Methods of production of metallic foams

Wspczesne metody wytwarzania

pian metalicznych
ANNA M. STRK

Abstract: This paper discusses manufacturing methods of metal foams. The introduction briefly presents a division
of porous metallic materials and an overall classification of methods for their production, with particular emphasis on
methods leading to produce foam structures. The main part of the paper describes production techniques in detail.
The paper also includes information on difficulties and benefits of particular methods, as well as on the development
opportunities for manufacturing technologies of metallic foams.
Keywords: metallic foams, production of metallic foams, liquid phase metallurgy
Streszczenie: W artykule zaprezentowano wspczenie stosowane metody wytwarzania pian metalicznych. Przedstawiono
podzia porowatych materiaw metalicznych i ogln klasyfikacj metod ich produkcji, ze szczeglnym uwzgldnieniem
metod prowadzcych do wytworzenia pian. Omwiono take trudnoci i korzyci zwizane ze stosowaniem poszczeglnych
metod, a take kierunki rozwoju technologii wytwarzania pian metalicznych.
Sowa kluczowe: piany metaliczne, produkcja pian metalicznych, metody cieko-fazowe

Together with the rapid development of transportation industry the avid demand for new, light, yet
durable materials which hold desired performance
standards grows. Material engineers answer this
need with solutions like modern composites, innovative alloys, shield plates and cellular cores for sandwich panels, etc. One of the most investigated material groups in the automotive and aviation industry are
metal foams, due to their light weight and still good
structural properties. Technologists and scientists
continue to improve the existing or find alternative
ways for manufacturing these cellular metals so that
the production would be cheaper and/or would
enable tailoring material properties to the desired
levels. In the recent years vast and far-reaching advances in types of metal foams and their production
techniques have been made. It seems valuable then to
provide an up-to-date and possibly complete overview of the state of the art in production methods of
porous metals, including specific requirements for
metallic foams. The present article aims at this goal,
giving a brief classification of porous metallic media,
their manufacture routes with describing metal foams
with their production technologies in detail.

Classification of metal foams

Before the proper discussion of metal foams will
be started, it seems valuable to make an important
initial remark on adequate nomenclature, with the
account of the comments stated in [1]. The widest
term referring to the class of materials discussed in
the paper is multiphase materials, which is media conMgr in. Anna M. Strk Katedra Wytrzymaoci, Zmczenia Materiaw i Konstrukcji, Wydzia Inynierii Mechanicznej i Robotyki Akademii Grniczo-Hutniczej, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakw, e-mail: strek@agh.edu.pl.

36

sisting of a matrix and a dispersed phase. Depending

on the state of matter of each of the initial phases, the
resulting mixed material is classified as shown in
tab. I.
The term foam defines a material which is produced
by dispersing a gas in a liquid. In foams the gas inclusions are fully surrounded with (enclosed in)
the matrix phase and do not connect. Yet, if one lets
TABLE I. Mixture type due to the state of aggregation of its
components (adapted from [1])
Dispersed in:
gas
liquid

Gas

gas mixture

foam

Liquid

fog

Solid

smoke

emulsion
suspension
slurry

solid
cellular solid
solid foam
sponge
other
gel
embedded particles

the foamed matrix solidify and still preserve its morphology, we speak of a solid foam. The latter class is
a special case of materials called cellular solids.
Cellular solids are gases dispersed in a solid phase
and in contrast to the structure of foams, which is
conditioned by the minimum surface energy of the
dispersing liquid they can have almost any morphology, depending on the production mode. If the pores
of a cellular solid interconnect and form an open
network, the material is classified as a sponge. Hence,
what is commonly called a closed-cell metal foam is
actually a solid metal foam, while the often used term
an open-cell metal foam refers to a metal sponge.
In the present work the customary names are also
used, but with keeping in mind the actual multiphase
materials they relate to.
ROK WYD. LXXI ZESZYT 12/2012

General classification
of production methods
The focus of the article is on metal foams (and
their manufacturing methods) in the tight definitional
meaning, that is on materials commonly called
closed-cell metal foams. However, before moving to
the description of this specific section, it is worth to
outline how porous metals are produced in general
to indicate which techniques suit creation of (solid)
foams best.
Methods of production of cellular metals can be
divided in various ways; the most popular classification is done according to the state of matter in which
the metal is before the processing begins and is
referred here after [1]. Detailed list of methods, which
can be accounted to particular groups due to the state
of aggregation, is given in tab. II.
TABLE II. Methods of production of cellular metals due to the
initial state of aggregation of the metal (based on [1 4])
Metal form Methods of production of cellular
metals

