Fundamentals of Metal

Forming
1. Overview
2. Material Behavior
3. Temperature Effects
4. Strain Rate Effect
5. Friction and Lubrication

Introduction
Metal Forming uses plastic deformation to
change the shape of metal workpieces
Materials (metals) plastic deformation
External loads Typically compressive
Sometimes Stretch the metal (tensile), bend the metal
(tensile and compressive), shear stresses

Shape - die and tools

Classification
Bulk Deformation
Sheet Metal Forming High surface area-to-volume
ratio
Parts are called stampings
Usual tooling: punch and die
2

Introduction

Bulk Deformation
Process

Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Drawing

+
F

Sheet metal forming

v
F
v

RAM

Bending
Drawing
Shearing
(Stamping)
3

Forging Sequence of Part and Die

Material Properties in Forming

Desirable material properties:
Yield strength ?
Ductility ?
Second phase or Inclusion ?

These properties are affected by temperature:

When work temperature is raised, ductility increases
and yield strength decreases while loosing on
surface finish and dimension accuracy.

Other factors:
Strain rate and friction
5

Theories of Failure
The limit of the stress state on a material
Ductile Materials - Yielding
Brittle Materials - Fracture

In a tensile test, Yield or Failure Strength

of a material.
In a multiaxial state of stress, how do we
use Yield or Failure Strength?

Yielding: Ductile Materials

A. Maximum Shear Stress Theory
(Tresca Criterion)
In a tension specimen: max = S y

max

The diameter of the Mohr circle =

Sy

For Plane Stress: 1 = S y

(3=0)
2 = Sy

1, 2 have same signs.

Sy

1 2 = S y 1, 2 have opposite
signs.
7

Ductile Materials
B. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (von Mises Criterion)

For the three principal stresses;

u=

1
[ 11 + 2 2 + 3 3 ] = 1 12 + 22 + 32 2 ( 1 2 + 3 2 + 1 3 )
2
2E

After taken out the hydrostatic stress (ave=(1+2+3)/3)

Now substitute 1, 2 and 3 with ( 1 ave ), ( 2 ave ), ( 3 ave )
1 + 2
[
1 1 2 + 22 ]
For plane stress; ud =
3E
2
ud =

1 + 2
S y in an uniaxial tension test.
3E

In a biaxial case, the same amount of distortion energy

1 + 2
1 + 2
Sy
1 1 2 + 22 =
3E
3E

12 1 2 + 22 = S y 2

A
1

Plasticity
Flow theory (Classical theory)
The current strain rates depend on the stress.

Deformation theory (Hencky theory)

The total strain is related to the stress.
Ideal for nonlinear elasticity
Still work for monotonically increasing stresses
everywhere in a body

Pressure-independent Hydrostatic pressure

does not affect dislocation motion.
Bauschinger effect
The different behaviors in tension and compression
9

Stress Representation
General 3-D Stress

Plane Stress

xz
x

xy

yz
y

Tensor Notation

x xy xz 11 12 13

=
xy
y
yz
ij
21
22
23

xz yz z 31 32 33

xy

x
x xy

xy y
0
0

0 = ij
0

10

Stress Transformation (Plane Stress)

x' =

x + y
2

x' y' =
y' =
x' + y' =

x'y' +

x + y

2
x' y'

x y
2

x y

x + y

cos2 + xy sin2

sin2 + xy cos2

x y

x y
2

cos2 xy sin2

cos2 + xy sin2 +

x + y
2

x y
2

cos2 xy sin2 = x + y

x + y x y
x y
2
x + y x y
=
+
cos2 + xy sin2

cos2 xy sin2 +
sin2 + xy cos2
2
2
2
2

2 x y
2
x + y 2 x y
=
cos2 + xy sin2 +
sin2 + xy cos2
+
2

2 2
2 x y
2
x + y 2 x y
=
cos2 + xy sin2 +
sin2 + xy cos2

2

2 2
= xy + xy2

11

Yield function in 3D
Stress Tensor :

[ ]= ['
ij

ij

+m ij

where 'ij = DeviatoricStress Tensor,

1
( + + 3 ) = Hydrostatic Component of Stress
3 1 2
ij = 1 for i = j

m =

Three Stress Invariants

3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 = 0

0 for i j

where I1 = x + y + z = 1 + 2 + 3

Three Deviatoric Stress Invariants

'3 J1 '2 J 2 ' J 3 = 0

I 2 = ( x y + y z + x z ) + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx

where J1 = 0

= ( 1 2 + 3 2 + 3 1 )

J 2 = ( '1 '2 + '3 '2 + '3 '1 )

J 3 = 'x ' y 'z

I 3 = x y z + 2 xy yz xz x yz2 y xz2 z xy2

= 1 2 3

( )

Yield function: f ij = f ( I ) = f (I1 , I 2 , I 3 ) = f ( J 2 , J 3 ) = C

12

Example: Stresses in 3D
[ ]
ij

11 21 31 x yx zx

= 12 22 32 = xy y zy
13 23 33 xz yz z

To find Principal Stresses:

[ ] =
ij

5
1
1

5 1 1
MPa
1 4
0

1 0
4
1
1 n1
4
0 n 2 = 0
0
4 n 3

x
z

(5 )(4 )2 (4 ) (4 ) =
= (4 )(3 )(6 ) = 0
3 13 2 + 54 72 = 0
1 = 3 MPa, 2 = 4 MPa and 3 = 6 MPa
I 1 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 13 ,
I 2 = ( 1 2 + 3 2 + 3 1 ) = (12 + 24 + 18 ) = 54 and
13
I 3 = 1 2 3 = 72

