Chapter- 4

Central Asian emigrants in the Indian

subcontinents
SUFIS
Due to onslaught of the Mongols, empire In Central Asia
Shattered into pieces and the stronghold turned into the world
of strife and conflicts in 12th and 13th centuries A.D. India
served as an asylum during this period for the persecuted and
restless migrants. The migrants who came from Central Asia to
India were great scholars, Sufis, traders, poets, preachers and
artisans, who took refuge in a safer climate. Delhi started from
the point where Baghdad and Bukhara had left.
The advent of Islam in India was followed by that of
Sufism, the name given to the mystical, humanistic, rational
and spiritual movement in the religion founded by the Prophet
Muhammad (S.A.V.).
Mysticism in Islam as in other religions, is less a doctrine
than a certain mode of thinking, feeling and acting. It is an ort
or way to find out and attain God.
Sufis came to India from Central Asia and Iran. There.
mother tongue was Persian. They also knew Arabic very well.

311

Sufism was originally a practical system of religious

beliefs and not a speculative system. It was a system of thought
or action based on the noble ideals of human nature, holding
that man is capable of self fulfillment and of ethical conduct.l
The Sufi Saints arrived in India along with the Muslim
rulers. They assimilated a good deal of Indian thought and
tradition. At the same time the inhabitants of this country who
were already under the influence of the Bhakti Movement,
found and affinity of ideas and emotions in the teachings of the
Sufi Saints.
They consisted of most educated men, emotional writers
and poets in Central Asia, Iran and Eastern world.
Prof. S. H. Askari writes.
"The most important were Abutalib Makki, Abu Yazid
Bustami, Shahabuddin Suharwardi, Abdul Qadir Jilani, Ibn-iArabi, Al-Ghazali and Ali Huijwiri etc; they had already set a
pattern to the Sufi thought. Of these the last, popularly called
Data Ganj Bakhsh of Ghazna, ... his book kashful-Mahjub or
Revelation of the Hidden, translated by Nicholson, is the
1

Prof. S. H. Askari, Maktub and Malfuz Literature As a source of Sociopolitical History, Khuda Baksh Library, Patna, 1981 AD. p. 1.

312

earliest

compendium

containing

the

essentials

of Sufi

Principles and practices in Persian as al-Luma was the first of

its kind or the subject in Arabic language" .1
The court language of India during Sultanate period and
also during Mughals was Persian. The two language Persian
and Arabic played an important role in the sufi Literature.
Balkh in Mghanistan has been an important centre of the
Sufis. Sufism was deep-rooted in Balkh. A large number of
early Sufis like Abu Ishaq Ibrahim Balkhi, Abu Ali Shaqiq
Balkhi, Abdur Rahman Balkhi and Abu Abdullah Mohammad
ibn Fazl Balkh, all came from Balkh in Mghanistan. Amir
Khusrau Dehlawi originally belonged to Balkh. Maulana
Jalaluddin Rumi, a great Sufi poet was born at Balkhi. 2
There are three kinds of writings to study the Sufi
Religious thought in India.
(i) The books written by the Sufi Shaikhs.
(ii)

The malfuzat (Collections of the say1ngs of the

Shaikhs) and (iii) the maktubat (letters) written by the Shaiks.

1

Prof. S. H. Askari, P. 2.

Prof. S. A. H. Abidi, Sufism in India, Wishwa Prakashan, New Delhi, 1992

AD, P. 19-20.

313

A long list of the Sufis, such as Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti

(1143-1236), who was the founder of Chishti order in India,
came from Central Asia.
Kumras Amiri writes.
((S~oroo :~) ~ Jl.l:'l ~'

