565521

Investigation of Recovery Boiler Superheater Design and Performance Part 1
John L. Clement
Clement Consulting Inc.
Thomas M. Grace
T.M. Grace Company, Inc.
ABSTRACT
The paper is one of two that summarizes the results of a study of recovery boiler superheater experience,
performance and problems in North America that was carried out for the AF&PA Recovery Boiler Committee.[1]
This first paper focuses on the history of superheater development, design issues and the role of metallurgy. The
history of superheater development over 50 years and events and conditions leading to poor performance are
described. Important considerations are highlighted and issues identified to apply the experience for the design of a
superheater to successfully operate at high temperature, including the corrosion resistant materials available. The
second paper focuses on operational aspects.
INTRODUCTION
The value of the recovered energy is the main driver for a worldwide trend to high temperature and pressure
recovery boilers. The USA industry was the early leader in the development of recovery boilers to operate at high
steam temperature. Because of the age of the recovery boiler population in North America, the majority of boilers
(and superheaters) are not designed for high steam temperature. However, most newer boilers are designed to
operate at high temperature and pressure. The greatest experience with high temperature and pressure recovery
boilers is in Finland and Japan, who have done the most to advance the trend to higher steam temperatures.
This investigation of recovery boiler superheaters was designed to review the experience, understand the causes or
conditions that can result in failure of a superheater tube or attachments, or result in operation that affects the boiler
availability and maintainability. A primary objective was to identify methods and practices in design, operation and
maintenance to permit extending the final superheated steam temperature to higher values. Another focus was to
provide guidance in how to operate the boiler in ways that would minimize the development of problems in the
superheater that would affect performance and reliability. The overall historical considerations for superheater
design methods and practices are discussed. The mechanical design issues and operational aspects are subjects of
the second paper.[2]
This superheater study is the fourth in a series of studies reported to the industry at Tappi conferences with the
objective of improving recovery boiler design, safety, operation and maintenance.[3,4,5]
HISTORY OF SUPERHEATERS ON RECOVERY BOILERS
There was a marked interest on the part of engineers in superheated steam and its use after 1850 and continuing for
about twenty years. Boilers to which superheaters were attached were all operating at pressures less than 50 psig. A
very large portion of these were installed on marine boilers. Development in the 19th century was retarded by the
strong stand of the British Board of Trade on the grounds that there was a danger of superheated steam breaking into
its constituent elements and becoming dangerous.[6] There was economic competition from triple expansion
engines using increased pressure and where the gains in superheat were not beneficial. In 1883, a marine
engineering manual is quoted as saying the use of superheated steam has been discontinued since the pressure has
gone beyond 60 pounds per square inch, partly in consequence of the increase in steam temperature beyond that due
to .
Interest in superheated steam revived when positive test results were reported in Europe for a boiler and engine
especially designed and built for use with superheated steam. The first commercially marketed superheater in the
USA began with The Babcock & Wilcox Company in 1898. These were essentially of tubular type located within
the boiler setting with gas passing over the outside of the tubes to heat the steam inside. It was soon apparent that a
40 year old assumption, that the specific heat (Cp) of superheated steam was a constant, was invalid. Cp was
TAPPI Engineering, Pulping & Environmental Conference, October 11-14, 2009, Memphis, Tennessee
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determined to vary with both pressure and temperature. A table of Properties of Superheated Steam was published
in 1909, removing another obstacle.[6]
In the first decade of the 20th Century, the U-shaped tube was adopted for the superheater as the best shape for
expansion. Tube banks were being placed with tubes in the direct path of gases to heat the steam inside the tubes.
In the 1920s, the superheater temperature was limited by the materials available and the allowable tube metal
temperatures for these materials.[7] The generally accepted steam temperature was 343C (650F); developments in
materials moved this up to 385-400C (725750F) in the 1930s. Many of the fossil fuel fired boilers built during
this period incorporated both a superheater and reheat-superheater to improve station economy at the temperatures
restricted by metallurgy. Development of alloys that could be used in the manufacturing of tubing resulted in fossil
fuel fired boilers about 1937 being placed in operation at 482C (900F).. The availability of these alloy tubes
advanced the consideration of operating recovery boilers at the higher temperature for power generation.
Recovery Boiler Application High Temperature Superheater
The history of superheater development and application on a recovery boiler has been one of overcoming obstacles
to design and increasing the steam temperature. The availability of corrosion resistant tube material has always been
an obstacle. Several conditions are believed to have come together by the middle of the 1950s to result in recovery
boilers in the USA being installed to operate at 482C (900F).
1.
2.
The recovery boiler capacity of 454 t/d (1.0 million lb/d) of black liquor solids provided a boiler geometry
into which there was sufficient volume to install the superheater surface required. That is, the boiler got
large enough that a 482C superheater would fit inside.
Kilowatt generation in excess of mill requirements could be sold to the utility at an attractive price.
The Babcock & Wilcox and Combustion Engineering recovery boilers supplied in North America to operate at
482C (900 F) and at 496C (925F), and being operated currently, are listed in Table I. Boilers no longer in
operation, and boilers designed for future conversion to high steam temperature are not included. The year is the
year the boiler was placed in service. Names of operating companies reflect current ownership.[8] The reader
should take note that values in SI units are metric for mass flow and pressure is absolute unless noted otherwise.
The first recovery boiler to operate at 482C (900 F) in the USA was contracted in 1955 by Babcock & Wilcox with
Continental Can Co. at Hodge, LA. The original rating was 408 t/d (900,000 lb/d) solids burned to generate steam
at 8.7.MPa (1250 psig} and 482C (900 F). In the same year, the West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co. in Charleston,
SC, contracted for a boiler to operate at 105 MPa (1525 psig) and 471C (880 F). One year later, a second, larger
boiler for the mill at Luke, MD, was selected to operate at the same pressure and temperature-capacity 680 t/h (1.5
million lb/h) solids. These two pioneer boilers were the highest pressure recovery boilers in the USA for 20 years,
and not exceeded for 35 years. The boiler at Luke continues to this day to be operated one week per year.
The recovery boilers at the mill in Pine Bluff, AR, were installed 50 years ago by International Paper to operate at
480C (900F). Three (3) Babcock & Wilcox recovery boilers equipped with continuous, horizontal tube
economizers were designed to each process 531 t/d (1.17 million lb/d) of black liquor solids and produce 95 t/h
(209,800 lb/h) of steam at 88.9 MPa (1275 psig) and 482C (900F). The first two boilers were contracted in 1956
and the third in 1959. The No. 1 boiler was converted to a power boiler about 1966 when a fourth recovery boiler
rated at 1497 t/d (3.3 million t/d) solids was placed in operation. The No. 2 boiler went into operation in 1958; the
No. 3 in 1960. The mill currently rates the two older boilers at 680 t/d (1.5 million lb/h) solids. The fourth boiler
was designed to operate at a higher temperature of 496C (925F). The three boilers burning black liquor are
currently operated by Evergreen Packaging.
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TableIRecoveryBoilersinNorthAmericaOperatingin2008thatwereRatedatSteamTemperatures
of482C(900F)andAbove
Babcock & Wilcox
1958
1960
1966
1966
1967
1967
1967
1972
1973
1974
1976
1976
1977
1978
1980
1980
1981
1981
1981
1981
1982
1983
1984
1989
1990
1991
1991
Evergreen Packaging
Evergreen Packaging
International Paper
International Paper
Evergreen Packaging
International Paper
NewPage
Georgia-Pacific
Alabama River Pulp

Smurfit-Stone
International Paper
International Paper
International Paper
Abitibi-Bowater
Alstom Power (CE and ABB)
Pine Bluff, AR
Pine Bluff, AR
Augusta, GA
Bastrop, LA
NewPage
Wisconsin Rapids, WI
Smurfit-Stone
Hodge, LA
NewPage
Georgia-Pacific
Smurfit-Stone
Palatka, GA
West Point, VA
International Paper
International Paper
Rayonier
Prattville, AL
Riverdale, AL
Jesup, GA
International Paper
NewPage
Eastover, SC
Domtar
Nekoosa, WI
Pine Bluff, AR
Vicksburg, MS
Escanaba, MI
Cedar Springs, GA
Perdue Hill, AL
Hopewell, VA
Mansfield, LA
Mansfield, LA
Pine Hill, AL
Catawba, SC
Weyerhaeuser
Columbus, MS
Georgia-Pacific
(Rebuild 1963 Boiler)
Cedar Springs, GA
1991
Georgia-Pacific
(Rebuild 1966 Boiler)
Cedar Springs, GA
1991
1992
1993
International Paper
Alabama Pine Pulp
Georgia-Pacific
Courtland, AL
Perdue Hill, AL
Naheola, AL
Obstacle to Progress Superheaters Deficient in Design Steam Temperature

A large number of the boilers in Table I, as well as some that have been retired, did not have sufficient superheater
surface installed to achieve the design steam temperature. Many recovery boilers were sized using a standard
elemental analysis and heating value of the solids that served the buyer focus on installing a conservative furnace
and insufficient superheater surface. An example the affect of this is determined using the liquor analyses in Table
II.
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TableIIComparisonofLiquorAnalysisUsedinExampleofDesignImpact
Elemental Analysis
Standard Liquor
% Dry Solids
Unless Otherwise Noted
42.6
3.6
18.4
3.6
--0.2
31.6
100.0
Performance Liquor
% Dry Solids
Unless Otherwise Noted
35.54
3.85
20.16
4.15
1.38
0.77
0.77
33.38
100.00
High Heating Value, Btu/lb solids

kcal/kg
6600
3667
6100
3389
Dry Flue Gas, lb/lb solids

Air, lb/lb solids
5.96
5.67
5.03
4.84
Carbon
Hydrogen
Sodium
Sulfur
Potassium
Chloride
Inert
Oxygen (by difference)
Total
The standard analysis is compared to an analysis more representative of a kraft pulping operation. The standard
analysis was widely used for sizing the furnace and convection surfaces. When applied, a second analysis, similar to
that above, would generally be referenced as the performance analysis. With surfaces fixed by the standard
analysis, a set of performance numbers would be determined for the performance analysis. Boiler operation with the
performance liquor would result in:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Operating with a dry gas weight at 84% of the design value.

