Diamond and Silicon Dioxide (Silicon (IV) Oxide) 2)Carbon Dioxide has small molecules with each carbon forming a double bond with oxygen atoms whereas Silicon Dioxide forms giant lattice structures and forms single bonds with four oxygen atoms as a result, Carbon dioxide is a gas at room temperature (non polar molecules so only ID-ID) whereas Silicon Dioxide has high boiling and melting point. CO2 can dissolve in water but SiO2 cannot. 3)Concentration increasing conc. Speeds up reaction as particles are closer together so they collide more often, therefore more chances to react. 4)Pressure increasing pressure means partciles more close together so collide more often so more chances to react 5)Surface Area powdered better than lump as more particles come into contact with reactants which leads to faster reaction 6)Temperature more temperature means particles have more energy to react when they collide and also kinetic energy means moving faster so they collide more often. 7)Enthalpy profile shows the energy of reaction particles before, during and after they react if they overcome the activation enthalpy, bonds can break.
8)Activation enthalpy is the minimum amounts of
kinetic energy particles need in order to react (break the bonds to start the reaction). 9)If activation enthalpy is low, reaction happens more quickly. High temperature means a greater proportion of molecules will have the activation energy in order to react. 10) Catalysts lower activation enthalpy by providing an alternative path. This means more particles will react 11) Homogeneous catalysts are in the same state as the reactants and remain chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. 12) Homogeneous catalysts speed up the reaction by forming one or more intermediate compounds the products are then formed from the intermediate compounds. The activation enthalpy needed to form the intermediates (and form the products from the intermediates) is lower than that needed to make the products directly from the reactants. 13) Dynamic equilibrium is when rates of forward and backwards are the same therefore the number of products and the reactants being made are the same also this occurs in a closed system only. 14) Catalysts do not affect the position of equilibrium but they do result in equilibrium being reached faster.
15) Increasing concentration of reactant makes
more products and vice versa. 16) Increasing pressure (only affects gases) favors side with least number of moles/molecules. Therefore if product side has fewer moles then more products is produced. 17) Increasing temperature means equilibrium shifts in endothermic direction. Decreasing the temperature shifts in exothermic reaction. 18) Nitrogen: 78%, Oxygen 21%, Argon 1%, CO2: 0.035, varying amounts of water vapour. 19) Multiply percentage (x/100) by 10 000 to get x parts per million 20) Ozone layer is being destroyed by homogeneous catalysis chlorine free radicals are formed when CFCs are broken down by UV radiation. These free radicals are catalysts they react with Ozone to form an intermediate (ClO) and an oxygen molecule. Cl + O3 O2 + Clo Clo + O3 2O2 + Cl Therefore 2O3 becomes 3O2 where chlorine is the catalyst 21) Bonds between carbon and halogen atoms can be broken by ultraviolet radiation, also known as photo disassociation this bond is broken homolytically to create two free radicals
22) How easily the halogen bond is broken
depends on the halogen involved carbo-iodine bond is most likely to break and carbon-fluorine is least likely. This is because C-I bond has the lowest bond enthalpy whereas C-F has highest bond enthalpy. 23) British Antarctic Survey found ozone was thin in certain places compared to previous measurements. The decrease was to such a degree the scientists thought the measuring instruments must be faulty, but new instruments gave the same reading. Satellite that mapped ozone levels was programmed to treat measurements below certain value as errors so evidence ignored and overlooked. The data was published by B.A.S and re-examined to show hole existed 24) Evidence took time to collect scientists aware CFCs affected ozone and knew ozone was thinning. Took a while to prove this however. Many Antarctic expeditions and high altitude flights in spy plane and a lot of satellite data gathered for evidence to confirm hypothesis and rule out natural causes. 25) A single covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons. Between to atoms. Bond breaking (bond fission). Heterolytic fission where two different substances (cation and anion) formed (both electrons go to one atom). Homolytic fission where one electron goes to each two radicals produced (radicals are particles that have an unpaired electron, which makes them very reactive).
