TRANSISTORS

AND
AMPLIFIERS

I. TRANSISTOR FUNDAMENTALS
Transistor
Developed in December 23, 1947
in Bell Laboratories
By John Bardeen, William Shockley,
and Walter Brattain
Basically a resistor that amplifies
electrical impulses as they are
from its input to its output
terminals

Basic Types

1. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

It is a three layer semiconductor
device consisting of either two Ntype and one P-type layers of
materials or two P-type and one Ntype layers of semiconductor
materials.

Three Regions of BJT

Base

Region to which carriers flow from

emitter to collector.
1017 dopants/ cm3
Moderately doped

Three Regions of BJT

Emitter

Region from which carriers flow

1019 dopants/ cm3
Heavily doped

Three Regions of BJT

Collector

Region to which carriers flow

1015 dopants/ cm3
Lightly doped
Largest

BJT Structure and Construction

Metal contacts

Emitter
Base

Collector
Substrate

Epitaxial Planar Structure

BJT Structure and Construction

base

collector

collector

n
p

p
base

emitter

emitter

npn-type

pnp-type

Transistor Currents and Configuration

Common Base
Configuration
Vi
Vo
E
C
In this circuit, the
input
signal
is
applied
at
the
emitter, the output
is taken at the
collector and the
base is the common
terminal.
This has very low
input impedance.

Ie

RE

VEE

Ic

RC

VCC

Transistor Currents and Configuration

Alpha

( )

In the dc mode, the levels of IC and IE due to

majority carriers are related by a quantity called
alpha and defined by the following equation:

Ic
=
Ie

Transistor Currents and Configuration

Common Emitter
Configuration
Ic
The input is applied to
Vi
the base, the amplified
output is taken from the
collector
and
the
emitter is the common R
B
terminal.
The circuit is the one
generally
used
for
transistors because this
has
the
best
combination of current
and voltage gains.

Ib

Ie

Vo
RE

VBB

Ie = Ib + Ic

VCC

Transistor Currents and Configuration

Beta

( )

the ratio of collector current to the base current .

Ic
=
Ib

Transistor Currents and Configuration

Common Collector

Configuration
This circuit has the
input applied to the
base, the output taken
at the emitter terminal
and the collector is the
common terminal.
Impedance matching.

Vi

Ic

Ib
Ie

Vo

RB
RE
VBB

VCC

Transistor Currents and Configuration

Gamma

()

the ratio of collector current to the base current .

Ie
=
Ib

Comparison of Amplifier Configurations

Characteristic

Common Base

Common
Emitter

Common
Collector

Power Gain

moderate

highest

moderate

Voltage Gain

highest

moderate

less than 1

Current Gain

lowest than1

moderate

highest

Input
Impedance

lowest

moderate

highest

Output
Impedance

highest

moderate

highest

Phase
Inversion

none

180o out of
phase

none

Application

RF amplifier

universal

isolation

Transistor Biasing
Bias
An electrical, mechanical or magnetic force
applied to a device to establish a desired
electrical or mechanical reference level for its
operation.
Is a DC voltage or current that sets the
operating point for amplifying the AC signal

Transistor Biasing
Fixed Bias
Is taken from a battery or power supply
VCC
RB
Vi

RC
Vo
C

Transistor Biasing
Self Bias
The amplifier produces its own DC voltage from
an IR drop across a resistor in the return circuit
of the common terminal.
Self bias is probably the type of bias used most
often because it is economical and has stabilizing
effect on the DC level of the output current.
Can be emitter stabilized or collector stabilized.

Transistor Biasing
Self Bias
VCC
RB

RC
Vo

Vi

C
C
RE

Emitter
Stabilized

Transistor Biasing
Self Bias
VCC
RB

RC
Vo

Vi

Collector
Stabilized

Transistor Biasing
Voltage-Divider Bias
The most stable type of circuit biasing.

VCC
RC

RL

Vo

Vi

C
C
R2

RE

Transistor Biasing
Signal Bias
VCC
RC
RB

Vo

RE

Regions of Transistor Action

LOADLINE

IB

VCC

IB

RL
SATURATION

ACTIVE

IB
IB

Q-POINT

BREAKDOWN

IC

IB
CUT- OFF

VCC

VCE

Regions of Transistor Action

Active region
Base-emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector-base junction is reversed biased.
Transistors active operation as an amplifier.
Saturation region
Both junctions are forward biased.
Switch on operation for the transistor.

Cut off region

Both junctions are reverse biased.
Switch off operation for the transistor.

Loadline and Q-Point

Loadline
- Is a straight line drawn on the collector

curves between the cut-off and saturation

points of the transistor.

Q-point

(Quiescent point )

- Is the operating point of the transistor with

the time varying sources out of the circuit.