->:''

~~~ 01-.9~ ) d2i7~ e;:~"

->ts: ~fiy-u 0'->=' ~~ ~'Y -.9 0t.....l.? ->j ~'~..:' '->~ ~->~ 0~)
--.s-.9~ '->~ ~ 0:~'~ ~c,'l:' ct.1...J....... L>=' 0 1-.9~ :,1 ~ ...GJ,J:~

0 1j,.? ,, ->j

~ d 2j.r.~ e;:~ (Siy72.; ~ 0:~'~ ~~~'~..:'

->~ ~'>.'' :,1 '-> --s~ ~ '->-.9 .J..<.t ..5.->Y. 0 t.....l.? ->j -.9

..\..o

1 ~J'l:'

(Sy!~Uo ~_,k ~ -.9 0 1~ ~~ 1).;,7 -.9 ..GS~ ->j ~".i.e -.9 ~yT

) ~ -.9 ... ci.> Jl~~ -.9 ..4t ~j)-~ 0~

&

J:-.ro ~ .~IJ_;;

~l6)__9n '~. :' -.9 J..<.t ~' ~~-> ~~ -.9 J:fi. ~l:gl 0 \.:ik ->j JL.... o 0 1
l."JIJ ~l:i <S?-1-.9.> 1.> d 2i.7~ ti.......L..... -.9 J:Jfi --.s-.9~ <<~I,_}

Khawja Moinuddin Chishti completed his religious and

cultural duty in Ajmer and died.
Kumras Amiri writes.
~

-.9 ~~ '->LA0~:,t..... ~l:i -.9 ~w ~".i.e :,1 ~ ~ ~~~ ... "

'->lo~ u!J:I>.' 0GLJ........o ~-.9~ 04-?- ) oJ:J ~I ~ .>J ~~

:,1 ~ -.9 ~~>.'4 _}YA 0~ A ) ~ ct5: ~L.... o_p

4 -.9

) -WI 0LJ........o ~)L.. .J_J.)~ .>w'l:' ~ 0:-al,.o J~l ~.>J wl)_j-a

'-""' ,'rvf ul.*

'(.5"'-"->\J ":-'..~1 J u~.J ut~ (51.>,.,...:. ,..G..A ->..~ (.5"'-"->\J ":-'..~1 J u~.J 'iS->=-"1 .:.,JAJ.f.
.\\'\-\\A

314

c.s..>l5:Jl: j_,.;. ,)I ~IJS: ~ ,j~ T..>~ ~U:w .:,Lo,J Li ~ LJ:J.ll~ts ~

c.s..>k....!.l ,JI 0~ j;.IJ ,J LbJI-J.) .Lb-:,1-..9:1 ..>J .~I<G..J:.I~ c.s~<l:' ~ T .)j
: u.,......

uT,) I c.s I<G~ ,;:,) w~I ct.S: o J..<.t cG..J:. ,y (.5"'-"' )_g u~,)d.:'

~ ~ d.:' JY. ~ LJ:I

~ ~ -..9l Jlo$

-..9

J4 ..>j

wJI) ..>~ LJ:~I~ <l?-l_,.;.<l:' ~~ LJ:~IJJ4.. ~~ ~ c.s..>~

LJ:bJL..,..

Sheikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (1187-1236 AD), who

was the khalifa and successor of Shaikh Moinuddin Chishti.
Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj Shakar (1175-1265 AD), was the
khalifa and successor of Shaikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325 A.D), was the
Khalifa and successor of Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj Shakar.
Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi (d.1356-57 AD), the Khalifa
and successor of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.
Shaih Bahauddin Zakaria, Founder of Suharwardi order
in Multan.
Shaikh Hamiduddin Sufi (d. 1273 AD), the Khalifa of
Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti.
u<=> .WYf ul-* 'c..s""".J\j '7'JI J

u4.J

,ju~ <5I.;_,.!. .~ .;J c..s""".J\j '-:-'JI J

u4.J

<.S~I ..;;;..>-"~

""-" v

315

Mir Syed Ali Hamadani, the founder of Kubrawiyga order

in Kashmir.
Qazi

Hamiduddin Nagauri,

the

khalifa of Shaikh

Shahabuddin Suharwardi, the founder of Suharwardi order.

Makhdum Jahaniyan was a celebrated Suharwardi saint.
Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya Munairi, the disciple of Shaikh
Najibuddin Firdusi, the founder of Firdusi order.
Syed Mohammad Gesu Daraz, the khalifa of Shaikh
Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi.
Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi and their hundreds of
khalifas and disciples.
The Anis-ul-Arwah is the collection of the conversation of
Shaikh U sman Harooni, written by Shaikh Moinuddin Chishti
Ajmeri.
Dalil-ul-Arifin is the Malfuz of Shaikh Moinuddin Chishti,
written by Shaikh Qutbuddin Bhakhtiyar Kaki.
Fawaidus

Salikin

IS

the

conversation

of

Shaikh

Qutbuddin Bhakhtiyar Kaki, written by Shaikh Fariduddin

Gunj Shakar.

316

Rahatul Qulub is the collection of the conversation of

Shaikh

Fariduddin

Gunj

Shakar,

written

by

Shaikh

Nizamuddin Auliya.
The Asrarul Auliya, the sayings of Shaikh Fariduddin
Gunj Shakar, written by Shaikh Maulana Badr Ishaq.
The Afzalull Fawaid, the Malfuz of Shaikh Nizamuddin
Auliya, compiled by Amir Khusrau. Shaikh Nizamuqdin Auliya
and Chirgh-i-Delhi were the eminent personalities of the
I

_Chishti Order. Fawaid ul Fuad and the Khairul Majalis are the
reliable and authentic malfuzat.
The Kashful Mahjub and the Fawaid -ul- fuad are the
best source of information for the religious thought of the
Indian Medival Sufis, these, writings are of great historical
values. 1
Khairul Majalis is the sayings of Shaikh Nasiruddin
Chiragh-i-Delhi , compiled by Hamid Qalandar, the disciple of
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.

Dr. Mohd. Noor Nabi, Indo-Persian Sources for the Study of Sufism, IndoIranica, 1982, 35 No.3-4. P. 81.

317

Each and every Shaikhs of every order has a book full of

the teachings of Islamic thoughts.
Sufism is one of the most important branches of
philosophy and religion. India has been the cradle of Sufis and
Sannyasis from very ancient time. India has always been a
fertile soil for the Sufis and preachers. It has attracted a large
number of Sufis and preachers in different period of the
history.
The Sufis had to travel a long way from Central Asia and
Iran before coming over to India. The whole of India hummed
with Sufistic activities during 13th and 14th Century. The Sufi
monasteries developed as an institution. These Sufis were
highly educated and religious minded people. These Sufis
considered the propagation of Islam their sacred duty.
According to the Sufis the word is derived from Arabic
root 'Safa' (purity). The Sufi is one who keeps his heart pure
with God.l
They claim to have inherited their doctrines directly from
the teachings of the holy prophets.

R. A Nicholson, A Literary History ofthe Arabs, P. 228. London, 1956 AD.

318

Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani was one of great saints of the

13th century A.D. In the end of the 12th century A.D. and the

beginning of the 13th century A.D. two Sufi orders came into
being in Iran. One of them was called Soharvardiya and the
other kobraviya. The Soharvardiya order further got divided
into two sub-orders; one of them was called soharvardis of Iran
and the other Soharvardis of Multan. The spiritual guide of
both

the

orders

was

Shaikh Shahabuddin Mohammad

Soharvardi (d 632 A.H.). The

spiritua~

head of the kobraviya

order was Najmuddin Kubra.

Mter Najmuddin Kubra, his teachings were carried by his
disciple Mir Sayyed Ali Hamedani, the author of Zakhirat-ulMulook and Several other treaties on the various subject. 1
Mir Sayed Ali Hamadani kept himself detached from a
princely life and lived on the earnings that he had obtained by
making the arched head gear, called Taqia He traveled
Bukhara,

Badakhshan,

Turkistan,

Khottalan,

Syria,

Swarandip, Khata, Balkh and different other places in

Transoxiana.
1

Dr. Karim Najafi Barzegar, Intellectual movements during Timuri and

Safavid period, (1500-1700 A.D) Indian Bibliographies Bureau Delhi,
2005, P. 37-38.

319

Due to these traveling he could make many disciples.

Mir Syed Ali Hamadani in 1362 A.D, migrated to Kashmir
with his seven hundred disciples. Among them were craftsmen,
poets and doctors. 1
Mir Syed Ali Hamadani was among those Sufi Saints who
played an important role in transferring Persian language,
culture and Islamic theology to India, which created a great
impact on socio-cultural life of India.
Malik Mohammad quotes Khawja Moinduddin Chishti.
That,
"Tasawwuf or Sufism means scrupulously maintained
moral character and religious discipline, which one must
necessarily cultivate and observe towards all the creatures of
God in the interest of peace and happiness of mankind". 2
At first there was a great divergence between orthodox
Islam and mysticism but at a result of the efforts of Al-hujweri,
Al-ghazali, Hazrat Abdul Qadir Gilani and Shahabuddin
Seharwardi, a workable synthesis had been found between
1

Ali Asghar Hekmat, Az Ramadan ta Kashmir, Armaghan magazine, No.3,

1330, pp. 37-43.

Malik Mohammad, P. 161.

320

Sufism and orthodoxy. A distinctive Sufi theology was evolved,

which developed its own terminology, characteristic of practices
and instructions which the Sufis in India fully accepted. 1
The spread of Sufism in India was completed by the
middle of 14th century A.D. it came into the contact with the
Bhakti movement. The leaders of the Bhakti movement
attracted towards the Islamic monotheism.
In the Mughal period the greatest Chishti saint was
Shaikh Salim Chisti, deeply venerated by Akbar. Mter the
death of Salim Chishti in 1572 A.D the Chishti movement
decayed.
Sufism 1n India is the continuation of the system
emanated from the khanqahs and madrasas of Samarqand and
Bukhara. When the Sufis preached the doctrine of Islam in
India, it received ready response on account of two things.
First, the belief in one supreme God proved simple. Second, the
masses were fed up with the existing social and religious
condition. The social equality offered by Islam attracted the
masses.

W.D. Begg, the holy biography of Hazrat Khawaja Moinudding Chishti of

Ajmer, Ajmer, P. 13.

321

With the new faith they got a new life. The converts