Operating with a dry air weight of 85% of the design value.
Operating at 92% of the design heat input in solids.
A steam flow rate about proportional to the decrease in input.
The effect was to

1. operate with a lower average furnace exit gas temperature (FEGT) because of the lower input - about 22 to
28 C (40 to 50 F).
2. decrease in the radiation heat flow because of the lower gas temperature; a decrease in gas temperature of
28 C (50 F) will reduce the heat flow 10%.
3. decrease convection heat flow because gas flow is reduced to 84% of full load.
4. increased steam film resistance because of lower velocity in the tube.
5. and the net effect is that the heat transfer coefficient decreases at a more rapid rate than the steam flow
causing the temperature to be less than desired (surface is insufficient).
Other factors could also affect the design. One industry buyer could be expected to insist the furnace height be
increased by 10 feet, regardless of the proposed initial height. Through all this, the superheater surface and
attemperator spray system were not adjusted upward to the conditions at which the boiler would actually operate.
The result of installing boilers with insufficient superheater surface has been an industry perception that recovery
boiler designers were deficient in the ability to install a superheater with adequate surface to achieve the desired
steam temperature. During this superheater study, the investigators determined there are recovery boilers that do
operate at their design steam temperature. These are reviewed in Part 2.[2] There is a larger number that are
deficient..
4 of 27
Furnace Screen
The furnace screen became suspect and fell into disfavor during the 1980s because of concern about potential
recovery boiler explosions from furnace screen tube failures. Recovery boilers without furnace screens
subsequently became prevalent in the USA. The exceptions were smaller boilers and boilers producing steam at the
lower temperatures where a screen was required to reduce the gas temperature entering the superheater, and then, the
generating bank. No subsequent explosions have been attributed to a screen failure, mostly because of widespread
acceptance of low drum level trips.
The hazards of a screen in a recovery boiler include the potentially severe damage caused to a furnace screen when a
large buildup of ash and slag breaks loose in the upper furnace and falls on the screen. Screen platens that bridge the
furnace from the front wall across to the nose are most vulnerable. An investigation to examine the cause of severe
screen tube damage in a CBC-Mitsubishi recovery boiler in Brazil was reported at the 2004 International Chemical
Recovery Conference.[9]. The damage was caused by large pieces of ash deposits falling from the furnace roof.
A recent example of this hazard occurred in 2008; the incident was reported at the Spring 2009 BLRBAC
meeting.[10] The CE boiler was designed with a row of screen platens at the superheater flue gas inlet, with the
vertical section of the platen located at one-half of the furnace depth. Every other platen was routed from the center
to the front furnace wall and the other half to the rear wall. Salt cake ash accumulated at the junction of roof and
front wall until the buildup mass fell about 40 feet onto the target screen platen, resulting in a crack in one of the
tubes releasing water into the furnace. An Emergency Shutdown Procedure (ESP) was initiated.. The top three
tubes of the platen were flattened and three more bent in a platen that was deflected by 8-12 inches Two adjacent
platens were damaged as well.
Introduction of Technology from Finland and Sweden
The first recovery boiler in the USA delivered by a Nordic supplier was a Gtaverken boiler placed in operation in
1984 at the Leaf River mill in New Augusta, MS.[11] Since then, a number of units have been delivered for
operation at high temperature. The company names reflect current ownership. The temperatures in Tables III and
Table IV are design values and may not be representative of the actual operating temperature.
TableIVMetsoPower(formerlyKvaerner,TampellaandGotaverken)RecoveryBoilersinNorth
America
Company
Georgia-Pacific Corp.
Potlatch Corp.
International Paper Co.
Smurfit-Stone Corp.
MeadWestvaco
Domtar Corp.
Domtar Corp
Weyerhaeuser Co.
* GV Gtaverken
Location
By *
Steam
Steam
Pressure
Temperature F
psig
GV
1984
1225
900
GV
1987
1250
900
GV
1988
900
900
GV
1991
1275
900
GV
1991
1580
925
TP
1991
1500
900
TP
1993
1275
900
TP
1993
1275
900
TP
1994
1400
910
KV
2003
1262
900
MP
2007
1514
950
TP - Tampella
MP Metso Power
New Augusta, MS
Lewiston, ID
Augusta, GA
Hodge, LA
Covington, VA
Eastover, SC
Bastrop, LA
Johnsonburg, PA
Savannah, GA
Dryden, Ontario
Grande Prairie, Alberta
KV Kvaerner
Start-up
Year
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TableIIIAndritz(formerlyAhlstrom)RecoveryBoilersinNorthAmerica
Company
Location
Domtar Corp.
Domtar Corp.
Bowater Pulp & Paper Canada
Bowater Pulp & Paper Canada
Hawesville, KY
Bennettsville, SC
Albany, OR
Thunder Bay, Ontario
Thunder Bay, Ontario
Valiant, OK
Campti, LA
Start-up
Year
1986
1989
1999
2001
2001
2006
2008
Steam
Pressure, psig
1262
1247
1247
899
899
1494
1494
Steam
Temperature, F
896
900
900
900
896
925
950
An Invitation to Corrosion - One More Obstacle to Progress
Secondary
Primary Outlet
In 1987 an incident occurred that may have negatively influenced

the desire for high steam temperatures in the USA. In retrospect,
the superheater was designed with an arrangement that was in
fact an invitation to corrosion. Although there was experience
with high temperature superheaters at that time, (there were at
least six boilers in Finland that had been commissioned for the
same operating pressure and temperature of 480C (896F) and
8.7 MPa (1250 psig), the design did not properly take into
account the experience nor the high levels of potassium in the
black liquor at that mill.
This No. 3 recovery boiler in Hawesville, KY, shown in Figure
1, started up in 1986 [12] The superheater was arranged in three
banks in the direction of gas flow, a parallel flow secondary
bank (III), a countercurrent primary-2 bank (II), followed by a
countercurrent primary-1 bank (I). The attemperator was located
between the second bank and the third bank. The third bank
platens were located forward of the nose arch as was also the
front loops of the second bank, that is, the primary superheater
outlet upstream of the attemperator. These loops in front of the
nose were not shielded from direct radiation from the furnace; a
furnace screen of a few tubes afforded minimal shielding. There
was severe corrosion attack of the second and third loops of bank
III and the outlet loops of bank II. Materials installed were the
best available at that time two score years ago.
An extensive corrosion investigation and measurement of tube

temperatures culminated with total superheater replacement and
a new 50 % nose arch. Potassium was found to be higher than 7
mole % (K/K+Na) in the deposit contributing to a first melting
temperature (FMT) of 520C (970F).
Thermocouple
Figure1No.3RecoveryBoiler
measurements of the surface temperature of the third loops of
bank III operating at a final steam temperature of 440 C (825 F)
were very high values. Tube temperatures at the lower bend averaged 590C (1100F) and maximum 650C
(1200F). These temperatures reflect starting up with a clean superheater and receiving direct radiation from the
furnace.
Many of the conclusions and the final surface arrangement support the recommendations of the investigators in this
superheater study. About 30% of the surface was removed and the final superheat temperature was degraded to
6 of 27
465C (870 F) instead of 480 C. Nevertheless, the investigators claim The rebuild was a success and the boiler
has since performed as predicted.
The experience appears to have affected two other projects for which the owner had purchased recovery boilers. The
boilers had superheaters designed for 482C (900 F) and were operated at 454C (850 F).
Superheater Material
The earliest known testing of materials for a recovery boiler superheater was conducted at the International Paper
mill in Natchez, MS, during 1953-54. Three single tube elements were fabricated from short sections of inch OD
(outside diameter) tube representing tube materials available. The test probes were designed, using functional heat
transfer methods, to place all the materials to be tested in three gas temperature zones to function at the desired
metal temperatures. Steam supply was from the boiler steam drum. Timed visits were made to the mill by research
engineers to measure OD metal loss using micrometers.
The program came to an untimely end when the three
sections were destroyed. The operators had closed the
valve at the inlet of each of the sections in order to
conduct a hydrostatic test of the boiler at the end of an
outage. The valves were not opened when the boiler
started up, resulting in destruction of the elements. The
couple of sets of valid measurements that had been
obtained were of little value.
Figure2ElementRemovedin1973The
UltimateCorrosionProbe
Figure 2 shows one of the test elements from a second test

site at Continental Cans Hodge mill that went into
operation in 1957 with four of the secondary superheater
elements (or platens) designated as test elements. [13]
The objective was to determine new oxidation limits for
materials in a high temperature recovery boiler
superheater. Increased metal temperatures were achieved
by orifices at the outlet of each test element to reduce
steam flow. Two of the elements were subsequently
selected for metallurgical analysis.
First in 1962 which led to increasing metal

temperature limits.
Second in 1973 that operated until 1969 (12
years) at 593-607C (1100-1125F). All orifices
were removed in 1969. This element is shown
at a research center in the photograph (Figure 2).
Each element had tubes of the following three materials.