Example: Continue
Deviatoric Stress
5 1 1
ij = 1 4 0 MPa
1
1
0.67 '

1
1 0 4
0
.
33
'
0

1
0
0.33 '
13 = 3, 4 & 6MPa
(0.33 + ' ) 2 (0.67 ' ) + 2(0.33 + ' ) = 0
1
1
m = (5 + 4 + 4 ) = (3 + 4 + 6) = 4.33MPa
20 1

3
3
(0.33 + ' ) + ' '2 = 0
[ ij ] = [ 'ij + m ij ]
9 3

[ ]

0
0
5 1 1 4.33
'ij = 1 4 0 0 4.33 0
1 0 4 0
0
4.33
1
1
0.67
0
= 1 0.33
1
0
0.33

0.74 + 2.33 ' '3 = 0

J1 = 0; J 2 = 2.33; J 3 = 0.74

14

Presentation of Yield Surface

(

Max. Shear Stress Theory: f 1, 2,3 = 1 3 = C

f ( J 2 , J 3 ) = 4 J 23 27 J 32 36k 2 J 22 + 96k 4 J 2 64k 6 = C

Sy

Maximum Distortion Energy Theory: f ( J 2 , J 3 ) = J 2 = k 2 = C

1
2
2
2
f ( 1, 2,3 ) = J 2 = ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) = C
6

Sy

2
Sy

Max. Shear Stress Theory

Sy

Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

Based on uniaxial yielding: 1 = , 2 = 3 = 0

f ( 1, 2,3 ) = 1 3 = C
Sy = C

f (J 2 , J 3 ) = J 2 =
C=

1 2
+ 2 = C;
6

S y2

3
3
For shear: 1 = , 2 = , 3 = 0

f ( 1, 2,3 ) = 2 = C = S y ;

Sy
2

f (J 2 , J 3 ) = J 2 =

1
4 2 + 2 + 2 = C ;
6

Sy
3

15

Plasticity

S`Y
SY

3
2

Bauschinger effect
SY

Isotropic
hardening

S<SY
1

( ) = 0
Elastic State: f ( ) < 0
Impossible: f ( ) > 0
Plastic State: f

df =

ij

Loading: f ( ij ) = C ,

f
ij > 0
ij

ij

Unloading: f ( ij ) = C ,

df =

f
ij < 0
ij

f ( ij ) = C ,

df =

f
ij = 0
ij

ij

Neutral:

16

Isotropic Hardening

Strain Hardening
Kinematics Hardening

Convexity
Normality Rule:

d ij = d

f
ij

17

Combined Hardening

General Hardening

2. Behavior in Metal Forming

The stress-strain relationship beyond elastic range
assuming no unloading at anytime and anywhere.

= K n
Flow stress The instantaneous value of stress required
to continue deforming the material. Y f = K n
Average Flow Stress
Yf =

K n d

For any metal, K and n in

the flow curve depend
on temperature

K f n
1+ n

Yf
Yf

Ys

18

3. Temperature in Metal Forming

Cold Working Performed at room
temperature or slightly above

Near net shape or net shape

Better accuracy, closer tolerances & surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product
No heating of work required
Higher forces and power required
Surfaces must be free of scale and dirt
Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of
forming
19

Warm Working
Performed at above room temperature but below
recrystallization temperature
0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute
temperature)
Lower forces and power than in cold working
More intricate work geometries possible
Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated

Isothermal Forming eliminate surface cooling

especially highly alloyed steels and Ti and Ni
alloys
20

Hot Working
Deformation process at temperatures above
recrystallization temperature (0.5Tm)
A perfectly plastic material - Strain hardening
exponent is zero (theoretically)

Lower forces and power required

Metals become ductile
Strength properties are generally isotropic
No work hardening of part
part can be subsequently cold formed
Lower dimensional accuracy
Higher total energy required
Poorer surface finish including oxidation (scale),
Shorter tool life

21

4. Effect of Strain Rate

Sensitive to strain-rate at elevated temperatures

v
&
Strain rate: =
h
Relationship: Y f = C& m
A more complete relationship: Y f = A n& m
Evaluation of strain rate is complicated by
Workpart geometry
Variations in strain rate on the part

Strain rate can reach 1000 s-1 or more for some

metal forming operations
22

Effect of temperature on flow

stress
Yf

Yf

Yf

Room Temperature

400C

800C

1200C

1.0

2.0

3.0

&

0.1

10

100 &

0.1

10

100 &

Increasing temperature decreases C & increases m

At room temperature, effect of strain rate is almost negligible
23

5. Friction and Lubrication

Friction retard metal flow and increase power and wear
Categories

Temp. Range

Strain-rate
Sensitivity exponent

Coefficient of
Friction

Cold Working

<0.3Tm

0<m<0.05

0.1

Warm Working

0.3Tm-0.5Tm

0.05<m<0.1

0.2

Hot Working

0.5Tm-0.75Tm

0.05<m<0.4

0.4-0.5

Lubrication reduce friction & heat, improve surface finish

Choosing a Lubricant Type of operation, reactivity, work
materials, cost and ease of applications
Cold working mineral oil, fats, fatty oils, water-based emulsions,
soaps and coating
Hot working mineral oil, graphite and glass
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