable: The presumed effect or consequence resulting from changes in
the independent variable. This is the observation made and is denoted by "Y" on the
vertical axis of a graph. The score of "Y" depends on the score of "X."
Population: The complete set of subjects that can be studied: people, objects, animals,
plants, etc.
Sample: A subset of subjects that can be studied to make the research project more
manageable. There are a variety of ways samples can be taken. If a large enough random

samples are taken, the results can be statistically similar to taking a census of an entire
population--with reduced effort and cost.
Case Study:

A case study is conducted for similar purpose as the above but is usually done with a smaller
sample size for more in-depth study. A case study often involves direct observation or interviews
with single subjects or single small social units such as a family, club, school classroom, etc.
This is typically considered qualitative research.
Purpose: Explain or Predict
Type of Research to Use: Relational Study

In a relational study you start with a research hypothesis, that is, is what you're trying to "prove."
Examples of research hypotheses for a relational study:
The older the person, the more health problems he or she encounters.
4-H members attending 4-H summer camp stay enrolled in 4-H longer.
The greater the number of money management classes attended, the greater the amount of
annual savings achieved.
Types of relational studies include correlational studies and ex post facto studies.

Correlational Study:

A correlational study compares two or more different characteristics from the same group of
people and explains how two characteristics vary together and how well one can be predicted
from knowledge of the other. A predictive correlational study could predict a later set of data
from an earlier set. For example, a student's grade point average might predict the same student's
grade point average during senior year. A predictive correlational study could also use one
characteristic to predict what another characteristic will be at another time. For example, a
student's SAT score is designed to predict college freshman grade point average.
Ex Post Facto (After the Fact) Study:

An ex post facto study is used when experimental research is not possible, such as when
people have self-selected levels of an independent variable or when a treatment is naturally
occurring and the researcher could not "control" the degree of its use. The researcher starts by
specifying a dependent variable and then tries to identify possible reasons for its occurrence as
well as alternative (rival) explanations such confounding (intervening, contaminating, or
extraneous) variables are "controlled" using statistics. This type of study is very common and
useful when using human subjects in real-world situations and the investigator comes in "after
the fact." For example, it might be observed that students from one town have higher grades than
students from a different town attending the same high school. It is important to recognize that,
in a relational study, "cause and effect" cannot be claimed. All that can be claimed is that that
there is a relationship between the variables. For that matter, variables that are completely
unrelated could, in fact, vary together due to nothing more than coincidence. That is why the

researcher needs to establish a plausible reason (research hypothesis) for why there might be a
relationship between two variables before conducting a study.