brought their manners and customs with them. This led the
Hindu customs and manners into the Muslim ways of life. 1
Sufi met with Sadhus and had religious conversations.
The contact with them made the Sufis aware of the religious
values of the Hinduism.
Ishwari Prasad writes.
"Most famous order was the Chishtiya, which included
such men as Sheikh Moinuddin Chishti and Shaikh Nasiruddin
Chiragh-e-Delhi - and Shaikh Salim Chishti Fathehpur Sikri.
These saints exercised a profound influence on the state and
the society of this time and their teachings were appreciated by
the Hindus and the Muslims alike. The Qadri and the
Naqshbandi which tried to spread the light of the faith among
the people in whose midst they lived". 2
The immigrant Sufis and their followers brought over and
continued the best sufi traditions from outside into India,
spiritual fervor and devotion and piety, born of long contact
1

Mohd. Yahya Tamizi, Sufi Movements in eastern India, Idarah-iAdabiyate Delhi, 1992, P. 143.

Ishwari Prasad, Muslim Rule in India, P. 14.

322

and their experience of religious and mystic life. They forged

the link between the Irani, the Khurasani, the Turki and the
Indian Sufis.l
Sufism as a moral and spiritual way of life and as a
current of thought with universal appeal, found India an
exceptionally congenial ground for its growth and spread.
The contact between the Sufis and Sadhus in this country
has produced great impacts on Indian society. The khanqahs
played a significant role.
Yahya Tamizi Quotes K.A. Nizami,
"In a Khanqah there are more advantages for nov1ce.s
(murids) who come to take Sufi teachings from their murshid
(master). It is a training centre, for the mystics, a house for the
poor, a shelter for travelers, a place for free mixing with each
other for all including Muslims and non-Muslims and the rank
and file of the society. It is a common platform for all men.
Common penitence and sufferings drew out the noblest

Dr. J. N. Sarkar, A study of Sufism- 1st background and its syncretic

significance in Medieval India, Indo-Iranica, Voli 38, No- 1,2, 1985, P ..

323

qualities of their souls and made them understand what

Carlyle describes the divine significance of life" . 1
Yahya Tamizi further writes about the strict rules 1n
khanqahs,
"Strict discipline was maintained in the khanqahs and
elaborate rules were laid down for the guidance of the inmates
how to address the murshid (spiritual guide), how to sit and
wear dresses in khanqah, how and when go to sleep, how to
talk with companion, and how to deal with visitors and guest.
The Shaikh sternly dealt with those inmates, who were found
guilty of the slightest irregularity". 2
The early personalities of Chishti order were learned
people. This order got success in India because they new how to
adept itself into the conditions and customs. A spiritual value
of music was found which they introduced. A blending of
Iranian, Central Asia and Indian music started. Qawwali with
the spiritual music started getting acceptance.

K. A. Nizami, studies in Medieval Indian History and culture, Allahabad,

1966, PP. 83-84. Moh. Yahya Tamizi, Sufi movement in eastern India, PP.
149-50.

Yahya Tamizi, P. 150.

324

They kept themselves away from the kings and did not
mingled themselves in the state affairs. Liberal in their
outlook, never condemned the people of other religions rather
interacted with them and attracted them with their moral and
spiritual qualities. About the nature of Chishti Sufis and
specially khawja Moinuddin Chishti,
Malik Mohammad writes,
"Among the Chishti Sufis, Khawja Moinuddin was the
greatest lover of humanity and had profound sympathy for all
men. He could not see any one in pain. He told his disciples to
help the helpless, to fulfill the needs of the needy and feed the
hungry. The khawja's simple and ascetic life was an inspiration
to both Hindus and Muslims. Humanity was categorized to
lower and higher birth. Justice was not done to the lower
classes they were regarded as inferior by birth ...... khawja
treated all human beings alike. Even to this day, both Hindus
and Muslim throng his shrine in Ajmer. He was popularly
known as Khawja Gharib Nawaz".l
Each and every order of these Sufis had its Khanqahs,
which had great impact on Indian society. Regarding the
1

Malik Mohammad, P. 171.

325

condition of Hindu society in 12th century and the role of

Khanqahs, Yahya Tamizi writes,
"When Khanqahs were established in India, Hindu society
was pass1ng through one of the most critical phases of its
history. The caste-system had eaten into the very vitals of
Indian society and had rendered it invertebrate and rickety. In
the khanq ah the unassuming ways of the mystics, their broad
human sympathies, the classless atmosphere of the khanqahs
attracted the despised section of the Hindu society to their fold.
Since men belonging to different religions and speaking
different languages assembled in the khanqah ..... a common
lingua franca evolved there. The birth place of Urdu language
was, in fact the khanqah of the medieval Sufis. Besides, the
rise of the Bhakti movement in the 14th and the 15th centuries
may be traced back to the influence of the khanqahs" .1
Sufis loved all human beings because they were God's
creatures. These values brought by the Sufis made them
popular on India soil.
Dargahs and khanqahs were the centres of contacts with
different communities. Through the activities of Sufis saints in
1

Yahya Tamizi, P. 152; K. A. Nizami, P. 91-96.

326

these centres, the teachings of communal harmony was spread.

These centres were not only established in big towns but also in
the villages. These Sufis, from 12th century onwards, by their
tolerance and friendly spirit maintained communal harmony.
The Sufis absorbed the best of Islam and Hinduism and
developed a new sort of Sufi thought more Indian than foreign
in character. Sultans of Delhi saltanet and Mughals hold Sufis
in high esteem.
Sufism thrived and became wide - spread. Sufis friendly
and tolerant behavior retained the favour of both the
communities, Hindus and Muslims. They influenced the
peoples thought and sent the message of peace, love and
understanding. The legacy of Sufis in maintaining communal
harmony and infusing a spirit of solidarity in a country like
India, has a great role in making the secular fabric of this
nation.
Sufis came with religious and cultural tolerance, liberal
thinking and free way of life in India.
Sufis helped to shorten distance between the two
communities

and created the

harmony.

327

atmosphere

of communal

Dr. Tara Chand writes,

"The Hindus offered sweets at Muslim shrines, consulted
the Quran as an oracle, kept its copies to ward off evil influence
and celebrated Muslim feast, and the Muslims responded with
similar acts-All these were the charismatic influence of the
teachings of the Sufis" .1
The khanqahs of these Sufis also played an important role
in maintaining communal harmony in India. The khanqahs of
these Sufis were open for each and every members of the
society, irrespective of their religious, cultural and background.
The jogis were seen specially in the Jamaat khanas and
Khanqahs of Baba Farid Gunj Shakar, Hazrat Nizamuddin
Aulia and N asiruddin Chiragh Delhi . Their presence in the
khanqahs added to prestige of the Sufis among the Hindus. 2
Urs is the death anniversary of a departed pir. Urs is hold
in khanqahs on the fixed date. Disciples and murids of the pir
or the members of that particular order with the common
masses attend this ceremony in the khanqah or near the tomb
1

Dr. Tara Chand, Impact of Islam on Indian culture, Allahabad, 1946, P.

137.

Dr. Mansoor Alam, Contributions of Sufis to religious tolerance and

cultural synthesis, Indo-Iranica, vol.48, No.-1-4, 1995

328

of the pir. These ceremonies are celebrated in khanqahs, a sort

of fair is held and stall holders sells their goods, which has
developed as cultural institutions. Sufis and their thought has
given birth to a very wide range of mystic symbolism.
The Sufis contribution to same in India is overwhelming.
Amir Khusrau's music shows his love for his saint. The
qawwali performance is also called sama. Qawwal presents
mystical poetry is Persian, Urdu and Hindi.
"Dr Yusuf Hussain writes,
"In about all parts of the country the Sufis had
established

their

hospices

(khanqahs)

where

spiritual

congregations were held under the presidency of the mystic

preceptor (pir), who prescribed the mystic discipline for his
followers. Music was generally patronized in the khanqah of
the Chishti and Suharwardi orders and the Qawwals song
Persian songs, sometimes Hindi songs were also sung.