Review Question:
Given the circuit below, draw the DC loadline
1K
10K

Ic
25 mA

VCC = 25V
DC Loadline
VBB = 3V

VCE
25 V

Analysis: At cut-off, IC = 0 thus VCE = VCC

At saturation, VCE = 0 thus IC = VCC / RC

BJT Small Signal Analysis

Ii

Io
hi
hi Ii

Vi

hr Vo

hi

Transistor Hybrid Equivalent Circuit

Vo

BJT Small Signal Analysis

H - Parameters
1.

hi short circuit input impedance

Vi

hi =

(Vo = 0)

Ii

2. hr open circuit reverse voltage gain (voltage

feedback
ratio)

hr =

Vi

Vo

(Ii = 0)

BJT Small Signal Analysis

H - Parameters
3.

hf short circuit forward current gain

hf =

Io

(Vo = 0)

Ii

4. ho open circuit output admittance

ho =

Io

Vo

(Ii = 0)

2. Field Effect Transistor (FET)

Unipolar device because they operate
only with one type of charge carrier.
Voltage controlled device where the
voltage between two of the terminals
(gate and source) controls the current
through the device.
Major feature is very high input
resistance.

a. Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

Operates with a reverse-biased PN junction to
control current in the channel .
Square law device because of the relation of ID
and VGS

ID = IDSS 1 -

VGS
VGS(OFF)

JFET/ D-MOSFET transfer

characteristics

 can be n-channel or p-channel

n-channel

gate

gate

source

p-channel

drain

drain

source
D

S
n-channel

Types of
JFET, its
structure
and
parts

D
S
p-channel

JFET
Symbol

Operation of JFET
JFET is always operated with the gatesource PN junction reversed biased.
Reverse biasing of the gate source
junction with the negative voltage
produces a depletion region along the PN
junction which extends into the n-channel
and thus increases its resistance by
restricting the channel width as shown in
the preceding figure.

Operation of JFET

gate

VG
S

source

n-channel

drain

VDS
p

Pinch off Region

Vp pinch off voltage

Breakdown Region

Ohmic Region

Operation of JFET

Va avalanche breakdown
voltage

DC Biasing for JFET

1. Fixed Bias
- a separate power source.
VDD +
RL
ID

Vin
RG

VGG -

VGS +

DC Biasing for JFET

2. Self Bias
VDD +
RL

ID

Vin

VGS
RG

+
RS

VS

DC Biasing for JFET

3. Source Bias
VDD +
RL

ID

Vin

VGS +
RG

RS

VSS -

DC Biasing for JFET

4. Voltage Divider

VDD +

R1

RL

ID

Vin

VGS +
R2

VS

RS

b. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field

Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

Second category of the field effect

transistor
Because of the presence of an insulated
gate, then it is sometimes called IGFETs
MOSFETs differs from JFET in that it has
no PN junction structure.
It has two basic types: D MOSFET and
E - MOSFET

Depletion MOSFET (D - MOSFET)

The

drain and source are diffused into

substrate material and connected by a
narrow channel adjacent to the insulated
gate
It can be operated two in modes, the
depletion mode or the enhancement mode
and
sometimes
called
depletion/enhancement mode MOSFET

Depletion MOSFET (D - MOSFET)

It

can be operated with a zero, positive or

negative gate-source voltage.
Normally operated in the depletion mode.
When configured as switch, it is normallyon.

D
SiO2

D
n-channel

SiO2

p-channel

G
n-substrate

p-substrate
S

S
drain

gate

drain

gate
source

n-channel D-MOSFET

source

p-channel D-MOSFET

Depletion Mode
Negative gate to
source voltage is
applied
n-channel is depleted
of some electrons
hence
decreasing
channel conductivity.

Enhancement
Mode
Positive gate voltage
is applied.
More conduction
electrons are
attracted to the
channel thus
enhancing channel
conductivity.

Enhancement MOSFET (E - MOSFET)

Operates only in the enhancement mode
Has no depletion mode
It has no structural channel
It has no IDSS parameter
For an n-channel type of this device, a positive
gate voltage above threshold induces a channel
by creating a layer of negative charges (inversion
layer) in the substrate portion that is adjacent to
the SiO2 layer.

Enhancement MOSFET (E - MOSFET)

An n-channel E-MOSFET has a positive VGS while a pchannel E-MOSFET has a negative VGS.
The conductivity of its channel is enhanced by
increasing the gate to source voltage.
For gate voltage below the threshold, there is no
channel to be formed.
If configured as switch, this device is normally off
LD MOSFET, VMOSFET and TMOSFET are EMOSFET technologies developed for higher power
dissipation.