After each was metallurgically analyzed, results were
used to adjust the limits for spot metal temperatures used
in design
Carbon steel
2 Cr Mo
Stainless steel
SA 178 Grade A
SA 213 Grade T14
SA 213 Type 321H
The status of materials for superheater design in 1985 is reported in the results of a survey of over 100 recovery
boilers in North America.[14] The materials reported to be available for superheater tubes were SA209 T1, and SA
213 T11 and T22. The summary goes on to say Among the current problems of major consequence in recovery
boiler corrosion, the limitations of superheater tube material were frequently mentioned in the visitation program.
Steam superheat is limited to 480C (896F) for conventional low alloy steels, but even then severe wastage occurs
7 of 27
in some units, especially those exposed to high SO2 gases, chloride/potassium laden dusts, and/or liquor carry over
conditions. Some of these problems may be due to exceeding the 480C temperature, but even the stainless steels,
such as, TP 304, TP 347 superheater bends, which should withstand these temperature upsets, corrode at a high rate
(5-year replacements).
A Department of Energy funded project Materials for Industrial Heat Recovery Systems that was completed in
2006 addressed superheater tube corrosion and cracking. An interim report was presented at the 7th International
Colloquium on Black Liquor Combustion and Gasification in Finland.[15] The ongoing work included laboratory
corrosion studies and corrosion probes to be inserted in a recovery boiler testing alternative tube materials. A final
report of the studies of superheater materials for high temperature was presented at the 2007 International Chemical
Recovery Conference in Quebec City.[16] The study evaluated and ranked the behavior of six alternative alloys
T91 alloy steel, stainless steel grades 310H and 347H, Alloy 28 and Alloy 33, and aluminum containing Alloy 693.
The selection of a material for the superheater tubes is suggested to depend on whether a superheater will be at metal
temperatures above or below the FMT. The study results rank Alloy 28 as most suitable of the materials tested to
provide corrosion resistance above and below FMT of the ash deposit. The report stresses the importance of
removing chlorine and potassium from the process to assure the tube temperature is below the ash FMT and that the
addition of sulfur and oxygen with the chlorine is very detrimental.
A second paper at the conference in Quebec City reported a laboratory investigation in Finland exposing samples of
six different steel materials to alkali salt mixtures above and below the melting temperature.[17] Three of the
materials were also tested using air-cooled probes in two recovery boilers. There was corrosion of all six materials.
Corrosion is reported to have occurred at temperatures where there was no melt in the ash and increased with the
amount of melt. The report strongly supports the importance of chlorine and potassium removal from the mill cycle
to avoid corrosion with the higher steam temperatures.
There have been no reports from Finland or North America of testing a material reported to be used successfully in
Japan for superheater tubes in recovery boilers operating at high temperature. A Japanese report at the 1998
International Chemical Recovery Conference claimed a 25Cr-14Ni material in operation over 10 years.[18]
Japans Experience with High Temperature Superheat
The Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) contract list and a series of technical papers from 1986 through 2007
describe a history of development of recovery boiler technology to support operation at high pressure and high
temperature. A significant number of their contracts operate at 9.9 to 10.9 MPa (1420 to 1565 psig) and
temperatures up to 515C (959F). The experience in Japan is reviewed extensively in this report. MHI has not
been contacted.
The recovery boilers operating in Japan place MHI in the position of being the leader in high temperature
superheater design and operation. A list of high pressure and high temperature recovery boilers in Japan shows 17
MHI boilers delivered from 1983 to1998. Kawasaki Heavy Industries (KWI) boilers add 5 more to the total. The
combined list is included as Table V.
8 of 27
TableVListofHighPressureandTemperatureRecoveryboilersinJapan
Year of
Delivery
Customer
Mill
Dry
Solids
Capacity,
t/d
Steam
Capacity
t/h
Steam
Pressure
MPa
Steam
Temp.
C
Supplier
(*)
Yonago
525
90
9.9
500
MHI
Yatsushiro
770
120
10.3
500
KHI
1983
Oji Paper Co.,Ltd.
1984
Nippon Paper Ind. Co. Ltd.
1985
Daio Paper Corp
Mishima
1750
258
9.9
500
MHI
1985
Oji Paper Co. Ltd.
Nichinan
960
175
11.3
505
MHI
1986
Oji Paper Co. Ltd.
Tomakomai
960
175
10.9
500
MHI
1986
Taiko Paper Mfg. Co. Ltd.
Fuji
630
96.3
9.8
500
MHI
1986
Nippon Paper Ind. Co. Ltd.
Asahikawa
900
170
10.2
510
KHI
1987
Tokai Pulp Co. Ltd.
Shimada
1115
170
10.0
500
MHI
1987
Mitsubishi Paper Mills Lrd..
Hachinohe
1635
253
10.3
515
MHI
1987
Hokuetsu Paper Mills Ltd.
Niigata
1000
162
10.9
505
MHI
1990
Oji Paper Co. Ltd.
Tomioka
1775
270
10.3
515
MHI
1990
Nagoya Pulp Co. Ltd.
Honsha
900
150
10.3
503
MHI
1990
Chuetsu Pulp & Paper Co. Ltd.
Noumachi
1530
260
10.4
505
KHI
1990
Oji Paper Co. Ltd.
Kasugai
2400
410
10.9
515
MHI
1990
Hyogo Pulp Industries Co. Ltd.
Tanigawa
1000
10.4
505
MHI
1993
Daio Paper Corp.
Mishima
1750
260
13.3
515
MHI
1996
Oji Paper Co. Ltd.
Kure
1900
330
10.9
515
MHI
1996
Niigata
1900
310
10.9
515
MHI
1997
Chuetsu Pulp & Paper Co. Ltd.
Sendai
1530
260
10.9
515
MHI
1997
Nippon Paper Ind. Co. Ltd. l
Iwakuni
2700
425
10.4
505
KHI
1998
Oji Paper Co. Ltd.
Yonago
2400
410
10.9
515
MHI
2005
Niigata
2700
475
10.3
505
KHI
* MHI: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
155
KHI Kawasaki Heavy Industries
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. Experience
9 of 27
The contract list for sodium base recovery boilers published by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. (MHI) tells the
story of the evolution in Japan of superheaters installed for producing steam at ever increasing temperatures. MHI
delivered their first recovery boiler in 1951. MHI had an arrangement with Jonkopings Mekaniska Werkstads AB
(J.M.W.) for technology transfer at least until 1957 when they delivered their first boiler designed for a steam
temperature of 480C (896F) to Chuetsu Pulp Industry Co. Ltd.; the design pressure was 7.0 MPa (1010 psig).
Subsequent installations for increasing pressure and temperature centered on Oji Paper Co., Ltd., primarily at their
mill in Kasugai.
A boiler designed for 10.1 MPa (1450 psig) and 480C (896F) was delivered in 1961 to the Kasugai Mill, the first
at that pressure level. A second boiler was delivered to the mill in 1966. Both were relatively small boilers, the
largest having a steam generation of 80 t/h (176,400 lb/h). In 1983, Oji Paper had delivered to their Yonago Works
(Table V) a MHI boiler for a design pressure of 11.9 MPa (1706 psig)) and operating conditions of 10.0 MPa (1435
psig) and 500C (932F).[19] It was not until 1985 that another paper company in Japan moved up to the higher
pressure and temperature operating level when a boiler was delivered to Daio Paper Corp for their mill in Mishima
designed for 11.9 MPa (1706 psig) and operating at 10.0 MPa (1435 psig) and 500C (932F). This No. 17 boiler
at Daio Paper was the largest recovery boiler in Japan at that time with a dry solids rating of 1665 t/d (3.67 million
lb/d) and steam generation of 243 t/h (536,800 lb/h). The boiler was subsequently upgraded to 1750 t/d (3.86
million lb/d) and steam generation of 258 t/h (569,000 lb/h). From that time, the ordering of high pressure and
temperature recovery boilers in Japan has been the common practice.
An interesting historical first was the delivery in 1986 to Oji Paper for their Tomakomai Mill of a boiler designed
(MAWP) for 13.1 MPa (1891 psig) and superheater outlet conditions of 10.9 MPa (1567 psig) and 500C
(932F)with a reheat superheater design pressure and temperature of 3.9 MPa (555 psig) and 395C (743F). The
high pressure steam flow is given as 146 t/h (324,000 lb/h, which by North American standards is very small for a
reheat design.
By 1996, boilers designed to generate steam at 11.0 MPa (1580 psig) and 500C (932F) were well accepted. The
boiler with the highest pressure presented in the experience list is a 1993 recovery boiler for Daio Paper Corp for
their Mishima Mill having a design pressure of 15.9 MPa (2300 psig) and operating pressure of 13.3 MPa (1914
psig).
The boiler delivered in 1983 to Oji Paper for their Yonago Mill was at that time claimed to be the highest pressure
and temperature in the world [19]. No recovery boiler in North America reached that level until 1990 when the
Babcock & Wilcox boiler was started up at the Weyerhaeuser Company mill at Columbus, MS. MHI placed in
operation in October 1990 a single, large recovery boiler in the Kasugai Mill to replace the three boilers delivered in
earlier years. The Kasugai mill boiler is rated at 2400 t/d (5.292 million lb/d) dry solids and generating 410 t/h
(904,000 lb/h) of steam at 10.9 MPa (1435 psig) and 500C (932F); the design pressure is 13.3 MPa (1920 psig).
A technical paper was presented at the 1992 International Chemical Recovery Conference in Seattle, WA,
pronouncing the boiler at Kasugai to be the worlds largest high pressure and temperature recovery boiler.[20]
By comparison, the boiler at Weyerhaeusers Columbus mill is actually larger. It has a dry solids rating of 2700 t/d
(5.85 million lb/h) with 408 t/h (900,300 lb/hr) of steam being generated at 10.8 MPa (1550 psig) and 496 C ( 925
F); the design pressure is 12.7 MPa (1825 psig).[8]
The 1992 paper describes some of the considerations in superheater design to provide for the Oji Paper recovery
boiler selected material that will eliminate the repair of superheater tubes for about 20 years.[21] Materials were
selected that had a safety factor of about 30 C (54 F) below the upper limit for temperature at the design pressure.
Some considerations in selection of materials for the superheater tubes were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Operation with low SO2.

The melting point temperature of deposits to be greater than the tube temperature.
Knowledge that the corrosion is strongly affected by chromium content of the steel
Knowledge that molten ash deposits containing chloride subject austenitic steel to intergranular corrosion.
Sumitomo Metal Industries in 1986 reported the results of extensive tests to understand the high temperature
corrosion behavior of recovery boiler ash on superheater tube materials.[21] The researchers evaluated corrosion
10 of 27
rate using average thickness loss and penetration depth in the grain-boundary of samples. Their conclusions appear
to reflect the direction taken by MHI in the selection of tube composition for increasing temperature.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Reducing the carbon content of the metal reduces the penetration depth in grain boundaries.
Increase in Cr content from 18 to 25% by weight decreased total penetration depth.
Below 3%, Mn decreases the penetration depth.
The addition of Mo above 0.5% Mo decreased the total penetration depth up to a Mo content in the range
of 1 to 2%
MHIs continuing search for a superheater material resistant to corrosion is reflected in a paper presented in 1998 at
the International Chemical Recovery Conference in Tampa, Fl .[18] Mitsubishi reported development of a special
tube material, reducing by approximately one-half the carbon and silicon concentration of the conventional 25Cr14Ni material. Reported test results compare the corrosion resistance and allowable stress of the special new low Clow Si-25Cr-14Ni to the conventional 25Cr-14Ni steel and to Type 321 stainless steel. The special steel compared
favorably by both measures, about a 45% higher allowable stress than the type 321 steel. The subsequent operating
experience with the low C-low Si-25Cr-14Ni steel is highlighted in a report in 2004 for a second generation
recovery boiler delivered to a Japanese mill designed to produce steam at a temperature of 515C (959F) and a
pressure of 10.9 MPa (1566 psig). [22]
MHI summarized 20 years of high pressure and high temperature recovery boilers in the paper presented at the 2004
International Chemical Recovery Conference in Charleston, SC.[22] The paper describes this second generation
design in more detail. The 1998 boiler is a single drum design to burn 2400 t/d (5.292 million lb/h ) of black liquor
solids at a concentration of 75% solids and to generate 410 t/h (904,000 lb/hr) of steam. The special superheater
tube material is designated MN25R. A freeze crystallization system with a capacity to process 700 kg/h (1544 lb/h)
of ash controls the potassium and chloride liquor in the black liquor. Information about the resulting Cl and K in the
precipitator ash is given in an earlier paper to be 2% Cl and 4 % K.[23] A trend chart of steam temperature shows
an average of 505C (941F) and 10.7 MPa being maintained for about 8 months between scheduled outages; 6
months is understood to be a performance guarantee.
Superheater tubes of the MN25R material are reported to show no indication of corrosion after 5 years of operation;
the claim is supported by a photograph. The paper emphasizes that the control of flue gas composition is important
for corrosion control. SO2 can accelerate corrosion by chloride in the ash. CO can result in carbonization,
accelerating corrosion. At 75% solids, it should be possible to operate with no SO2 in the gas.
In summary, MHI for over 20 years have had a concerted effort to develop and test the steel materials that make it
possible to establish reliable operation of recovery boilers at high pressure and high temperature. They have
considerable experience and developed the MN25R material with the objective to operate a recovery boiler at 540C
(1004F).[22] The information available suggests MHI is content to hold the design pressure in the range of 128
to133 MPa (1850 to1920 psig). The corresponding operating pressure is 10.9 MPa (1580 psig).
High Pressure and Temperature Recovery Boilers in Finland and Sweden
The mills in Sweden and Finland have been installing large recovery boilers at increased pressure and temperature to
modernize and increase the heat recovery efficiency of equipment.
Sweden
Development in Sweden of boilers to operate at higher pressure and temperature steam conditions was definitely
restrained by corrosion experience. A report of survey results covering forty years experience in fighting recovery
boiler corrosion in Sweden was presented at the 1985 international Chemical Recovery Conference.[24] One
conclusion of the report is Superheater corrosion seems at a glance to be rather infrequent in Sweden. The first
reason is that our most used superheater steam temperature is moderate. The survey further quotes a study reported
in 1968 at a Recovery Boiler Conference in Stockholm recommending the boiler pressure should not exceed 6
MPa (850 psig). The report did not mention temperature, notwithstanding, there was a recommendation that steam
temperature not exceed 450 C (842 F).
11 of 27
The discovery in 1964 of external corrosion on secondary superheater loops immediately upstream of the outlet after
six (6) years of operation in a Billeruds recovery boiler is believed to be an example of incidents that contributed to
the recommendation to limit pressure and temperature.[25] The material was analyzed to be the equivalent of
SA213 T12 (1Cr 1/2 Mo). The boiler operated at a relatively low secondary superheater outlet temperature of
425C (797F). The black liquor fired in the boiler was reported to be from a sulphite pulping process. This incident
is illustrated in Figure 3 with corrosion highlighted on all three bends of the secondary auperheater outlet.
Figure3 SuperheaterCorrosion
ExternalWastageonUndersideofBend
The bends showed no evidence of overheating. Corrosion