References to such musical congregations where Qawwali was
recited are found in the Akhbarul Akhyar, Badauni, ...... Haft
Aqlim and the other works on medieval Indian history". 1

Dr. Yusuf Hussain Khan, Islamic Culture, Vol. XXX, No. 3, 1956, P. 262;
Mohd. Y ahya Tamizi, P. 153.

329

Mughals and Rajputs generated an atmosphere of mutual

understanding among Hindus and Muslims. Akhbar introduced
the system of cooking food in a big deg. Hindus were appointed
in the management of dargah. 1
Malik Mohammad writes,
"Siyar-al-Arifin gives details which contain interesting
information about the dargah's role in the cultural integration
of the two major communities, Hindus and Muslims in India.
Visitors to the dargah in Ajmer included both Muslims and
Hindus who approached it, as they still do today, with different
spiritual, psychological and economic problems, and returned
in peace and filled with hope on account of their faith in the
barakat (blessings) of the dargah". 2
There has been a culture of paying visit to these tombs of
great Sufis, not only by the masses but also by the kings and
the Sultans. Muhammad bin Tuglaq and Akbar's name can be
taken in this regard. Muhammad bin Tuglaq visited the tomb
of Hazrat Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer and latter on Akbar, not
only visited the tomb of Hazrat Moinuddin Chishti but laid

Malik Mohammad, P. 206.

Ibid, P. 210.

330

foundation of a new city, Fatehpur Sikri in the memory of

Shaikh Salim Chishti. Akbar was so attached to Shaikh Salim
Chishti that he not only erected new buildings in Fatehpur
Sikri but transferred his capital from Agra.
These love and affection of the kings and Sultans towards
the Sufi saints also raised the popularity of dargahs among the
common masses.
These Sufi saints were consc1ous of Divine love. These
Sufis were the real pioneers of national integration. Sufis
helped in the development of different Indian languages like
Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali and other regional languages.
These Sufis spread Islam by appeal and the doctrine like
peace, equality and brotherhood.
In the khanqahs of Sufi saints like Shaikh Farid of
Ajodhan, Sayed Muhammad Gesu Daraz of Gulbarga, Shaikh
Ahmad Kha ttir of Ahmadabad, Rishi N uruddin of Kashmir and
others, views were exchanged between the Sufis and the Yogis
in a good atmosphere_!

Malik Mohammad, P. 237.

331

These Sufis contributed in their own way to the social and

cultural life of India.
Sufis and their thought, essentially a product of Islam,
which originated in Arab, made its contribution in developing
philosophical thoughts during medieval period, reached the
zenith of its glory in Iran and Central Asia, made the
significant contribution is harmonizing the Indian society
culturally.

332

PREACHERS
The arrival of the people in India took place in three distinct
movements, First as a traders and preachers, second, with the
expanding wave of the U mayyads through Syr Darya up to
Indus and finally like the Greeks, the Shakas and the Huns,
the Central Asians, Iranians and Afghans, through their
organized immigration movement.
These arrival had a tremendous effect upon the sociOcultural life of India. The muslim conquerors, 12th century
onwards overrun the country from Punjab to Assam and from
Kashmir to the Vindhyas.
The Muslims started settling gradually on the Malabar
coast. They started acquiring lands and practicing their
religion. Gradually with their missionary efferts they spread
over the whole of the western coast of India.
The preachers and all these people who were practicing
Islam appeared with a simple formula of faith and democratic
formula of social organization.
Dr. Tarachand writes,

333

"The Musalmans made their advent in South India on the

western coast as early as the eighth century if not earlier and
in the 1Qth century on the eastern coast and they soon spread
over the whole coast and in a comparatively short time
acquired great influence both in politics and society. On the one
hand their leaders became ministers, admirals ambassadors
and farmers of revenue and on the other they made many
converts, propagated their religious ideas established mosques
. and erected tombs which became centres of their saints and
missionaries" .1
Mter the invasion of Ghanznavids, with several scholars,
artisans, poets, painters etc. Sufi preachers also came into
India in huge numbers. These preachers with their way of life
appealed the Indian mind.
Malik Mohammad writes,
"The mystical ideas of Islam and the Sufi way of life were
so appealing to the Indian mind that even the Hindu
Brahmans were not unaffected by their influence. It has been
observed that in the 15th and 16th centuries, some Brahmans
had taken to such heterodox ways of wearing a beard, walking
1

Dr. Tarachand, Influence oflslam on Indian culture, P. 34.

334

with a big stick, reading the Persian language and reciting the
Mathnawi. Muslim saints were in general, highly respected by
the non-Muslim and the Hindus often treated them with a deep
sense of trust and veneration. Same of the Muslim Sufi had
acquainted themselves with Hindu religious thought and
mystical ideas and attracted large numbers of Hindus to their
khanqahs" .1
Sufi preachers with their pious mission of the true faith
came to India from Arabia, Syria, Iran, Samarqand and
Bukhara. Sheikh Ismail came from Bukhara, who was a
theologian with his polished manners settled at Lahore in 1005
A.D. Syed Nisar Shah (964-1039 A.D.), settled in Trichinopoly
after vast traveling through Arabia, Iran and North India. 2
Sheikh Hussain Zanjani came to India from Azarbaijan,
settled at Lahore and preached Islam.
Malik Mohammad writes,
Among the preachers of Islam in India the Sufi training
was more ascetic was closer to the masses of the people than
the theologian, who was generally a fanatic and lacked
1

Malik Mohammad, P. 77.

T. B. Aranold, Preaching's oflslam, 1896, P. 153.

335

spiritual sensitiveness. In city, town and village the Sufi

formed himself into a pivot of an inner circle of Muslim
disciples and an outer circle of non-Muslims mainly low-caste
Hindus, whom he attracted by his spirituality and humanity.
In the 12th century Kashmir was predominantly a Hindu
society. In 16th century, Islam replaced Hinduism as the mass
religion of the valley. The famous Mughal historian Abul Fazal
and the Emperor J ahangir were struck by the popularity of the
indigenous Sufis called Rishis. 1
In spite of the presence of the Muslim preachers the
Muslims were in minority in Kashmir. And their life pattern
was not different from that of Hindus. The Muslim community
had virtually adopted a Hindu way of life, to the extent of
worshiping idols.2
The situation changed after the arrival of Mir Syed Ali
Hamedani in 1384 with his hundreds of followers. They
belonged to Kubravi order. They approached to the Sultan and
the masses as well.
1

Mohammad Asharaf Wani, Islam in Kashmir, Oriental Publishing house,

Srinagar, 2005, Introduction.

Mohammad Asharaf Wani, Islam in Kashmir, Oriental Publishing house,

Srinagar, 2005, Introduction, P. 58.

336

Muhammad Ashraf Wani writes,

"Syed Ali is not only the first Muslim missionary to have
converted a good number of people to Islam but he is also a
pioneer Muslim preacher the other way round too. He is the
first to have launched a movement of total Islamization of the
life pattern of the people as unlike the other preacher he was
not satisfied with mere ritualistic convention. This is evident
not only from his persuasive teachings, leading to the change of
life style of the then reigning Sultan of Kashmir, but also from
his monumental work, Dhakhirat-al-Muluk, in which he
presents Islam as a comprehensive Zabta-i-hayat (code of life)
and persuades the Muslims to follow Islam in every walks of
11"e " . 1

Mir Syed Ali Hamadani, laid a strong foundation for such

mission. Mter him, his disciples and his son Mir Muhammad
Hamadani with his followers continued his mission.
These preachers initially tried to preach the contemporary
Sultans and his nobles, with this in mind that the masses
generally follow their kings.
Muhammad Ashraf Wani writes,
1

Muhammad AshrafWani, P- 62.

337

"With the whole-hearted support of the nobility the Sultan

enforced the Shariah and banned dancing of women, gambling
and playing of musical instruments. The foundation of Islam
was made stronger by the creation of a network of Islamic
institution. Key among these were madarsas, legal schools,
Fa twa organizations, mosques and Khanqahs" .1
The reign of Sultan Zainul Abedin can be considered as a
reign of religious liberty for each community. Sultan patronized