26) Initiation free radicals produced. Sunlight
provides enough energy for Cl-Cl to break, photo disassociation. Bond splits equally and one electron goes to each atom so each atom becomes highly reactive free radical and it has unpaired electron. 27) Propagation reactions free radicals are used up and created in a chain reaction. Cl attacks methane, which produced methyl free radical. CH3 then attacks another Cl2 molecule, creating new Cl, which attacks another, CH4 so chain reaction. 28) Termination free radicals completely gone. If two free radicals join, stable molecule produced. 29) Halogens react with alkanes in a photochemical reaction photochemical reactions are started by ultraviolet light. A hydrogen atom is substituted by chlorine or bromine and this is a free-radical substitution reaction. CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCL 30) CFCs are unreactive, non-flammable and harmless so useful for fire extinguishers, propellants in aerosols and coolant gas in fridges. 31) Hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) broken down in 10-20 years not as damaging to ozone layer as compared to CFCs 32) HFCs are broken down also and contain no chlorine so wont affect ozone layer however both HFCs and HCFCs are greenhouse gases, 1000x worse than C02. Most aerosols nowadays
have pump spray systems or nitrogen as
propellant and fridges use ammonia. CO2 is used to make foamed polymers. 33) Ozone is formed when O2 broken by UV radiation. O2 splits into free radicals or separate atoms the radicals then join with other oxygen molecules to form O3. O2 + HV O + O O2 + O O3 34) Ozone is also destroyed by UV radiation (reversing of reaction by UV) O3 + HV O2 + O 35) Ozone protects against UV radiation. The absorption of UV by Ozone prevents harmful UV radiation from getting to us, which can cause cancer. 36) Ozone occurs in troposphere due to effect of sunlight of nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons (naturally but also car engines and power stations) 37) Ozone can mix with solid particles of carbon etc. to form photochemical smog. 38) Ozone is toxic to humans, and can cause respiratory problems (asthma, lung problems etc.) 39) In order of increasing frequency and energy, Infrared, visible light then ultraviolet. Earths surface also absorbs radiation and is warmed it re-emits radiation, mostly as infrared however at a lower frequency than the sun as earth is much cooler than sun.
40) Infrared radiation makes some bonds vibrate
more. Only molecules of different atoms can absorb infrared radiation. This is because the polarities of the bonds change as they vibrate. 41) Gas molecules bonds have certain fixed vibrational energy levels. These are quantized, so bond energy can only jump from one level to the next. This means only frequencies of radiation corresponding to particular amounts of energy are absorbed. Different molecules absorb different frequencies of radiation. 42) E = HV 43) The electrons in molecules also have fixed energy levels. When ultraviolet radiation or visible light hit a molecule of gas the electrons can absorb the energy and jump up to the next energy level. Because energy needed for these jumps are quantized too, only specific frequencies are absorbed. 44) If enough energy is absorbed, bonds break, forming free radicals. 45) Sun emits electromagnetic radiation, mostly as visible light, UV radiation and infrared radiation. Most UV and infrared absorbed by atmospheric gases and some reflected back into space by clouds. The energy that reaches Earths surface is mainly visible light and UV. Some is reflected by shiny white surfaces whereas some is absorbed, causing earth to become warm. Earth then radiates energy back towards space as infrared radiation. Some gases in atmosphere
absorb this IR radiation and re-emit in all
directions, causing us to be warm. 46) In less detail, solar energy reaches mainly as visible and UV. Earth absorbs some of this energy, heats up and radiates IR. Certain gases in troposphere absorb some of this IR radiation (in the IR window). Absorption of IR by these gases increases vibrational energy of their bonds, the energy is transferred to other molecules by collisions, thus increasing their kinetic energy and raising the temperature. 47) Main greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide and methane. Their molecules absorb IR radiation to make the bonds in the molecules vibrate more. This extra vibrational energy is passed on to other molecules by collisions, which gives them more kinetic energy and so raising the overall temperature. 48) Higher the concentration of gas, more IR trapped therefore more global warming. Also how much radiation trapped by one molecule of gas (methane traps more than carbon dioxide) In order to control CO2 emissions increase photosynthesis, use less fossil fuels. Inject CO2 as liquid in deep ocean, store it deep underground, or react with metal oxides to form stable easily stored carbonate minerals such as calcium carbonate.