occurred on the underside of the outer loops, intermediate loops
and the inner loops of bends on every element across the boiler
width. Ash deposits on the loops were exposed to direct furnace
radiation. It was thought that the corrosion products spalled off as
they formed exposing fresh metal for corrosion attack.
Experience parallels that of superheaters in USA boilers. Survey
reports in this study appear to show the lower steam temperature
boilers have a greater prevalence of corrosion. Factors are
counterflow of steam and flue gas instead of parallel flow, not
shielding the higher temperature loops with the nose arch, and
hanging elements for the higher steam temperatures forward of the
end of the arch.
The Swedish pulp and paper industry has recently started up four boilers operating at high pressure and temperature.
(see Table VI)
TableVIHighPressureandTemperatureRecoveryBoilersinSweden
Mill
Vr
Skoghall
strand
Obbola
Owner
Sdra Cell
Stora Enso
SCA
SCA
Location
Vrbacka
Skoghall
Timr
Obbola
Design solids, metric ton/day
2100
2200
3300
1000
Dry solids concentration, %
75
80
80
80
Design steam generation, t/h
320
318
524
173
Pressure, MPa
8.6
10.8
10.6
11.0
Temperature, C / F
485 / 905
500 / 932
515 / 959
505 / 941
Startup
May 2007
Sept 2005
Oct 2006
2009
12 of 27
Notes:
1.
2.
3.
The boiler at Vr started up in May 2002 at 6.1 MPa and 450C; pressure and temperature raised May
2007. Mill has Swedens first ash leaching system delivered by Metso Power.
Due to limitations in pulp production, the boiler at strand presently operates at 2500 t/d firing 73% solids
liquor to produce 386 t/h of steam.
The boiler at Obbola started up in October 2007 with black liquor solids at 74% A new evaporator plant was
operational in 2009 at 80% product solids.
Finland
Table VII is a list of recovery boilers in Finland operating at steam temperatures of 480C (896F) and above.
TableVIIOperatingRecoveryBoilersinFinlandwithHighSteamTemperature
Mill
Stora Enso Enocell Oy
Uimaharju
Stora Enso Oy
Imatran tehtaat
Stora Enso Fine Papers Oy
Varkauden Sellutehdas
Stora Enso Fine Papers Oy
Oulu Mills
Stora Enso Fines Papers Oy
Veitsiluoto Mill
Stora Enso Laminating Papers
Kotka Mill
Oy Mets-Botnia Ab
Joutseno Pulp
Oy Mets-Botnia Ab
Kemi Mill
Oy Mets-Botnia Ab
nekoski
Oy Mets-Botnia Ab
Rauma
Sunila Oy
Kotka
UPM-Kymmene Oy
Kaukas
Kymi Paper Oy
Kymi
UPM-Kymmene Oy
Pietasaari
Original
Manufacturer
Start
Up
Steam
Capacity
t/h
460
Temperature
C
Pressure
MPa
1992
Capacity
Dry Solids
t/d
3000
Tampella
480
8.4
Ahlstrom
Tampella
Ahlstrom
1987
1992
1980
1700
3300
1150
237
504
151
480
480
480
7.1
8.5
8.4
Ahlstrom
1988
1600
253
480
8.2
Tampella
1977
2000
234
480
8.2
CE
1959
700
108
482
8.3
Ahlstrom
1998
4000
540
490
9.3
Tampella
1990
3400
428
480
8.5
Ahlstrom
1985
2700
335
480
8.2
Tampella
1996
3500
425
490
9.2
Tampella
Tampella
Ahlstrom
1965
1988
1991
950
1300
3780
121
130
580
460
480
480
7.6
6.5
8.4
Metso Power
2008
3600
608
505
10.2
Andritz
2004
4450
666
505
10.2
Some observations can be made from the information in Table VII.