both Islamic as well as Hindu culture. During his reign, due to
popularity and stability, preachers, scholars, poets, artisans
migrated from Iran and central Asia. He wanted to see
Kashmir like Samarqand and Bukhara.
The Sultan who succeeded Zinul Abe din maintained the
latters policy of non interference in religious affairs and like
him treated their subjects on equal footing. 2
Muslim preacher did their work in Kashmir and got
success without the involvement of the state. These preachers
were Sayed Sharfuddin, Sayed Hussain Simnani, Sayed Ali
Hamadani and Shaikh Nuruddin.
1

Ibid, P. 64.

Ibid, P. 130.

338

During the rule of Hindu rulers prostitution centres were

rampant and no religious festivals and parties were complete
without drink and dance. But due to these preachers, the
Sultans on the other hand, prostitution centre did not exist at
all; the Sultans were of good moral characters. 1
In order to inspire the Muslims to live a simple life, Sayed
Ali quotes the austere life style of various prophets including
prophet Muhammad and the first four caliphs. 2 He himself
earned his livelihood by making caps, 3 although the rulers
vainly offered him fabulous gifts. 4
These were the characters of the Muslim preachers who
preached not only the theoretical aspect of Islam but also the
practical aspect. They demonstrated their life style with
simplicity.
The followers of Mir Sayed Ali Hamadani carried forward
his mission with great zeal. The Sufi preachers concern for
social justice appealed to the neglected people in the society.

Ibid, P. 148.

Dhakhiral-al-Maluk.

Khulasat-al-Manaqib, P. 542.

Haidar Malik, History of Kashmir, P. 43.

339

Mir Sayed Ali Hamadani and his followers interred

Kashmir not only as preacher but with the zeal to replace the
local culture. A large number of professional of different field
accompanied him. They introduced the spinney wheel, rearing
of silk worm, shawl making, carpet weaving, paper making,
book binding, calligraphy and manufacturing of silken cloths.
The locals attracted not only towards Islam as a religion
who gives justice to al and prohibits the evil doings but towards
a culture brought by Iranians and Central Asians. They
attracted towards this new and developed culture.
They also introduced timing and ornamentation of tinned
ware, glazed title making, a superior kind of wood work and
grafting.
Ashraf W ani gives detail in his book,
"They brought knowledge of a new system of medicine,
hospitals, Advanced mathemetics, astrological knowledge, new
Persian meters, new dishes, new sweats new dresses (qamiz,
Shalwar, Sadri, aba, qaba, choga etc.) and last but not lest, new

340

poetic genres ghazal, qasida, mars1ya, rubai, mathnavi, naat

and manqabat" .1
Mter Zainul Abedin, who is said to be the predecessor of
Akbar, patronized cultural activities and encouraged scholars,
craft men, poets, physician during his tenure, a Central Asian,
Mirza

Haidar Dughlat ruled Kashmir

(1540-1550)

also

contributed in patronizing Central Asian and Iranian culture.

Persian became the court language Sufism, Persian poetry
and grammar became popular. The Iranian and Central Asian
dress became the part of new culture. They started burying
their deads. These preachers did not make 'Parda" mandatory
for muslim women.
The language of the Iranian and Central Asian preachers
was Persian. The books they brought to impart religious or
secular education were in Persian language. Persian became
the court language in India. Both Hindus and Muslim started
learning Persian.
Malik Mohammad writes about the diffusion of Islam in
India and its impact on Indian society,

AshrafWani, PP. 201-2.

341

"The diffusion of Islam in India had once awakened the

Hindu masses to a number of facts, never before so vividly
known to them. Islam's arguments against image worship and
polytheism, its strong condemnation of cast discrimination and
its ideas that all are equal before the Divine Grace and non can
be deprived of loving and worshipping God, which was of great
attraction to the low castes and outecast population have all
contributed to the spiritual development of Indian society and
culture. 1

Malik Mohammad, P. 77.

342

TRADERS
India, Iran and Central Asia have been having trade contacts
time

s1nce

immemorial.

These

contacts

facilitated

the

formation of socio-cultural bonds. These traders came to India

via sea route and by the Central Asian land route.
These traders reached Malabar coast of India and
conducted trade. They also reached Kalyan (near Mumbai) on
the Konkan coast. These traders met each other with other
mercantile

group.

These

people

were

Arabs,

Iranians,

Zoroastrians and Central Asians. Their language was Persian

and Arabic. Generally these trade vessels traveled in convoy to
avoid the numerous pirates of the western coast of India.
The Malabar coast became a commercially active port like
Calicut. It became the outpost of Iranian and Arab merchants.
Shahrukh's ambassador (1441-42), Abdul Razaq saw
merchants from Bengal, Malabar, Bijapur, Vijaynagar and
Gujarat came to Hormuz. People from Hormuz and Khurasan
resided at vijaynagar.
Dr. Ruby Maloni quotes from the account of Abdul
Razzaq,

343

"Many Persians were employed in the Deccan".

She further quotes, Nikitin, the Russian visitor,
"The rulers and the nobles in the land of India are all
khorassanians" .1
These merchants were settled at Cambay in Gujarat and
Built mosques in Central Asia and Iranian style.
The main overland route was the long established silk
routs. With trade by sea route the overland route, which was a
significant trade rout, have been also in use.
Apart

from

the

fact

that

these

were

permanent

settlements of traders in Northern India, Gujarat, Malabar and

at konkan port, there was also continuous movement of people
between India, Iran and Central Asia, for trade purposes.
Central Asian horses were in considerable demand in India and
this trade was mainly in the hands of Central Asians.

Dr. Ruby Maloni, Indo-Iran Trade Relations: An Overview. (Article

produced in the deparment of History University of Mumbai,) Indo-Iran
Relation, culture House, N. New, 2002, P. 224.

344

The caste system in India attracted the notice of the early

immigrants. Equality and brotherhood have been the principle
of Islamic society.
A large number of immigrants from Central Asian regions
settled in this country, and made India their home.
The Brahmans, who were the pioneer of the caste system,
had been exempted from all sorts of taxes in the previous
regime, lost there privileged position. The lower caste people
not only supported the immigrants but got the opportunity to
alleviate their material position and some of them embraced
Islam as it gave them higher social status. Yusuf Hussain
writes,
"During the course of a century the Muslim population,
consisting of the converts, and the immigrants, spread all over
northern India. The converts naturally, retained many of their
former traditions. The immigrants who settled in small
towns ... They were no longer stranger. The early resentment of
the Hindus no longer existed. These immigrants came to regard

345

India as their home. The foundation of Indo-Muslim society

were now laid".

Inter-marriages with Hindu women began. The practice in

India of the Arab, Turks, Persians and Mghans of marrying
Hindu women continued. Marriages took place in all classes of
society. Through these marriages the Indian and immigrants
culture penetrated into these families.
During the Mughal perod the trade and industry
flourished. The Mughal conquest of Northern India brought
radical changes in socio-cultural life in India. Technological
advancement also influenced the economic life of the people. In
the wake of the Mughal conquest of India a large number of
immigrants and many celebrities came to India from Central
Asia and Iran and settled in India. Many foreigners including
merchants contributed in the state administration and the
economic setup of the Mughals. 2
The nature of India's trade inland and foreign, has
practically been the same in the ancient and medieval ages.
1

YasufHusain, Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, Asia Publishing

House, New Delhi, 1957, P. 121.

Shirin Moosvi, Production, consumption and population in Akbar's time,

New Delhi, 1993, P. 99.

346

During the medieval period the whole of Northern and Western

India had commercial relations with Central Asia and other
regions as well. I
Babur was well aware of the

importance of the

communication system and foreign trade particularly to ensure

the regular flow of reinforcement from Kabul. Square towers
were erected, chaukis were established, which helped in the