Resulting
material

direct foaming with gas

direct foaming with blowing
agents
gasars
powder compact melting
ospray process

solid foam

casting

sponge

slurry foaming

solid foam
or sponge

gas entrapment
sintering of powders or fibres
processing around fillers
sintering of hollow spheres

sponge

extrusion of polymer/metal
mixtures

honeycombs

Vapour

vapour decomposition

hollow
sponge

Ions

electrochemical deposition

Liquid

Powdered
solid

Liquid phase methods

There are a couple of ways to produce gas bubbles
in the molten metal and receive foam in this way,
they include e.g. direct injection of gas into the melt
or adding a blowing agent [1 8]. The major problem,
common for all liquid phase methods, is that after
inserting or generating gas bubbles in the molten
metal, it is difficult to keep them in the volume.
Instead, due to gravitation, they tend to rise to the
melt surface or to join together to form gas spheres of
greater dimensions. What can keep them inside,
prevent from connecting and stabilise the mixture is
the increase of the molten metal viscosity. It can be
achieved by adding fine ceramic powders or alloying
elements, for example. The system consisting of the
molten metal and reinforcing particles is called a
metal-matrix composite (MMC).
Direct foaming with gas
A process scheme for this foaming method is
shown in fig. 1. First, viscosity is improved by addition
of silicon-carbide, aluminium-oxide or magnesiumoxide or other substances. The quality and quantity
of the additions is to be determined experimentally in
order to provide optimum mixing conditions. Too big
ROK WYD. LXXI ZESZYT 12/2012

Fig. 1. Direct foaming with gas

reinforcing particles would be difficult to mix and

too small would set too severely. Also, if the volume
fraction of the particles exceeded a certain value,
viscosity would be too high, while on the other
hand, not enough of them would cause the foam
morphology to remain unstable [5]. Typical ranges of
particle size and quantity of the additions can be
found in tab. III (as well as other characteristics due to
the foaming method).
The second step in direct foaming procedure is to
blow gas it can be air, nitrogen or argon into the
liquid; this can be obtained by rotating propellers or
vibrating nozzles. Both the rotating speed and vibration frequency (but not only them) influence the resulting foam structural characteristics - cell size, density, wall thickness. Next, the gas-liquid mixture is
pulled out of the vessel, where it initially had been
mixed, by a conveying belt. The foam, thanks to the
added carbides or oxides, is stable enough to keep
its morphology during and after being pulled out
and next it is left to cool down and solidify. The
processing allows for receiving foam sheets of any
length, width dependent on the initial vessel width
and thickness of about 10 cm.
The major advantage of this processing technique
is its lower cost compared to other methods and the
fact that the resulting product can have relatively large
dimensions. Also, low foam densities are counted to
the value of the method. On the other hand, disadvantages comprise irregular structure and high fracture of
reinforcing particles. Non-uniform foam morphology
is attributed to gravitation, causing gradient density,
and shearing forces produced during belt conveying
which in turn cause anisotropy. Also, machining
causes an adverse effect, leaving cells on the foam
surface open after cutting.
Direct foaming with blowing agents
General scheme of the processing for direct
foaming with blowing agents is given in Fig. 2. The
first step is similar as in the previous method, it consists in adding typically 1,5 wt.% calcium metal as
a substance that would secure enough viscosity [6].
The addition, due to several minutes long stirring,
forms calcium oxide, calcium-aluminium oxide and
even aluminium-calcium intermetallics. There are
many ways to improve stability of the melt, apart from
the addition of calcium. They include e.g.: creation of
alumina by bubbling gas mixtures (air, oxygen)
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TABLE III. Foam properties according to production methods (based on detail info from [1 13])

Examples

Foaming with
gas

Foaming with
blowing agents

Hydro, Cymat,
Alusion

Alporas

aluminium alloys
(e.g. AlSi10Mg,
Typical matrix AlSiC)
material

aluminium alloys
are most common
(e.g. AlCa(Ti),
AlCa5(Ti))

Gasars

Powder compact
melting

Spray
processing

Slurry foaming

alloys of
aluminium (e.g.
AlSi10, AlMg1Si06),
tin, copper
(e.g. AlCu4), zinc

variety of
metals and
alloys (e.g.
carbon steel,
CuSn6)

aluminium,
beryllium,
nickel, copper,
iron powders

0,2 1,1 g/cm3

70 90%

up to 60%

Foam-in-Al,
Alulight (Mepura)
nickel, copper,
magnesium,
aluminium,
steels, cobalt,
chromium and
others

Density g/cm3
3
3
or porosity % 0,069 0,54 g/cm 0,18 0,24 g/cm

5% 75%

Pore size

3 25 mm

2 10 mm

diameter:
10 m
10 mm,
length:
100 m
300 mm

Reinforcing
particles

10 20% vol.,
silicon carbide,
aluminium or
magnesium
oxides

1.5 wt.%, calcium,

other: powdered
alumina

Other
properties

wall thickness:
50 85 m
reinforcing
particle size:
5 20 m

reinforcing
particle size:
5 20 m

relative density
down to 7%

silicon or
managanese
oxides, BaCO3

pore
asymmetry
[length to
diameter]:
1 300

metal powder grain

size: 60 200 m

blowing agents:
e.g. aluminium
hydroxide,
hydrochloric
acid

choose processing parameters (the most important is

cooling rate) so that hydrogen does not escape from
the solidifying zone to the remaining liquid part of the
melt, but stays trapped to produce pores. The process
of pore growth can be seen in Fig. 3, along with typical pore characteristics in tab. III.