1.
The oldest listed high pressure and temperature recovery boiler started up in 1959 was delivered by Combustion
Engineering to operate at 8.4 MPa and 482C (1200 psig and 900F), The capacity was 700 mt/day (1.544
million lb/day) solids.
13 of 27
2.
3.
4.
The two boiler manufacturers in Finland have experience from 1964 in the design of superheaters to operate at a
steam temperature of 480C ( 896F). The boiler started up in 1964 was supplied by Tampella. Ahlstroms
first boiler was in 1977.
Most of these boilers were designed with a pressure at the superheater outlet of 8.2 to 8.5 MPa ( 1190 to 1234
psig).
The next higher level of steam conditions was realized in the startup in 2004 of a boiler to operate at 10.2 MPa
and 505C (1479 psig and 940F).
TableVIIIBoilersShutdowninFinlandinthePeriod2008throughApril2009
Stora Enso Kemjrven Sellu Oy
Kemjrvi
Shutdown April 2008
Oy Mets-Botnia Ab
Kaskinen Mill
Shutdown March 2009
Kymi Paper Oy
Kymi
Shutdown
UPM-Kymmene Oy
Tervasaari
Shutdown December 2008
Tampella
1964
1200
160
480
8.4
Ahlstrom
1977
2000
250
480
8.2
Gtaverken
Gtaverken
1964
1977
800
1800
120
280
480
480
8.4
8.4
Tampella
1975
1150
160
The recovery boiler manufacturers in Finland have a close association with users and research institutions. Much of
the research appears to focus on knowledge to improve the product. The title of a paper presented in 2004 at an
International Chemical Recovery Conference in Porvoo, Finland, says it all - Forty years of recovery boiler
cooperation in Finland.[26] The paper specifically chronicled superheater corrosion in modern recovery boilers.
Dr. Salmenoja defines a normal rate of corrosion that typically results in a superheater life of 20 years.
Dr. Keijo Salmenoja has for a number of years displayed a keen interest in the subject of superheater corrosion. A
paper presented at the 2001 Tappi Engineering/Finishing & Converting Conference in San Antonio, TX, reviewed
knowledge of combustion process and corrosion mechanisms required to control superheater corrosion. The paper
further develops the importance of the arrangement of the surface.[27] He coauthored a paper for the 2007
Conference in Quebec City that described a corrosion investigation of superheater materials. [17]
SUPERHEATER DESIGN
Introduction
This overview of how a superheater is designed is intended to guide the reader through the process of design and to
identify design issues that require assessment when preparing a specification or procuring a superheater.
There are several specific tasks that have to be integrated together to achieve the operating objectives and an
acceptable life:
provide sufficient heat transfer surface to cool the combustion gases and reach the desired final steam
temperature,
select tube material that will minimize corrosion and oxidation rates,
arrange the superheater surface to control metal temperature which affects corrosion rates,
control deposits to minimize plugging and fouling to permit operation for a one year period without
shutdowns for cleaning,
provide means for control of final steam temperature with various degrees of fouling,
provide for the mechanical integrity of the unit.
14 of 27
The designer must maintain an awareness that, for any given tube material, tube wall corrosion rate is a function of
temperature and hotter potentially means more corrosion. Appropriate selection lf tube material requires arranging
the surface and determining the tube wall metal temperature throughout the superheater to establish suitable
temperatures for the material and the environment. The design of a superheater depends on the designer having in
place valid procedures to determine the temperature of the tube wall for the conditions of operation for the boiler.
Heat Transfer
To start with the basics, consider the elements that govern the heat transfer from the flue gas to the steam flowing
inside of a tube. [7]
1.
2.
3.
4.
Convective heat transfer to the tube wall, which depends on local gas temperature and the gas film
resistance.
Radiation heat flow, which depends on the broader temperature field, view factors, and absorbtivity and
emissivity.
Resistance of the tube wall to conduction heat flow.
Resistance of the steam film to convection heat flow.
The tube wall resistance is very small compared to the other resistances and the conventional approach is to not
consider the wall resistance.
The major resistance to overall heat flow is on the gas side. However, the steam film is the most important in
determining the metal temperature. There is considerable gain to be realized for reducing tube wall metal
temperature by maximizing steam flow velocity at the expense of pressure drop. It is a common practice of some
manufacturers to design a high temperature superheater for a pressure drop in the range of 10 to 17 MPa (150 to 250
psi).
Absent from the above list is the resistance of the ash deposit. This resistance is very important as it ultimately
determines the final heat transfer surface required for sustained operation at the final steam temperature. The
designer generally handles this in one of two ways. One way is to introduce into the equation:
Q = U*S*Tm
an experience factor (multiplier) that is characteristic of the ash in a recovery boiler. The second is to allow for a
resistance of ash to conduction heat flow [28] Both methods are ways to correlate observed results to classical heat
transfer correlations and both achieve the same result. In the above equation:
U = combined conductance as described in the above list, Kcal/m2-hr-C or Btu/ ft- hr- F
Q = heat transfer, Kcal/hr or Btu/hr
S= superheater surface, m2 or ft
Tm = log mean temperature difference steam and flue gas, C or F
,
Furnace Exit Gas Temperature
The superheater design is strongly influenced by the temperature of flue gas leaving the furnace and entering the
convection surface. This furnace exit gas temperature (FEGT) is calculated by empirical methods taking into
account test results and data accumulated from operating experience. Each supplier has used recovery boiler test
data to establish for their respective boiler design a graphical relationship of FEGT and related furnace heat release
rate. Gas temperature in the zone of the furnace outlet through to the superheater outlet is measured with a high
velocity thermocouple (HVT) probe. .The FEGT can be expressed in different furnace geometries, depending on the
location of temperature test measurements.. For example, as an average temperature of a horizontal plane at the tip
of the nose arch or as an average temperature over the vertical plane at the inlet to the furnace screen, or in the
absence of a screen, the inlet to the superheater.
The thermocouple element in the water-cooled HVT probe is shielded to minimize the effect of radiation on the
measured temperature. However, the HVT temperature deviates from the true gas temperature above 649C
(1200F) and a correction factor needs to be applied. The correction is the difference of the temperature if measured
15 of 27
Figure4CurveforCorrecting
HVTTemperature[29]
with a MHVT (multiple high velocity
thermocouple) probe, which is accepted as
measuring true gas temperature. A MHVT
probe is highly shielded to reduce the radiation
to the thermocouple to a negligible level. If
used in routine recovery boiler testing, it will
plug quickly with ash and is not practical for
testing. The curve for correcting the HVT
temperature measurement follows. The curve
also shows the degree of error that can be
expected using gas temperatures measured
with a bare thermocouple.
Profile of Gas Flow and Temperature Entering Convection Surface
The challenge to the designer is to distribute the flue gas flow and the gas temperature over the convection surface
beyond the plane. This is a critical input for calculating the metal temperatures. The addition of superheater surface
in an existing furnace frequently results in furnace screen and/or superheater surface coming in close proximity to
the front furnace wall. High temperature recovery boilers have superheater elements reaching lengths of 14 to 21
meter (46 to 69 feet) from roof down to the lower loops. With superheater elements reaching lengths of 21m, well
beyond the lengths having years of experience, the potential for considerable top to bottom temperature variation is
increased. Consider two different superheater lengths between the nose tip and the furnace roof 14m and 21m, and
that each has the same FEGT at the horizontal plane at the tip of the nose. There is a considerable difference in
upper furnace wall surface between the two. Therefore, the average FEGT entering the vertical plane at the
superheater inlet will be quite different, that is, much higher for the shorter superheater.
In large units, depths from furnace front wall to nose arch tip are reaching 7.6 meter (25 feet) with furnace widths in
the order of 15 meter (50 feet). As the size of recovery boilers has increased, so has the availability of sophisticated
and realistic computer models that can provide a profile of temperature and flow distribution. Computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) models have the potential to provide detailed gas temperature and flow distribution predictions.
The issue is always model validity. The model must be validated to actual performance; the model results can be
misleading if not validated. All CFD models are highly dependent on the boundary condition assumptions.
The final calculation depends on the designer using experience to designate upset and unbalance factors to be
applied to determine the worst case tube metal temperatures. The tube temperature determination for the selection
of superheater materials is affected by the assumption of the potential upset (deviation from the average) in steam
temperature. The steam temperature upset is a function of the cumulative effect of a gas side unbalance creating at
a selected spot maximum heat absorption with a minimum steam flow reflecting an assumption of steam side
unbalance. It is not uncommon for a designer to assume a deviation of +/- 150C (300 F) top to bottom. The
superheater design is also very dependent upon the boiler operation to provide favorable gas composition and ash
characteristics.[22, 27] That is, gas free of CO, for example, and ash at a composition and temperature that is not
corrosive and can be easily removed by the sootblowers
Each boiler supplier can present gas temperature values and flow distribution for establishing tube thickness and
metallurgy that can be very different depending on the individual supplier assumptions on the range of operating
conditions to account for off-design conditions. The arrangement of superheater surface and the nose profile also
contribute to differences.
A CFD model is recommended to be considered each time a new recovery boiler is designed, or an existing boiler
significantly altered. There are situations where the designer will have performance information from a similar unit
and feel confident to proceed without modeling. Modeling should be recognized as an important design tool, one of
several. It is important to realize that the defined boundary condition can influence the results in a desired direction.
16 of 27
The impact of the lower furnace black liquor combustion system arrangement of air and liquor introduction affects
the flue gas flow and temperature distribution at the furnace outlet. This pattern can be optimized and extremes
reduced. The designer strives to most efficiently transfer heat uniformly from the bottom to the top of the
superheater elements.
Furnace Nose Arch
The Furnace Nose Arch profile has a significant impact on the distribution of flue gas through the superheater banks.
The extent of penetration of the nose into the furnace, the shape of the end of the nose, the slopes of the upper and
lower sides of the arch, all have an impact. Suppliers have different opinions about the flow pattern of gas they want
the nose to create. There is general consensus, however, on one aspect of the nose. This is that the nose penetration
of the furnace depth should not exceed about 50 percent. Further penetration results in a significant misdistribution
with a large portion of the flue gas flowing through the upper portion of the superheater. One supplier has published
the testing of several degrees of penetration.[30]
Different suppliers have different preferences.
Preference to maintain the tip of the nose at the location of the first row of tubes in the superheater, but not
to exceed a nose length of about 50 percent. Before extending the superheater into the furnace beyond 50
percent on a single drum boiler, consider extending the superheater to the rear by increasing the distance
between the furnace rear wall and the generating bank.
In contrast, to use a nose that penetrates about one-third of the furnace depth with significant surface in
front of the nose (Some replacement superheaters go most of the way across furnace)
End of nose profile to create a small circulation of gas above the nose so that a reverse flow between
superheater loops and nose tubes prevents any hot gas bypassing surface, that is, sneaking up the nose slope
to cause a pocket of hot gas and sticky ash at the generating bank inlet. In this arrangement, an inspector
could pass between the arch and ends of loops from one sootblower cavity to the next.
In contrast, designing the superheater so the clearance between superheater and arch tubes is very small
when the superheater is hot. It is intended that gas flow has no circulation above the nose.
Furnace Screen
The amount of surface in the furnace screen is directly determined by the gas temperature limit for flue gas entering
the boiler screen and the generating bank and the superheater heat pickup. The temperature limit at this location
should be determined from the ash melting characteristics and the sintering characteristics. The difference between
boiler inlet temperature, or superheater outlet temperature, and FEGT must be heat absorbed by the superheater and
furnace screen surfaces. Accordingly, the required screen surface decreases with increasing design steam
temperature to the extent that the higher steam temperatures require no screen.
History has proven that substituting screen surface for furnace height can result in a recovery boiler that has
insufficient furnace surface to cool the gases and entrained particulate. Units with large screens and a calculated
moderate average FEGT entering the superheater often have a high gas temperature at the plane below the screen;
the top to bottom variation can be considerable. There is further very little cooling of the gas entering the bottom of
those superheater designs with elements hanging out in front of the nose. In addition, the particulate has cooled at a
slower rate than the gas and large particulate can have a higher temperature than the gas at the superheater inlet.
During the late 1950s and first half of the 1960s in North America, a large number of short furnace boilers were
placed in operation. They continue to plague the industry with increased downtime to this day.
The tall furnace trend was further boosted in the late 1970s with demand by operating companies that there be no
furnace screen in a recovery boiler. This requirement had its advent in the perception that leaving out the screen
provided a safer operation in that the potential of a leak from falling slag breaking a tube was eliminated. However,
the safety benefits of eliminating the screen may be overrated. The engineer should carefully consider the pro and
con of installing a screen.
The data from this study does not show any benefit in the screen reducing corrosion of the superheater elements
being shielded. The screen at this location was having little effect on reducing gas temperature. .
17 of 27
A screen when installed should have tubes aligned with the superheater tubes. There should be sufficient tubes, that
when bent from the vertical to bridge a section of the furnace, are aligned tangentially and fastened together to effect
a beam with strength to resist falling chunks of ash. The upper tube of the bridging section should have a
vertical, longitudinal fin on top to function as a breaker of falling deposits.
Heat Flow and Tube Wall Temperature in a Superheater
A technical paper published in 1991 describes a program for comprehensive computer-based heat transfer analysis
of the superheater to determine row-by-row the steam, tube wall and gas temperature.[28] The authors indicate
basing their computer program on heat transfer equations from STEAM, a publication of The Babcock & Wilcox
Company.[7] Babcock & Wilcox and other boiler manufacturers had realized the importance of a row-by-row
analysis long before the advent of the computer. The general data from STEAM was adapted to develop a similar
program in 1991 for private use for a recovery boiler. Engineers interested in a more comprehensive description of
heat flux calculations to define tube metal temperatures are referred to these literature sources.
The heat flux in each tube row is a summation of convection and radiation heat flow. The superheater bank tubes
and lower loops facing the furnace can receive a significant increase in heat flux contributed by radiation. With the
juxtaposition of a furnace screen, the furnace radiation is filtered by the water cooled screen tubes and makes a
lesser contribution to superheater heat flux. Each sootblower cavity contributes radiation to the adjacent tubes,
including the water wall tubes. A superheater tube row bounding the cavity is generally an inlet or outlet tube. The
heat flux to the bounding tube does increase the tube wall delta T resulting in elevating the steam temperature.
Where superheater elements are in front of the nose, bounding surface is also the lower loops of the elements.
The tubes in a superheater that data supports to be most susceptible to corrosion are:
1.
2.
3.
Lower superheater loops of tube rows hanging in front of the nose arch.
The front row of the first bank of superheater tubes.
The tubes with the highest steam temperature, and hence, higher tube temperatures, are the final row of the
final bank of superheater tubes producing the terminal steam temperature and the steam outlet tubes of a
superheater bank immediately upstream of a spray water attemperator.
The calculated tube metal temperature is used to determine the allowable stress value of the appropriate material that
complies with the latest edition of the ASME Code. The minimum tube thickness for the location is then calculated
using the pressure vessel equation. The design calculation for composite tubes is based on the inner, load-carrying
material and the cladding considered as only corrosion protection.
Tubing Material for Superheaters
Metallurgical issues in recovery boilers were discussed in considerable detail in the history of recovery boiler
superheaters earlier in this report and will not be repeated here.
The information acquired directly from mills during the course of this study indicated that carbon steel, T11 and T22
were the most commonly used materials in the superheaters. The data further showed that a superheater containing
T22 could be operated at a steam temperatures of 496C (925F) without significant corrosion when chloride (and
probably potassium) levels were kept low and steam temperature was closely monitored and controlled. The view
might be adopted that more exotic materials are only needed if steam temperatures are to be increased above 496C
and/or to provide greater flexibility in operating the boiler.
The availability of materials for superheaters has never been better, especially new materials for superheaters to
operate at 900 F and above. The traditional tube materials that have resulted in successful superheater installations
in the 20th Century are various welded and seamless carbon steel materials, SA213 T11, SA213 T12, SA213 T22
and several of the austenitic stainless steels, such as SA213 TP347H (18Cr-10Ni), SA213 TP310H (25Cr-20Ni).
T12 is similar to T11, and much more available on the world market and has been used on newer boilers. There are
older boilers still operating with SA213 TP304H. A boiler with TP 347H material in the superheater tubes has
operated for almost 25 years without incident in a South Carolina mill at 1500 psig and 880 F.
Four of the newer materials for the 21st Century include:
18 of 27
Sandvik 310/T22
Sandvik 310//T91
Sandvik Sanicro 28/T22
Sandvik Sanicro 28/T91
Sandvik 310 (25Cr-20Ni) over SA213 T22 (2 1/4Cr-1Mo)