development of trade and communication system. 2
Travel for men and merchandize became easier and safer
during .Akbar's reign. The new roads and bridges were
constructed,

military posts were stablished, which gave

security and stimulated the flow oftrade. 3

Transactions with foreign

countries were

done

on

exchange basis.
The banking system is very old in India. But local banking
received a jolt with the advent of Muslims in India. They
brought their own theory based on the Islamic law, which

Ibid, P. 99.

Babur, Tuzuk-i-Baburi, Eng trans, A.S. Beveridge, London, 1921, pp. 629-30.

Abul Fazal, Ain-i-Akbari, Eng.trans, Blochman, Calcutta, 1868, Vol. I, p. 257.

347

considered the selling of one's goods or property on interest a

great sin.
Indian imports from Central Asia and Iran were horses
furs, silk and silk stuff and clothes, plants, fruits, herb, gold,
silver, olive oil, rose water, glass etc.
India also exported different articles, not only to Central
Asia and Iran but also to different Asian and European
countries, like cloths, elephants, tusk and orns, pearls, spices,
cotton, musk, woods, sugar, grain, Indigo etc.l
During Mughals travellers used to form caravans. The
caravan was both the oldest and the most popular method of
travelling in large groups. It provided security and made an
important contribution to social and commercial life.
These traders not only travelled from one place to another
but used to stay for a long time at one place. This resulted in
mutual exchange of culture and thought, which affected the
socio-cultural life of India at a great extent in every walk of life.

K. M. Ashraf, life and conditions of the people of Hindustan, New Delhi,

1970, P. 143.

348

KINGS
Kings and Sultans of medieval period were originally the
people of Central Asia and being the slave of one king or the
other established kingdom in Delhi. They not only tried to
improve their relation with Central Asia but also made India
their homeland.
These rulers were foreigners and belonged to a different
religion. But majority of them were tolerant and did not
interfere in the socio-religious matter. For the simple reason
that they could not have consolidate their rule in a country like
India, after antagonizing the Indians. They tried to kept
themselves away from the orthodox Ulema and identified with
the locals and the native saints. Religious tolerance was the
policy of the Sultans of Delhi. 1
Sultan Iltutmish and her daughter Raziya ignored the
dictates of Ulema. They nerver allowed the interference of
Ulemas in the political affairs, she abolished J aziya and gave
full support to her Hindu subjects.

Dr. Ajeet Javed "little known dimensions of Muslim Rule" in Heritage of

harmony, P. 81.

349

Sultan Alauddin Khilji, Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and

Muhammad bin Tughlaq also persuaded the policy of religious
tolarence. Alauddin Khilji was of idea that the policy of
government is one thing and the rule and the decree of the
Sharia another. The Sultanate is not bound by Sharia. He built
several new temples and repaired the old ones. Ghiyasuddin
and Muhammad bin Tuglaq had great respect for Jain monks.
Malik Mohammad writes,
"The rulers were Muslims but the state was not
theocratic. It was not ruled according to the Shariat but with
the clear-cut motive of retaining power and expanding the
empire" .1
Deccan was far ahead in religious liberalism. Alauddin
Hasan, Shahabuddin Ahmad I, who was the disciple of the Sufi
saint Gesue deraz were the bleaver of universal brotherhood
and had high regard for Hindu saints.
The rulers of Bijapur and the Nizam Shahis of Ahmad
Nagar hold libral attitudes towards their Hindu Subjects.

Malik Mohammad, P. 286.

350

Religious tolerance was at its peak in Kashmir during

Sultan Zainul Abedin. He new many languages, like sanskrit,
Persian, Tibetan and Kashmiri. He band cow-slaughter in
Kashmir. Built new temples and visited Hindu Sharines of
Amarnath and Sharda Devi temples.!
Babur, Humayun and Akbar also persuaded the policy of
religious tolerance and gave respect to the saints. Babur hardly
could rule for five years but is such short of time could
formulate the policy of the future empire in India. A man with
high aesthetic sense could find out the best things in India and
did not hesitate in criticizing India and Indians in certain
areas.
Humayun did not find much time to contribute to sociocultural life as he had to struggle for survival. Both Babur and
Humayun were not orthodox. Babur had advised Humayun
that religious bigotry should be wiped out and abstains from
sacrifice of cows. Humayun followed the foot step of his father.
Tried his level best to contribute to socio-cultural life. He had
to flee from the country due to the betrayal of his brothers and
came back to the power with the help of Iranian king and died.

Malik Mohammad, P. 289.

351

Akbar the great with his vision and many resources at his
disposal could materialize the dream of his grand father Babur.
Akbar respected all the religions and the saints of
different religion like his ancestors.
Malik Mohammad writes,
"All religions flourished during Akbar's reign, as he being
the sovereign paid respect to all alike. He gave generous
endowment to temples and himself raised temples in Kashmir.
On the order of the emperor a small temple was built within
the fort of Fatehpur Sikri. Abul Fazal too had a high opinion of
Hinduism and held the Kashmiri Brahman in high esteem" .1
These kings practiced their own religion but gave respect
to the leaders of different religions. They not only prayed in
their mosques but also visited temples and other places of
worships. These approaches of the kings towards different
religion and their policy of religious tolerance made them
popular and acceptable in the eyes of the people of different
religion.

Malik Mohammad, P. 292.

352

Some of the sultans of Delhi Saltanat and Mughal

emperors did inter-religious marriages, which helped in
Indianizing these rulers, secularizing the Indian state and
harmonizing the Indian society. Ghiyasudding Tuglaq, Sultan
Firoz Shah, Sikandar Lodi, Mohammad Quli of Golkonda,
Muzaffar Shah, Sultan Sikandar and Sultan Ali Shah of
Kashmir, Emperor Jahangir, Shahjahan, Ahmad Shah and
Bahadur Shah Zafar were born of Hindu mothers. They thus
were as much Mulsim as Hindu. Both mother and father
shaped their ideas, ideals and out-look. They not only respected
but also adopted the traditions, customs and ways of life of both
the communities despite the ire of the orthodox of both the
religions. 1
Hindu festivals like Shivratri, Baisakhi, Diwali, Dussehra
and Ramnavmi became official festivals during Mughals. For
the special ceremony of these festivals, Mughal administration
used to pay from its treasury.
Babur, Humayun and Akbar always treated Indians as
their subjects. They had link in Central Asia. They had their
relatives and friends in Central Asia. They had legacy of
Central Asia with them. But they made India their home. Their
1

Malik Mohammad, P. 300.

353

heart used to beat for India and Indians. Each and every policy
of Mughal kings were for the benefit of their subject. Akbar
was the most secular and popluar king of India. He had
imbibed in himself all that was good in Zainul Abedin,
Mohammad bin Tuglaq and Sher Shah. 1
Akbar recruited the best of talents irrespective of their
race, religion and caste in the administration of the country.
Man Singh, Raja Todarmal and Birbal were very important
personalities in the eyes of Akbar. Man Singh was the army
Chief and Raja Todarmal was the finance minister during
Akbar's reign. They not only carried out their responsibility but
all the nine jewels of Akbar helped him in making this country
secular and prosperous.
Akbar was against the custom of Sati. He took strong
exception to a woman being forcibly made sati.
Medieval Indian history is full of cultural activities. Kings
of medieval history have played important role in the sociocultural life of India.

Malik Mohammad, P. 308.

354

TRAVELERS
The commercial and maritime contact, paved the way not only
for the Central Asia, Iranian and Arab Sufis and traders, who
established important colonies, but attracted large number of
travelers from different corners of the world. These travelers
also like Sufis, preachers and traders contributed in socioculturallife of India.
Among the most eminent personalities who visited India
and settled in Lakhnawti was Qazi Ruknuddin Samarqandi,
who wrote kitabul Maani fil Idrakat Alamul Insani, based on a
Sanskrit work Amrita-Kunda. 1
There is evidence; concerning the attachment of Sufi
Saints to the traders and their establishment of colonies lead