Fig. 2. Foaming with a blowing agent

through the melt or by adding powdered alumina.

Viscosity influences future cell diameter and foam
density in a way that has to be determined empirically.
In the second process stage, titanium hydride (TiH2)
is introduced to the melt as a blowing agent (1,6 wt.%
[6]). Due to hot temperature the hydride decomposes
and hydrogen gas is created initiating the desired
foaming process. Lastly, the vessel with the foamed
melt is cooled, the mixture solidifies and a large block
(e.g. 2000 mm 650 mm 450 mm) of solid foam is
obtained.
The great advantage of foaming with blowing
agents is that the resulting foams have a very
homogenous structure. Again, typical characteristics
of foams obtained by this route are summarised in
tab. III.
Gasars
Gasars are obtained on the route of temperature
control of an eutectic system [7]. First, a metal is
melted under high pressure in hydrogen atmosphere,
next, by cooling the mixture the system undergoes
eutectic transition. As the temperature is continuously
lowered, the metal gradually solidifies and hydrogen
near solidification plane forms bubbles. It is crucial to
38

Fig. 3. Pore growth in gasars

Gasars can be made of nickel, copper, magnesium,

aluminium, steels, cobalt, chromium and others. The
technique of production of this type of cellular solids
has to be developed still, because pores are uneven
and the effecting material is often not homogenous.
Powder compact melting
At the beginning of this production method, whose
scheme is in Fig. 4, metal powder has to be mixed
with a blowing agent (usually TiH2 or ZrH2) of corn size
of about 5 m [8]. The next step is to compact both
components to a semi-product; this can be achieved
for example by uniaxial or isostatic compression or
rod extrusion. At this point it is very important to use
a compacting method that would not leave any
residual porosity in the mixture. The following stage
of the process is to heat the system to a temperature
near the melting point of the matrix material, so that
the blowing agent decomposes creating gas bubbles
in the molten matrix.
The heating takes place in a furnace; the starting
mixture can be put there without any vessel and then
the produced foam is of an uneven, undefined shape.
ROK WYD. LXXI ZESZYT 12/2012

Fig. 4. Method scheme for foaming of compacts

Alternatively, the powder mixture may be put in a

form, and when the expansion process due to gas
formation has started, it can be relocated to a form
of a specific, even complicated shape in order to
obtain foam of this shape. Yet, as a consequence, the
material lacks homogeneity, the most inner part is the
most porous one, while the outer layer is a closed
skin. However, the great advantage is that the foam
may be formed to a desired shape. Another favour of
this method is that the foam can be attributed to a
shield plate in sandwich panels directly at the stage of
heating: one has just to apply the starting mixture on
a metal sheet of higher melting point and the heat the
system up; metallic bonds between the shield and the
core will be created.
Metals that can be foamed in this way comprise
aluminium and its alloys, tin, zinc, brass, lead, gold,
and other.
Ospray process
Metallic melt is atomised and continuously sprayed
onto a substrate, where the droplets gather and grow
to form a deposit. Powdered carbides or oxides may
be added to the sprayed metal and embed together
with the metallic drops creating in this way an MMC
deposit. The setting mixture temperature allows for
reactions which free gas from additions and therefore
pores are created. The expanding foam solidifies a
layer by layer, as consequent portions are being
sprayed, see Fig. 5. Even though a considerable
advantage of this method is that the deposit may have
optional cross-section shape (cylinder, tube, etc.)
and that its properties may be calibrated gradually
among the whole procedure of spraying (more/less or
different type of additions), the big disadvantage is
that the created foams are non-homogenous because
pores are highly irregular.

Powder metallurgy slurry foaming

This is the only method for solid metal substrate
which may lead to produce solid metal foams. A slurry
consisting of metal powders, blowing agents and reactive additives is prepared and undergoes mixing.
Next, elevated temperature and additives turn the
mixture viscous and gas is formed inside the slurry
causing it to expand. Stabilisation and drying of the
expanded pre-product prepares it for sintering, which
solidifies the foam. Some more specific information
can be found in tab. III.
ROK WYD. LXXI ZESZYT 12/2012

Fig. 5. Spray foaming process (based on [1])

Summary
Methods of foam production listed above involve
a lot of field for investigation and development,
starting from the material itself new metals or alloys
can be used as the matrix. Moreover, viscosity enhancing mechanisms are not yet fully understood.
The quantity and type of reinforcing particles influences structural characteristics (cell size, wall
thickness, etc.) of the resulting foam, as well as the
presence of the additions in the foam skeleton makes
solid metal foams rather composite foams than pure
metal porous materials. This fact in turn also leaves
potential for study and analysis. Moreover, processing
conditions like temperature control and its change
rate influence the final product characteristics. All
these factors make it a great and promising challenge
for technologists to calibrate them to obtain a constant-parameter product or be able to predict the
outcoming characteristics in detail.
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