Sandvik 310 (25Cr-20Ni) over SA213 T91
Sanicro 28 (27Cr-31Ni) over SA213 T22
Sanicro 28 (27Cr-31Ni) over SAA213 T91
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries have been very successful with a superheater tube material designated as MN25R
developed jointly with Sumitomo. It is a 25Cr-14Ni material with low C and low Si.
Some operating companies are reluctant to use austenitic stainless steel tubes for superheaters in pulp mill service
because of the potential for severe damage in the event of boiler water caustic chemicals carryover from the steam
drum into the superheater tubes. The experience with the material in service is actually favorable.
Attemperation for Steam Temperature Control
Attemperators are essential for control of final steam temperature. Cooling is achieved in an attemperator by
injecting a controlled amount of high purity water into the hot steam. The steam temperature is reduced by
evaporation of the injected water spray. Control of final steam temperature at that desired to be maintained for steam
turbine or process is made possible by installing a quantity of surface that is excessive for some operating conditions
and requires spray water control.
The most significant variation for the designer to consider is the condition of startup with clean surface. During an
outage, the superheater is normally water washed to provide a clean surface for inspection. During startup, and most
particularly as the boiler is brought on line and the steam flow approaches design rating, the excessive heat
absorption results potentially in elevated superheater bank outlet temperatures. In one case with single stage
attemperation, data made available to the investigators showed a PSH steam temperature in excess of the final steam
temperature. The tube metals had been selected for the normal operation with an ash coating on the tubes. There
was evidence of corrosion on the PSH outlet tubes
The superheater design must provide the ability to spray water for temperature control while maintaining the final
steam temperature even when changes in tube surface cleanliness, fuel heating value, fuel moisture content, boiler
firing rate and ash buildup on the surface result in changes in heat absorption by the superheater.
Attemperators can be located after the superheater (terminal) or they can be located between banks within the
superheater (interstage). A terminal atttemperator only benefits turbine protection. The advantage of interstage
attemperation is that it can keep the steam and tube metal temperatures down within the superheater as well as
providing for temperature control.
19 of 27
A superheater designed with single stage attemperation divides the surface into primary superheater (PSH) and
secondary superheater (SSH). With two-stage attemperation, the surface is divided into one additional section
referred to as the tertiary superheater (TSH). The temperature profile of these two attemperator arrangements is
reflected in Figure 5. Each arrangement must reduce the total temperature of steam to the same degree.
The spray water flow to the single stage attemperator is controlled to maintain the final steam temperature leaving
the SSH. When the surface is clean, there may be insufficient spray water available to prevent this temperature
rising above design. Operators use various approaches to avoid these startup conditions of excessive temperature.
They include operating at decreased load until there is an ash layer on the tubes to not operating the sootblowers in
the superheater for some days. One operation requires two weeks without sootblower operation to limit the steam
temperature. Two stages avoid extremes and provides the margins for control.
Designer considerations:
The investigators strongly recommend that any superheater designed to operate at 482C (900 F) and
above incorporate two stages of attemperation. Further, that two stages be considered for any superheater
above 450C (842F). The two stages of attemperation provides steam temperature control in two steps
rather than one resulting in lower overall steam and metal temperatures
The installed superheater surface should at boiler rating provide the design steam temperature 12 months
after water washing and startup. The attemperation system capacity should provide steam temperature
control in the clean surface condition.
The impact of requiring a design to provide the maximum steam temperature be reached at a reduced load;
or control load; 70% is a common load specified. The impact is considerable to surface, attemperator
spay water flow required and metals. Metal temperatures will increase, requiring alloy tube material with
higher use limits.
The engineer preparing a specification should consider the load at which the boiler will normally operate.
Most recovery boilers operate at or near rating. In most situations, there is little if any justification to over
surface the superheater by specifying a control load.
Condense steam from the steam drum to provide spray water. A shell and tube heat exchanger (sweetwater
condenser) is used to condense steam from th0e steam drum, using feedwater inside the tubes as the
coolant. The condensate is injected directly into the attemperator without using a pump. The pressure
drop across the PSH provides the head required to atomize the condensate in the attemperator spray nozzle
The design needs to also take into consideration that the spray water flow is steam that bypasses the
superheater bank elements, and that the tube metal temperatures increase proportionately because of the
reduced steam flow.
It is recommended to limit the flow to the condenser to 10% of the total full load steam flow. Tube
metallurgy required should be determined for clean superheater tube surface and the maximum flow to the
condenser.
The supply of spray water, during the critical period of startup and initial operation with clean superheater
surface, can be extended using demineralized feedwater. When the spray flow is reduced to the extent that
the control can be accomplished with only the condensate, the feedwater is isolated and valved out to
positively prevent water entering the superheater.
System to limit the desuperheater outlet steam temperature from approaching too close to the saturation
temperature, e.g., 28C (50F) above the saturation temperature. The major consideration is to prevent unevaporated water being carried into the tubes of the superheater.
There are a number of recovery boilers operating in the USA with two stage attemperation. These generally include
four banks of tubes two primary, one secondary and one tertiary bank. Two stages have an obvious benefit where
the superheater surface condition of cleanliness results in excess heat absorption. The temperature data and
corrosion experience for superheaters included in the study shows the benefit of two-stage attemperation - lower
steam temperatures exiting the banks and thereby avoiding excessive metal temperature under some operating
conditions.
Application and Features of Connecting Pipe and Attemperators
A schematic arrangement of a simple, single stage attemperator controlled by final steam temperature is shown in
Figure 6. A tube bank is depicted as a square with a cross and on each side narrow rectangles represent headers. The
20 of 27
single connecting pipe discharges fully mixed steam from the PSH at the average temperature; a single attemperator
assures a uniform temperature to the SSH inlet header.
Figure 7 Crossover with Parallel
Attemperators
Figure 6 Single Stage

Steam Temperature Control
Figure 7 is an \arrangement of
connecting pipes arranged to
crossover from one side to the
other of the superheater as shown,
This
design
feature
can
compensate for a condition where
the gas is hotter on one side than
the other ( T1C < T1H). In the
second bank, crossover exposes
the cooler steam (tC) to the hotter
gas (T2H} to achieve a more
uniform distribution across the
boiler width. Further balance is
provided by spraying heavier on
the side with the higher steam
temperature.
With two stages of attemperation,

the crossover arrangement is
repeated for the tertiary bank. In
a practical sense, the crossover
arrangement very much simplifies
the piping because the long
crossover provides the necessary
length for the attemperator. If the designer were to arrange to locate the attemperator with the header outlet and
header inlet on the same side, the close proximity of the two would make pipe routing difficult.
Spray Water Source and Quality
If at all possible, no water from a source other than condensed steam from the boiler drum should be used for the
attemperator. Feedwater is less preferable for this purpose. It is important that the spray water be of highest purity ,
since solids entrained in the spray water enter the steam, and if excessive, can cause troublesome deposits in
superheater tubes, steam piping or turbine blades. [7] Feedwater and/or steam condensate returns in pulp and paper
mills are unlikely to be consistently of a purity to be sprayed into a superheater. Confining their use to startup only
minimizes the risk. The risk can be further minimized by not introducing steam condensate into the deaerater during
this period of time.
Superheater Design Details
Arrangement of Superheater Surface
Before the designer can establish tube material requirements, the tubes must be arranged in banks, the banks must be
preliminarily sequenced for the gas flow and the steam routed through the bank in parallel or countercurrent heat
exchange.
The superheater tubes used in a recovery boiler generally range from 44.5 to 63.5 mm (1.75 to 2.5 in.) outside
diameter (OD) - larger sizes on larger boilers. Tubes are bent 180 (U-bends) to form elements that are welded into
inlet and outlet headers. The number of tubes in an element that individually terminate in headers can be 1 to 6.
These would respectively be referred to as single flow to six flow to designate the number of steam flow paths. Use
of single flow would be highly unusual because of excessive pressure drop. The designer adjusts the tube diameter
21 of 27
and number of flow paths to obtain a desired steam flow velocity and pressure drop. The tubes with U-bends are
assembled into elements with a prescribed back pitch, or centerline to centerline spacing. The back pitch for
elements with spaced tubes has steadily decreased over the years to increase tie life by shortening the span for
better cooling. Today, the space between tubes can be expected to range from 25.4 mm down to about 0.8 mm (1 in.
down to 1/32 in.) for tangent tube elements The convection heat transfer for tubes in an element is decreased as the
tubes are placed closer together. The effect is to require more meters of tubes, that is, more surface.
Elements across the width of the recovery furnace are installed on 304.8 mm (12 in.) minimum side spacing. The
experience with lesser spacing in the cooler banks [152.4 to 190.5 mm (6 in. to 7.5 in.) with hotter banks on 304.8
to 381 mm (12 or 15 in. centers)] has largely been unsatisfactory due to plugging propensity. Where a furnace
screen is installed, the spacing and alignment should match the superheater. Banks are separated by cavities in
which retractable sootblowers are located. The cavity width is to be sufficient for the sootblower steam jet not
cutting adjacent tubes, lance movement at the end of travel not hitting tubes, swinging elements not hitting the lance,
and personnel entre for superheater inspection and maintenance. A satisfactory distance from the face of the tube
to the centerline of the lance is about 225 mm (9 in.); the boiler and sootblower suppliers should be consulted
because of the differences in support design for the suppliers. The bank depth is determined by the experience of the
horizontal distance between sootblowers that maintains ash removal.
The recommended selection of tubing in a superheater is that a single tube diameter be used for the complete
superheater, that each bank of superheater have a single material, and that material in a bank be of a single thickness.
There are practical considerations for this among them being:
The total bank has a uniform coefficient of expansion. This should extend tie life and minimize tube
distortion. However, practically the difference in coefficient for alloys up to T22 is not enough to be a
concern.
Tube inventory in the mill is simplified and less material required. Less possibility of installing the wrong
material when making a repair.
There will be instances where it is not practical to use a single thickness of material throughout a bank.
This would require using the thickness required for the highest steam temperature, which could result in an
unacceptable pressure drop. Consideration in these cases should be given to changing thickness in the
bank.
Tube Ties / Support

The information assembled during the study points to a significant portion of tie failures and damage occurring
during startup. Instances of tubes bowing out of alignment are also related. A conservative startup program to
positively clear superheater loops of water reduces tie and tie weld failures. A direct cause of failure has been ties in
the back space that bottom-out, that is, tie design. The mating halves of a tie welded to two tubes expanding at a
different rate move beyond the allowance of the tie design, after which the force from differential expansion can
result in tie failure, or more often, weld failure.
It is incumbent upon the designer to select ties that make allowance for the worst case scenario of differential
expansion of adjacent tubes. At the elevations selected for installation, they should be welded into every backspace.
To maintain tube alignment, the rows of ties should be located every 3 meter (10 feet) of elevation, or less. Less is
better; one owners engineer specifies every 2130 mm (7 ft). Ideally for cleaning, they would be aligned at the
sootblower elevations.
From the limited information available, the most trouble free support arrangement was to support every loop above
the furnace roof tubes. With total support above the roof, there is no need for support ties on the elements, and
therefore, all ties can be flexible.
The use of side-to-side ties between elements across the width of the boiler can be a subject of controversy. There
are designs with operating experience that have none; in every case, the arrangement of support is a high crown seal
design. Each supplier of these establishes a limit on sootblower operating conditions to limit the element movement
caused by the steam jet. Arrangements that incorporate an arrangement of side-to-side ties have an advantage in
22 of 27
controlling ash deposits on the tubes by operating the sootblowers at a higher level of steam pressure. The study had
insufficient information received to make a detailed comparison.
Arrangement of Banks
There are several sequences for the banks that the study indicates can be satisfactory. For this purpose,
satisfactory is defined as an arrangement where tube corrosion should not occur when the chloride and potassium
levels in the recovery boiler are below a design value and the defined liquor solids input is not exceeded. This
definition assumes that the modern recovery boiler superheater is expected to operate with corrosion controlled to
minimize metal loss.
The four recovery boiler
suppliers in the USA were
unanimous in stating that a
superheater can be designed
with elements in front of the
nose arch that is capable of
meeting
high
steam
temperature with minimal
corrosion and acceptable
cleanability.
Figure8 Example of CommonArrangementofSuperheaterBanks
One arrangement providing