SiO2 n
p-substrate

n
S

No
permanent
channel

Basic construction

n
+ G
+ n
S

Operation

drain
gate

n-channel

Inversion
layer

drain
gate

source

p-channel

source

II. AMPLIFIERS
Electronic devices capable of amplification or
increasing the amplitude of power, current or
voltage at its output.
Circuits designed to increase the amplitude of
level of an electronic signal.
Used as boosters.

AMPLIFIER

input

output

Classification of Amplifier

1. According to Function
a.Voltage Amplifier
- Voltage controlled source
- Op-amps are voltage amplifier
b. Current Amplifier
- current controlled source
- BJTs are current amplifier
c. Power Amplifier
- Boost the power level of the signal

Classification of Amplifier
2. According to Configuration
a. Common Base Amplifier
- Transistor amplifier where input is
applied at the emitter and output is
taken from the collector terminal.
- The base is common to both input
and output.
- maximum current gain is 1
- No phase inversion from input to
output .

Classification of Amplifier
2. According to Configuration
b. Common Collector Amplifier (emitter
follower)
- Transistor amplifier where input is
applied at the base, output is taken from
the emitter terminal.
- Maximum voltage gain is 1.
- Capacitors must have a negligible
reactance at the frequency of operation.
- No phase inversion from input to output.

Classification of Amplifier
2. According to Configuration
c. Common Emitter Amplifier
- Transistor amplifier wherein the input
is applied at the base and the output
is taken from the collector terminal.
- There is a phase inversion from input
to output.

Classification of Amplifier
3. According to Class of Operation
Efficiency

Class A

Class B

Class C

Class AB

50 %

78.5 %

100 %

Between A &
B

Below
360O

Slightly
greater than
180O

Conduction
Angle

360O

180O

Distortion

Low

High

Bias (Base

Linear
portion

Above
Cut-off

Below
Cut-off

Cut-off

Output

Output

Output

Emitter)

Input

Output

Extreme Moderate

Classification of Amplifier
4. According to Frequency
a. DC Amplifier
- amplifies DC signal.
b. Audio Amplifier
- amplifies signal whose frequency is
within the audio range (20 Hz 20 KHz).
c. RF Amplifier
- amplifies signal whose frequency is
within the radio frequency range.

Classification of Amplifier
4. According to Frequency
d. IF Amplifier
- amplifies signal whose frequency is in
between the carrier and the modulating
frequency.
e.Video Amplifier
- a wide band amplifier that amplifies
video signal.
- video signal refers to the frequency range of
the picture information which arises
from the television scanning process.

Classification of Amplifier

5. According to the signal being amplified

a. Small Signal Amplifiers
- Amplifier that utilizes only the very
linear portion of the
b. Large Signal Amplifiers
- Amplifier that utilizes almmost the full
rated output power

Classification of Amplifier

6. According to method of coupling

a. Direct Coupling
- Amplifiers connected or coupled
without any passive
b. Capacitive Coupling
- Amplifiers are connected or coupled
by the used

Classification of Amplifier

6. According to method of coupling

c. Inductive Coupling
- Amplifiers are connected or coupled
by the use of inductor transformer.
d.Transformer Coupling
- Most often, inductor is not used as
coupling device instead transformer is
used.

Classification of Amplifier

7. Power Amplifiers
a. Push-Pull Amplifiers
- Amplifier with two similar circuits
operating in phase.
- On amplifies the half of the cycle and
the remaining half is being amplified by
the other amplifier.

Classification of Amplifier

7. Power Amplifiers
b. Complementary-Symmetry Amplifiers
- Push-pull amplifiers using complementary
transistors such as pair of pnp and npn.
c. Quasi-Complementary Amplifiers
- Push-pull amplifiers using the same
transistors at the output but the driver is
using complementary transistors.

Compound Configurations
a. Cascade Connection
- a cascade connection is a series
connection with the output of one stage
then applied as input to the second stage.
- The cascade connection provides a
multiplication of the gain of each stage for a
larger overall gain.

AV = AV1AV2AV3AVn

AV(dB) = 20Log(AV)

Compound Configurations
b. Cascode Connection
- a cascode connection has one transistor on
top of (in series with) another.
- This arrangement is design to provide high
input impedance with low voltage gain to
ensure that the input Miller capacitance is
minimum.

Compound Configurations

c. Darlington Connection
- The main feature of Darlington connection
is that the composite transistor acts as a
single unit with a current gain that is the
product of the current gains of the individual
transistors.
- It is a circuit meant to boost input
resistance.

Compound Configurations

c. Darlington Connection

1
D = 1 2

Compound Configurations

d. Feedback Pair
- The feedback pair connection is a two
transistor circuit that operates like the
Darlington circuit.
- It uses a pnp transistor driving an npn
transistor.