us conclude that Muslims from the distant lands of Central
Asia, Iran and Arabia had visited India prior to the advent of
Muslim army.
Sulayman a trader visited India in 851 A.D and wrote
about the cremation of the dead and widow burning. He also
praised about Hindu proficiency in astronomy, philosophy and
medicine.
1

Journal of Pakistan Historical Society, January, 1953, P. 52.

355

Others like Zayd Hasan al-Sayrafi, Al-Masudi, al-Baghadi

etc. Who visited India, explored this land and came to
conclusion according to their field of interest.
By this time the Central Asians and Iraninas had already
established in north-West India.
Al-Biruni was the first travellor, who traveled Punjab,
and Sindh and stayed at Lahar, Multan and Peshawar. During
his travels he studied Sanskirit. He also engaged himself in
collecting information about science, religious theories and
Indian customs.
Malik Mohammad writes,
"The first Muslim thinker who paid significant attention
to Indian culture was also the most thorough and profound of
all. Abu Raihan al-Biruni (AD 973-1050), one of the great
luminaries

of

mediaval

Khawarazm ..... he

was

Islamic
brought

sc1ence,
to

was

Ghazana

born
and

in

later

accompanied Mahmood Ghaznavi on some of his military

expedition to India. He studied with Indian sages and made
great efforts to collect Indian books. In this way he acquired
there a first hand knowledge of Indian civilization and
subsequently rote his outstanding account of India under the

356

title; Tahqiq rna lil Hind m1n maqula maqbula fial aql
mardhula" .1
He traveled extensively in western India and studied
Indian sciences and philosophy thoughts in the local language.
Then he started writing of 'India'.
Malik Mohammad writes,
"No civilized nation by that time, or even centuries after,
produced on the socio-religious life of an alien people such a
work, which is matchless by virtue of the extent of its scope,
the diversity of its subject, comparative method adopted in it,
and above all, the deep and unbiased insight of the author:
'India', indeed shall always remain wonder of the world of
learning". 2
Biruni was of the op1n1on, that the philosophers,
Brahmans and Indian sages are the true representatives of the
Hindu religion. His book, 'India' deals with Hindu rituals,
festivals fundamentals of the Hindu law and social practices.
Malik Mohammad has rightly pointed out:

Malik Mohammad, P. 43.

Malik Mohammad, P. 46.

357

"Al-Biruni's ma1n contribution lies in his unprejudiced

study of Hindu religion, which did not appear to him to be mere
idol-worship, as it did to most Muslims during the first 500
years of Muslim rule in India between Mahmood of Ghazna
and Akbar. He regarded the essence of Hindu religion as a form
of monotheism and the Hindu idol-worship as merely the
manifestation of the dark and ignorant passions of the crowd.
He was the first to introduce the study of the Bhagavad Gita to
the Muslim world, the first Muslim to study the Puranas and to
translate Patanjali and Samkhya into a Muslim language".!
One of the most prominent representative of indo-Muslim
culture was the great poet, literature and mystic of the time
Amir Khusrau (1253-1325 A.D.). He came from a family of
Turkish immigrants, settled in Patiali.
He was man of versatile talents, became a courtier and for
nearly half a century saw the rise and fall of dynasties. He was
the disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia. He was well worsed
in Persian and Hindavi.
Yusuf Husain writes,

Malik Mohammad, P. 49.

358

"Khusrau commences by likening India to the Garden of

Eden, where Adam resided before his fall. He speaks about the
fertility and fruitfulness of its soils. To gladden the heart of
man there are flowers here all the year round, while in Persia
and Turkey they last only for two or three months Indian
flowers have a sweet scent, while the flowers of Persia and
Turkey have no fragrance on account of the cold climate.
Greece has been famous for its philosophy, but India is equally
famous. Logic, astrology, physics, mathematics and astronomy,
all are cultivated here. They worship, no doubt stones, plants
and the sun but they recognize that these things are creation of
God and adore them simple because their fore fathers did so". 1
He is assertive in showing his pride in his Indian origin.
Amir Khusrau further gives some arguments to prove the
India's superiority.
He says, India's climate is not cold like that of Khurasan,
People die of cold, not of heat, in a warm climate requirements
of clothes are few and living in cheap.
He further says, India is evergreen while spring comes to
Khurasan only for a few weeks. Khurasanis cannot grow
1

Yusuf Husain, P. 122.

359

bananas but Khurasani fruits can be grown in India. India has

a rare fruit, banana and a rare leaf Pan.
Malik Mohammad writes,
"There in genuine absorption of Indian environmental
beauty in the creative activity of Khusrau. He praises Delhi for
its mosques, its ravishing Hindu beauties, its splendour and
scholarship, in which it surpassed Bukhara and Khwarizm and
even Baghdad ....... He takes pleasure in writing sensually of
India's fauna and flora in contradiction to the tradition of IndoPersian poetry. In his poetic diction, he blends Hindu words
musically and harmoniously." 1
Ma Haun, a Chinese traveler who came to Bengal in 1405
A.D. and gave details about the contemporary dress of the
people.
"They wear white cloth turbans and long loose robs with a
round collar which they put on over their head, they wear
painted leather shoes, the king and his officers all dress like
Muhammadans." 2
1

Malik Mohammad, P. 50.

Chalbani, (J.R.A.S.), 1895, the Economic Condition of India in the 16th

century, P. 88.

360

Travelers who visited India during 15th and 16th century

did not hesitate to compare Indian cities to London, Paris or
Constantinople, the greatest cities which were known to them.
Besides Delhi, the important cities in northern India were
Srinagar, Agra and Lahor, Mirza Haider, a companion of
Humayaun has left a detailed description of the city of
Srinagar.
"In the town there are many lofty buildings Most of these
are at least five stories high and each story contains
apartments, halls, galleries and towers. The beauty of their
exterior defies description and all who behold them for the first
time, bite the finger of astonishment with the teeth of
admiration" .1
Abdul Razzaq visited India in 1442 AD and traveled in
south India. He has explained about the commercial activities
at Calicut. He saw the vessels full of pepper and different other
goods.
He also has given a detail description about the city of
Vijaynagar.

YusufHussain, P. 138.

361

The account of these travelers, who either have settled

here or just visited this country, has given a full detail of a
particular period. They have minutely observed and focused on
each and every aspect of socio-cultural life of this country.
Some times if we do not have contemporary written history, we
base on those travelogues written by those travellers. Apart
from these travellers, there are so many European travellers
who visited this country from early to the later medieval
period, whose travelogues also help in formulating the sociocultural life of medieval India.

362

CHAPTER-5

Indian traders and travellers in Central

Asia and their impressions about Central
Asia
The activities of Indian traders in Central Asia from 16th
century onwards is a well-known fact. An English traveler
Anthony Jenkinson who visited Bukhara, 1n 16th century
mentioned about Indian traders in Central Asia. 1
Both Soviet and Iranian authors like K.A. Antonova and
S. Gopal and D. Kaushik have seen commercial contacts
between the two regions.
Traders of India had played an important role in the
commercial activities of Central Asia. These writers do not talk
much about the volume and the numbers of Indian traders in
Central Asia rather their activities.
Indian commercial firms, which was mostly family based
had large capital resources and did not confirm to the
stereotype of the Asian peddler. 2

Anthony Jenkinson, Early Voyage and travels to Russia and Persia,

Landon, 1886.

Dale, Indian Merchants, p. 112-26.

363

Trade between India, Iran and Central Asia consisted

mostly of small quantities of luxury or semi-luxury goods. It
also included bulk goods, agricultural products, cotton and silk
textiles and horses and trade in Indian slave sent to Turan. 1
It mobilized huge caravans of thousands of camels, horses
and mules, which demanded a level of organization much
beyond that of simple pedlars.
The trading contacts between India, Iran and Central