high temperature steam
common to several boilers is
shown in Figure 8.
Staged attemperation make
possible control of the steam
temperature entering both the
secondary and tertiary tube
banks. At the position of
each attemperator illustrated,
there are installed a second
parallel unit as well as
crossover pipes.
The
designer has latitude to set the bank locations to economize on tube material. The two stages of attemperation,
coupled with the tube materials available, provides considerable flexibility for arrangement.
A low temperature superheater should be designed using the same principles as applied to a high temperature
superheater. There are a surprising number of these that are installed with totally countercurrent surface placing the
hottest steam in tubes at the furnace exit. In many cases, these tubes extend beyond the end of the nose where they
are subject to radiation, and the lower loops waste away quickly. These boilers, many of which are designed for
400C (750F) steam temperature, usually have furnace screens.
The recommended arrangement for a low temperature superheater to have long life is totally parallel flow
arrangement with all surface back of the end of the nose so that none of the surface is exposed to direct radiation
from the lower furnace. The steam temperature leaving the superheater will vary from the design temperature and
any downstream equipment that is temperature sensitive can be protected by a terminal attemperator.
SUMMARY
The overall, worldwide trend is toward designing and operating the kraft recovery boiler to produce steam at high
temperature and pressure. The objective is to maximize the boiler thermal efficiency and the electric generation
cycle efficiency. The result is to reduce the requirement for other biomass and/or fossil fuel with a reduction in
carbon dioxide release to the environment. The experience and technology is available to achieve this objective.
23 of 27
Superheaters on recovery boilers designed to operate at 482C (900F) go back to the 1950s. The more recent
advances in black liquor combustion technology and boiler design coupled with availability of improved tube
materials have resulted in superheaters in operation to a steam temperature of 515C (959F.).
The boiler manufacturers in Japan, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Kawasaki Industries, have done the most to
advance the operation of recovery boilers at higher steam temperatures. There are eight (8) recovery boilers in
Japan designed for a steam temperature of 515C: the first was in 1987. Finland also has considerable experience
with high temperature and pressure recovery boilers. The two most recent boilers in Finland are designed for 505C
(941F).
In North America, the majority of recovery boilers are not designed for high steam temperature. There are in
operation forty-six (46) recovery boilers designed to operate at 482C (900F) and above. About 60% are more than
20 years old; the oldest is 50 years. Many operate below design temperature for sundry reasons. There are a few
known to operate at or near design temperature for 12 months; the highest steam temperature is 496C (925F).
Two of the newest boilers are listed to be designed for 505C; these are the Andritz boiler at Campti, LA, and the
Metso Power boiler at Grand Prairie, Alberta.
Many of the high temperature superheaters installed in North America during a period of 50 years were under
surfaced. Application of an artificial (and unrealistic) black liquor analysis and high heating value (HHV) in the
design was the major contributing cause. There are also boilers deliberately operated below design temperature to
prevent corrosion. From a positive perspective, there are superheaters that perform up to expectations and are
capable of operating at design steam temperature for up to 12 months with cleanliness maintained by sootblowing
only. In all of these that the investigators are aware of, chloride levels are being controlled.
The experience and tube metallurgy available today make it possible to design with confidence a superheater to
operate at 510C (950F). The engineer must arrange the surface and consider maintaining a tube temperature
below the ash melting point temperature throughout the superheater. Success will require control of the chloride and
potassium in the black liquor. MHI have said that their MN25R tube material may be suitable for steam
temperatures to 540C. Sandvik has composite tubes that may serve for the higher temperature. Increasing pressure
commensurate with temperature becomes an issue to further gains in efficiency. MHI appear to have settled on a
superheater outlet steam pressure of 10.9 MPa (1566 psig) for their recovery boiler design. There is good
experience in the USA with operating pressure approaching that of MHI.
The study shows that a superheater can be designed to operate at the desired temperature for twelve months reliably
and with minimum maintenance.[1] The designer must follow the recommendations governing a sound design, such
as, surface arrangement, construction details, appropriate metallurgy selection and control of ash chemistry. All of
these are well defined.
The role of metallurgy in superheater corrosion is pretty well understood. The most commonly used materials are
carbon steel, T11, and T22. There appears to be no single, simple metallurgical solution to superheater corrosion.
The highest current steam temperatures in recovery boilers are in Japan and use a special alloy developed by
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. Materials may be a limiting factor in continuing to extend the operating steam
temperature range of recovery boilers, but acceptable metallurgies are available now for producing steam at 510C
(950F).
Attemperation is essential for control of steam temperature. Interstage attemperation is recommended as it helps
keep steam and metal temperatures down within the superheater itself and is beneficial for reducing corrosion. Data
obtained in this study shows the benefits of two stage attemperation in keeping metal temperatures down within the
superheater. The difference in controlling tube metal temperatures is most evident when operating with a clean
superheater
Furnace screens can provide some protective benefit for superheaters by shielding it from direct radiation from the
hotter furnace. Although screens came into disfavor during the 1980s because of concerns about explosions
following screen failures, these fears were overrated and screens are coming back into use on new units.
24 of 27
The nose arch profile plays an important role in flue gas distribution through the superheater. The extent of
penetration, the shape of the nose end, and the slopes of the upper and lower sides are all important. The nose arch
should not exceed 50% penetration.
RECOMMENDATIONS
A recovery boiler and superheater should be designed using a black liquor analysis that is as close to the expected
black liquor composition as possible. The practice of using an unrealistic black liquor analysis to obtain an oversized
recovery boiler is discouraged.
Every superheater design should be evaluated and performance calculation results available to the user at a condition
of clean surface that results in the highest metal temperatures and at the dirty condition that establishes the surface
to be installed.
A CFD model should be developed for the proposed arrangement of furnace and convection heat transfer surface.
Two-stage attemperation is recommended for a superheater designed to operate at high steam temperature, in
particular at 482C (900F) or higher.
Low temperature superheaters 400-455C (750-850F) should include an interstage attemperator to divide the
superheater into primary and secondary sections. Two-stage control should be evaluated, especially if there is a
control range. There must be enough pressure drop through the primary section to allow the steam condenser and
attemperator spray nozzle to operate
Condensed steam obtained from the steam drum using a sweetwater condenser should be used for attemperation.
Supplemental demineralized feedwater from the deaerator can be considered for start-up with a clean superheater
surface. If water from the deaerator will be used in the attemperator, steam condensate feed to the deaerator should
be polished for iron and copper removal.
The practice of specifying a superheater to require the maximum design steam temperature to be reached at a
reduced or control load (e.g. 70% of MCR) is discouraged. This results in a larger than needed superheater and
increased demand for attemperator spray water.
A low temperature superheater designed for long life should have a totally parallel flow arrangement with all
superheater surface located behind the end of the nose arch. At higher temperature, the nose arch should shield the
superheater surface to the maximum extent possible up to the maximum projection of the nose into the furnace.
A single tube material and thickness should be used throughout a given bank, wherever possible
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded through a contract with the American Forest & Paper Association Recovery Boiler
Committee. It is the fourth in a series of studies for the Committee by the authors as follows:
Clement, J.L. Grace, T.M., Investigation for the Relationship Between Recovery Boiler
Furnace Design and Explosion Damage, AF&PA Annual Recovery Boiler Committee
Meeting, Atlanta, GA, February 2002
Grace, T.M. and Clement, J.L, Investigation of Industry Experience with Floor Tube
Failures in Recovery Boilers, AF&PA Annual Recovery Boiler Committee Meeting,
Atlanta, GA, February 2003
Clement, J.L. and Grace, T.M., Investigation of the Causes of Recovery Boiler
Economizer Failures and Identification of Means for Preventing their Occurrence,
AF&PA Annual Recovery Boiler Committee Meeting, Atlanta, GA, February 2006.
Grace, T.M. and Clement, J.L., Recovery Boiler Superheater Investigation-Final Report,
July 31, 2008, AF&PA Annual Recovery Boiler Committee Meeting, Atlanta, GA,
February 2008
25 of 27
The authors appreciate having the opportunity to complete these investigations and provide the results to the
industry. The authors wish to thank the representatives of Alstom Power, Andritz, Babcock & Wilcox and Metso
Power in the USA for meeting with us and describing their superheater designs. Also to thank Outi Pisto, Secretary
of the Finnish Recovery Boiler Committee, and Mikael Ahlroth, Secretary of the Swedish Recovery Boiler
Committee, for making available the list of high temperature recovery boilers operating in their respective countries.
REFERENCES
1
2
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Grace, T.M. and Clement, J.L., Recovery Boiler Superheater Investigation-Final Report, July 31, 2008,.
AF&PA Annual Recovery Boiler Committee Meeting, Atlanta, GA, February 2009.
Grace, T.M. and Clement, J.L., Investigation of Recovery Boiler Superheater Design and PerformancePart 2. Proceedings of TAPPI Engineering, Pulping and Environmental Conference , Memphis,
TN (2009).
Clement, J.L. and Grace, T.M., Investigation for the Relationship Between Recovery
Boiler Furnace Design and Explosion Damage, Proceedings of TAPPI Fall Technical
Conference and Trade Fair, San Diego, CA (2002).
Grace, T.M. and Clement, J.L., Investigation of Industry Experience with Floor Tube
Failures in Recovery Boilers, Proceedings of TAPPI Fall Technical Conference:
Engineering, Pulping & PCE&I, Chicago, IL (2003).
Clement, J.L. and Grace, T.M., Investigation of the Causes of Recovery Boiler
Economizer Failures, Proceedings of TAPPI Engineering, Pulping and Environmental
Conference, Atlanta, GA (2006)
Steam, Superheaters, The Babcock & Wilcox Company, New York, NY (1923)
Steam, Its Generation and Use, Chapters 7, 11 and 12, 37th Edition,, Barberton, Ohio, The Babcock &
Wilcox Co., 1955.
BLRBAC ESP Subcommittee, Operating Chemical Recovery Boilers USA, List posted on web site
www.blrbac.org.
Villarroel, R., Gonalves, C. and Tran,H., Experience of Screen Tube Damage Caused by Falling Deposits
to Kraft Recovery Boilers, Proceedings of 2004 International Chemical Recovery Conference,
Charleston, South Carolina, TAPPI PRESS.
BLRBAC, Minutes of Meeting, Spring 2009. Minutes posted on BLRBAC web site www.blrbac.org
Rytter, T. and Oscarsson, B., Leaf River Forest Products Commissions North Americas First Modern
Single Drum Black Liquor Recovery Boiler, 1985 International Chemical Recovery Conference
Proceedings, Page 65-76, TAPPI PRESS
Dees, C., Simonen, J. and Tran,.T., Experience of Recovery Boiler Superheater Corrosion at Willamette
Hawesville, Proceedings of 7th International Symposium on Corrosion, 1992, page 251-257, TAPPI
PRESS,
Clement, J.L., Recovery Boiler Operation at High Pressure and Temperature, 1976 Paper Industry Boiler
Seminar, Santiago, Chile, Babcock & Wilcox Publication SP-105 (1976)
Bowers, D.F., Current Status of Tube Performance in Recovery Boilers for the Pulp and Paper Industry,
1985 International Chemical Recovery Conference Proceedings, Page 103-115, TAPPI PRESS
Keiser,J., Sama, G., Choudhury, K., Willoughby, A., Kish, J., Frederick, L., Singbeil,D., Jett, F. and
Gorog, P., Recovery Boiler Superheater Tube Corrosion and Cracking Studies, Proceedings of Seventh
International Colloquium on Black Liquor Combustion and Gasification, Jyvskyl, Finland,
Keiser, J.R., Kish, J.R., Frederick, L.A., Wiloughby, A.W., Chooudhury, K.A., Singbeil, D.L., Jette, F.R.
and Gorog, J.P., Recovery Boiler Superheater Corrosion Studies, Proceedings of the 2007 International
Chemical Recovery Conference, Quebec City, Quebec, June 2007.
Skrifvars, B.-J., Silvander, L., Hupa, M., Salmenoja, K., and Vakkilainen, E., Laboratory Studies of the
Corrosion of Superheater Materials Covered with Alkali Salt Mixtures, Proceedings of the 2007
International Chemical Recovery Conference, Quebec City, Quebec, June 2007.
Matsumoto, H., Notomi, A., Nishio, T. Arakawa, Y. and Takasuka, H., Advanced Technology for
Corrosion Resistant Materials for Recovery Boilers, Proceedings of 1998 International Chemical
Recovery Conference, p. 51-60, TAPPI PRESS
Aklyama, H., Yasukouchi, K., Yagi, M. and Shinohara, M., New Technology for Chemical Recovery
Boilers in Japan-Higher Temperature and Pressure, Higher Thermal Efficiency and Energy Savings,
Meeting of Black Liquor Recovery Boiler Advisory Committee, Atlanta, GA (October, 1980)
26 of 27
20. Fujisaki, A., Takatsuka,, H. and Yamamura, M., Worlds Largest High Pressure and Temperature
Recovery Boiler, 1992 International Chemical Recovery Conference Proceedings, pages 1-20, TAPPI
PRESS
21. Makiura, H., Yano, N. and Fujikawa,H., Effect of Alloying Elements on the High Temperature Corrosion
Behavior of Austenitic Stainless Steels in Black Liquor Recovery Boiler Environment, TAPPI 1986
Proceedings of Engineering Conference, Book 2, pages 403-410, TAPPI PRESS
22. Arakawa, A., Taguchi, Y., Maeda, T. and Baba,Y., Experience of High Pressure and High Temperature
Recovery Boilers for Two Decades, Proceedings 2004 International Chemical Recovery Conference,
Charleston, SC, June 2004, TAPPI PRESS
23. Fujisaki, A., Tateishi, M., Baba, Y. and Arakawa, Y., Plugging Prevention of Recovery Boiler by
Character Improvement of the Ash Which Used Potassium Removal Equipment, Proceedings of the 2001
International Chemical Recovery Conference, Whistler, BC, Canada .
24. Ingevald, S. and Bruno, F., Forty Years Fight Against Corrosion in Recovery Boilers, 1985 International
Chemical Recovery Conference Proceedings, Page 117-126, TAPPI PRESS
25. Babcock & Wilcox Ltd. Research Department Report No. 2/65/334 dated 6 January 1965
26. Salmenoja, K , Forty Years Recovery Boiler Cooperation in Finland, Superheater Corrosion in Modern
Recovery Boilers, Proceedings of International Recovery Boiler Conference, Haikko Manor, Porvoo,
May 12-14, 2004,page 103-113
27. Salmenoja, K., and Tuiremo, J.,, Achievements in the Control of Superheater Corrosion in Black Liquor
Recovery Boilers, Proceedings of 2001 TAPPI Engineering/Finishing & Converting Conference, San
Antonio, TX, November 2001, TAPPI PRESS.
28. La Fond, J.F., Verloop, A. and Walsh, A.R., Engineering Analysis of Recovery Boiler
Superheater Corrosion, TAPPI 1991 Proceedings of Engineering Conference, Book 1, page 223232, TAPPI PRESS
29. Ely, F.G., Measurement of Gas Temperatures in Boiler Furnaces, Babcock & Wilcox Bulletin
3-555, Alliance, OH (date unknown, probably 1950).
30. Vakkilainen, E.K., Adams, T.N. and Horton, R.R., The Effect of Recovery Furnace Bullnose
Design on Upper Furnace Flow and Temperature Profiles, 1992 TAPPI International Chemical
Recovery Conference Proceedings, pages 101-112, TAPPI PRESS
27 of 27
Investigation of Superheater Design

and Performance Part 1
John L. Clement
Clement Consulting Inc.
and
Thomas M. Grace
T. M. Grace Company, Inc.
2009 TAPPI EPE Conference

Memphis, TN
October 13, 2009
Studies for AF&PA Recovery Boiler

Committee by Tom Grace & Jack Clement
Published in Tappi Conference Proceedings
Investigation for the Relationship Between Furnace

Design and Explosion Damage, San Diego, CA (2002)
Investigation of Industry Experience with Floor Tube
Failures in Recovery Boilers, Chicago, IL (2003)
Investigation of the Causes of Recovery Boiler
Economizer Failures, Atlanta, GA (2006)
Investigation of Recovery Boiler Superheater Design
and Performance Part 1, Memphis, TN (2009)
Investigation of Recovery Boiler Superheater Design
and Performance Part 2, Memphis, TN (2009)
Study Presented in Two Parts

Part 1 Superheater evolution and
design considerations for high
temperature operation
Part 2 Operational aspects
superheater operating experience,
performance and problems
Part 1 Focus on Learning from the

Past and Requirements for the Future
Determine experience leading to
recommending requirements to:
Install in a recovery boiler a superheater
that can operate
12 months at a designated high
steam temperature
only sootblowers for cleaning
controlled corrosion
mechanical/structural integrity
4
Experience with High Pressure and

Temperature Operation
Defined as design for operation at
steam temperatures exceeding nominal
482C (900F) level.
Japan
22
Finland
4
Sweden
4
North America
6
Japanese Experience
A Closer Look
1983
1st at 500C (932F)
1987
1st at 515C (959F)
1990 -2008 7 more MHI boilers at

515C (959F)
Japanese Experience
Availability of Superheater
Information
Presented in North America during 20
years at least 7 conference papers
latest 2004
Attribute success to MN25R
A material developed for operation at
540C (1004F)
MN25R
What is it?
Modified 25 Cr 14 Ni material
C and Si reduced by ~ one-half
Mn below 3%
Mo between 1 2%
Comparison to Type 321 ss
Corrosion resistance comparable
Allowable stress 45% higher
8
High Temperature Boilers in

Operation-North America
Operating boilers in NA designed for
482C (900F) and higher 51
60% built before 1990; none can
maintain steam temperature
40% after 1990; about 1/3 run 12
months
High Temperature Boilers in

Operation-North America
Installed superheater surface deficient in
large number units. Possibilities Design liquor analysis high values
FEGT correlation high
Excessive Cl in black liquor and ash
Avoid corrosion
10
Effect of Liquor Elemental Analysis

and High Heat Value on Design
Wide use of a Standard Analysis
Example of impact on superheater
92% of heat input (steam flow)
22-28C decrease FEGT
10% less radiation heat flow
84% of gas flow
92% of heat input (steam flow)
Insufficient superheater surface
11
Attemperator Spray Water Source

Alternatives
Sweetwater Condenser
Deaerator Storage
Consideration - Consistent high quality
Limitation
Condenser - <10% superheater
surface bypass
Condensate returns
12
Two-stage Attemperation
Benefits
TEMPERATURE
13
Superheater Temperature Profile at

Startup with Clean Surface
STEAM TEMPERATURE
14
Superheater Temperature Profile at

12 Months of Operation
STEAM TEMPERATURE
15
Tube Materials
SA213 T11(1 Cr-Mo) & T12(1Cr-Mo)
SA213 T22 (2 1/4 Cr-1Mo)

Type 310H and 347H
21st century composite materials from
Sandvik
310 (25Cr-20Ni) over SA213 T22
310 (25Cr-20Ni) over SA213 T91
Sanicro 28 (27Cr-31Ni) over SA213T22
Sanicro 28 over SA 213 T91
16
Superheater Design Steps

Calculate flows
Determine FEGT
CFD modeling
Nose arch profile
Furnace screen
Flow and temperature profile
Surface arrangement
17
Superheater Design Steps

(continued)
Surface arrangement
Steam velocity (P)
Tube wall spot temperature
Ash FMT/target Cl & K in Black Liquor
Material selection
Attemperator arrangement
Iteration/Optimization
18
Recommendations
Black liquor analysis realistic
Design calculations - surface for dirty
condition and metals for clean surface
CFD model of arrangement
Two stage attemperation
Sweetwater condenser for attemperator
spray water. Supplemental deA water
for startup with clean surface
19
Recommendations (Continued)
Specification of control load discouraged
Low temperature superheater totally
parallel surface
Single tube material and thickness for
each bank
20

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Investigation of Recovery Boiler Superheater Design and Performance Part 1

Alabama River Pulp

Alstom Power (CE and ABB)

Obstacle to Progress Superheaters Deficient in Design Steam Temperature

High Heating Value, Btu/lb solids

Dry Flue Gas, lb/lb solids

Operating with a dry gas weight at 84% of the design value.

The effect was to

An Invitation to Corrosion - One More Obstacle to Progress

In 1987 an incident occurred that may have negatively influenced

An extensive corrosion investigation and measurement of tube

Figure 2 shows one of the test elements from a second test

First in 1962 which led to increasing metal

Each element had tubes of the following three materials.

Oji Paper Co.,Ltd.

Nippon Paper Ind. Co. Ltd.

Daio Paper Corp

Oji Paper Co. Ltd.

Oji Paper Co. Ltd.

Taiko Paper Mfg. Co. Ltd.

Nippon Paper Ind. Co. Ltd.

Tokai Pulp Co. Ltd.

Mitsubishi Paper Mills Lrd..

Hokuetsu Paper Mills Ltd.

Oji Paper Co. Ltd.

Nagoya Pulp Co. Ltd.

Chuetsu Pulp & Paper Co. Ltd.

Oji Paper Co. Ltd.

Hyogo Pulp Industries Co. Ltd.

Daio Paper Corp.

Oji Paper Co. Ltd.

Hokuetsu Paper Mills Ltd.

Chuetsu Pulp & Paper Co. Ltd.

Nippon Paper Ind. Co. Ltd. l

Oji Paper Co. Ltd.

Hokuetsu Paper Mills Ltd.

* MHI: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries

KHI Kawasaki Heavy Industries

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. Experience

Operation with low SO2.

The bends showed no evidence of overheating. Corrosion

Design solids, metric ton/day

Dry solids concentration, %

Design steam generation, t/h

Some observations can be made from the information in Table VII.

Sandvik 310 (25Cr-20Ni) over SA213 T22 (2 1/4Cr-1Mo)

Figure 6 Single Stage

With two stages of attemperation,

Tube Ties / Support

Figure8 Example of CommonArrangementofSuperheaterBanks

One arrangement providing

Investigation of Superheater Design

2009 TAPPI EPE Conference

Studies for AF&PA Recovery Boiler

Investigation for the Relationship Between Furnace

Study Presented in Two Parts

Part 1 Focus on Learning from the

Experience with High Pressure and

1st at 500C (932F)

1st at 515C (959F)

1990 -2008 7 more MHI boilers at

High Temperature Boilers in

High Temperature Boilers in

Effect of Liquor Elemental Analysis