Asia benefited from the late 16th century onwards from the
stabilization of Mughal rule in India, safavid rule in Iran and
U zbek rule in Turan. 2
India exported many types of goods, both food and non
food crops as well as cotton textiles, which were the single
largest item in India's export trade. 3
India's major import from Central Asia was horses.

Levi, The Indian Diaspora, p. 60-70.

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the orient, 37, 3(August
1994), p. 202-25.

Levi, the Indian Diaspora, pp. 71-80.

364

Trade between India, Iran and Central Asia adversely

effected due to Russia which put an end to the active
commercial role of Indian traders in the region.
Khoqand developed its trade with Russia to which it
exported growing quantities of cotton and from where it
received important amount of manufactured goods. Parts of
this Russian imports came to India via Kashghar in xinjiang.
A new trade route opend on which Khoqandian merchant
played a major role. Indian merchants and traders were also
attracted. The new importance of Khoqand also led to growing
settlement of Indian traders and money lenders there. 1
The cluster of Multani traders in the port of Astrakhan
who were settled in 17th century on the Caspian Sea, which was
one of the important terminus of the major trade route from
India to Russia.
Originally, 1n the 13th century, Multani referred to a
community of merchant -bankers, resident in Delhi, who were
said to originate from the city ofMultan. 2
1

Levi, the Indian Dispora, pp. 21-25.

Zia-Ul-Din Barani, Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, (ed.Syed Ahmad Khan),

Calcutta, 1862, pp. 305-7.

365

Mter a gap they reappeared in 16th century as a blanket

term to all India traders in Iran and Central Asia.
Indians mostly played the role of middle man between
Iran, India and Central Asia. They were facilitators of trade
than actual traders. They were at the same time merchant and
financiers in Central Asia. There in no doubt that the origins of
Indian merchant lie in the participation of Indian merchants in
the carvan trade between India and Central Asia. They intered
in Central Asia as sellers rather than as buyers. In Central
Asia, during those time there were few goods produced which
had significant market in India. Apart from horses in the trade
of which Indian merchants played a subsidiary role, silk was
the only product from Central Asia for which there was a
demand in India. On the other hand, Indian goods that found a
ready made market in Iran and Central Asia, such as grain,
indigo, spices and cotton textiles.
Iranian and Central Asian merchants came to India and
sometimes they settled. Iranians preferred destination was
Deccan in 17th century .1

A. Burton, the Bukharans: A Dynastic, Diplomatic and Commercial

History, 1550-1702, New York, 1997, pp. 445.

366

They mostly traveled by sea to reach their destination

Indian merchants were in the habit from very beginning to
cross the mountain passes and the desert to reach Iran and
Central Asia.
In 16th century Indians, including Hindu merchants, built
their colonies in Iran and Central Asia.
Iran and Central Asia was not part of India but it was
considered by Indians businessmen as regions of the civilized
world. One contributing factor to this perception of Central
Asia as part of the civilized world had probably to do with
Sufism. Many north Indian Hindu merchants were m urids of
Sufis, and the Sufi orders were a powerful cultural link
between northern India and Central Asia.
Some of these merchants new Persian Language and the
Persian Culture. The politics of Safavid Iran and Central Asian
Ozbeks had so many things common with Mughal India. The
conditions were favorable for the Indian business community in
Iran and Central Asia.
The Lohanis, Indo-Mgans or Mus lim M ultanis had a
relationship with Shikarpuris, as recounted in numerous travel
accounts of the period. They were semi- nomadic merchants

367

who traveled regularly between India and Central Asia, but

whether they were really part of the overall Indian activities
remains a moot point.
Accounting was a crucial field of expertise of Indian
traders. They had developed sophisticated systems of doubleentry book keeping. The Iranian merchant had also special
notation system for accounting known as Siyaq, and were fairly
advanced in their accountings. 1
There Multanis functioned mainly on the basis of trust
and caste-based nature of the Indian family firms which
dominated the trade.
The was no structural change in Indo-Central Asian trade
since 1550 onwards. It is also true that Indian merchants
benefited from the protection of the various Central Asian
rulers.
16th century onwards Indian traders were largely the

agents of a trade system linking mughal India with the Safavid

Empire and the U zbek Khanates of Central Asia. A system
which operated within a largely Islamicized world but in which

Scott C. Levi, India and Central Asia, p. 139.

368

non-Muslim traders, Hindu, Jewish or Christian Played an

important role.
But to focus much on trade relation between the two
region there are little detailed material available.
Scott C. Levi writes,
"There is no doubt that Indian merchant communities
were important sites for the accumulation and development of
various form of specific skills and knowledge, but lack of extant
written document makes the study of the aspect extremely
problem tic" .1
The accounts of foreign travelers and writers throw much
light on the commercial activities between the two region India
and Iran.
Besides the sea route there was also land route of trade
between the two regions. This was the age long route v1a
Khayber pass, Kabul and Qandhra. Quzder have been the
meeting place of Indian, Iranian and Khurasani traders.
India exported spices pearls, cotton clothes, gold and
elephant tusks, cloves, ginger, indigo, iron etc.
1

Scoll C. Levi, India and Central Asia, p. 139.

369

Iran exported horses, dates, salt, sulphur, woolen carpet

etc. to India.
Indian traders played a very important role in business
with Iran.

Since early medieval period Indian traders

established their colony in different places in Iran. Barbosa

estimated India's trade with Aden larger and richer then any

...

where else in the world. During the reign of Shah Abbas I,

Indian traders had established them selves in Isfahan and
Bander Abbas.!
Ibn Batulah tells that Ormuz was the Centre from where
Indian goods were carried to the Fars and Khurasan.
Iranian traders had trade contacts with India. They were
1n contact with Deccan even before the Arab and Turkish
Contact Iranian Settlements were there on the western coast of
India.
Indian traders had lasting competitive advantages visa-aVls

potential

competitors

like

Armenians or Jews.

Dr. J. N. Sarkar, p. 54.

370

Central

Asian

Muslims,

The conquest of Timur, who defeated the Turks in 1402

included Iran and a large part of northern India created a
single political authority from Black sea to the border of China
and the Gangetic plain in India, promoted condition in which
over land trade flourished. Samarqand became an enter port
for the whole of Central Asia and Iran looked to its market
where traders flocked from distant countries including India. 1
Heart, which had served as an enter port of overland
trade between Golden Horde, Khwarizm and India since the
14th century.

Prof. Surendra Gopal writes,

"The political unification of such a vast landmass by
Timur had accelerated the growth of flourishing overland trade
with Sultaniya and Heart and Samarqand Served as nodal
points. The Indian did avail of this opportunity". 2
The Afghan powindahs were a classic example of
mediatory trade in Central Asia. They have been doing this
trade since their caravan route coincided with their pastoral
1

Indo-Iran Relation, Prof. Surendra Gopal, Trade contact between India

and Iran, Iran culture House, New Delhi, p. 278.

Prof. Surendra Gopla, Trade contact between India and Iran, p. 279.

371

migrations. As no-sedentary merchants, they were a link

between major urban areas. Overland trade had been since
ancient period through Kabul and kandhar during Sultanate
period (1206-1526 A.D.) Multan was a major entrepot due to its
strategic position.
Babur in his memo1rs refers Luharnis, who were
collectively known as powindahs, as a significant group of
merchants. They were active in this trade since 1Qth century
and possessed a monopoly of transport animals. 1
Indo-Central Asian trade, both by the overland and sea
routes survived political and technological changes.

Dr. Rubi Maloni, Indo-Iran trade relations: An overview. Iran culture

House, 2002, p. 228-29.

372