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Lesson 6:
Head Loss

Objective
In this section we will learn the following:
How to define head or head loss.
Why is head loss a concern in water and wastewater?
How to perform some calculations to help plan and design for head loss.
What is TDH - Total Dynamic Head?
How to estimate the shutoff head of a centrifugal pump.
The shutoff head is approximately 90% of the diameter of the impeller squared.
How to calculate a pump's BEP, or Best Efficiency Point.
Compare the relationships with capacity and efficiency of the head.

Reading Assignment
Read the online lesson as well as Chapter 5 in your textbook.

Lecture
Introduction
Head loss (as discussed in Lesson #7) is the measure of the reduction in the total head of the liquid as it
moves through a system. The total head is the sum of the elevation head, velocity head and pressure head.
Head loss is unavoidable and is present because of the friction between the fluid and the walls of the pipe
and is also present between adjacent fluid particles as they flow along the pipe. Head loss is a measure of
the reduction in the total head (sum of elevation head, velocity head and pressure head) of the fluid as it
moves through a fluid system. This is unavoidable in real fluids.
The head loss for fluid flow is directly proportional to the length of the pipe, as flow rate increases the
pressure will drop. Friction loss = rough pipes, and the degree of roughness is called the C - Factor.
The HEAD is the vertical distance, height or energy of water above a point. A head of water may be
measured in either height (ft.) or pressure (psi). To calculate Head Loss in feet you should multiply the psi
-pounds per square inch X 2.31 ( a set constant) OR the psi is equal to 0.433 X feet of head. Each can be
read with a pressure gauge.
Head loss is the combination of different types of losses. 1- Friction Loss, 2 - other minor losses. Friction
from the walls of the pipe on the liquid is the head loss , caused by friction.
Head loss is the reduction in the total head of a fluid caused by the friction present in the fluid's motion.
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1- Friction loss occurs as the fluid flows through the straight pipes. 2- Minor losses are head losses that
occur due to bends, elbows, joints, valves, and other fittings in the systems. Whenever there is a change in
the direction of flow or a change in the cross-sectional area a head loss will occur.
Friction losses are very dependent upon the viscosity of the liquid and the amount of turbulence in the
flow. Head loss due to friction can be calculated by using the Darcy-Weisbach equation. The friction
factor for the fluid flow can be determined by using a MOODY CHART if the relative roughness of the
pipe and the Reynolds Number of the flow can be determined. Darcy's equation can be used to calculate
frictional losses. A special form of this equation can be used to calculate minor losses. Friction loss is that
part of the total head loss that occurs as the fluid flows through straight pipes. The head loss for fluid flow
is directly proportional to the length of pipe, the square of the fluid velocity, and a term for fluid friction
called the friction factor . The head loss is inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe. Friction loss
must be calculated in order to properly size pipe, elbows, valves, and other fitting along the piping system.
Total dynamic head (TDH) is very important in calculating the pump sizes. The TDH involves several
different things:
the vertical distance the water is being pumped to the point of use
the operating pressure desired at the point of use (ft. of water)
the friction losses from water moving through the piping system, which is measured as feet of head loss
Head loss is given in equation 2.8.4 as:

Where:
f = friction factor
D = diameter
L = Length
V = average velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity

f is given by equations for Laminar Flow

Where:
p = density
D = diameter
v = velocity
u = viscosity

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HEAD is the amount of energy possessed by a unit quantity of water expressed in feet. Water may contain
energy due to 1- elevation 2- pressure 3- velocity. Thus a 40 ft. tank will have 40 ft. of head. HEAD that is
due to elevation is called STATIC HEAD, this is the actual elevation difference between water surfaces or
a water surface and some reference point.
IF the elevation of tank A is 2100 feet and the elevation of tank B is 2300 feet, then the static head is
200 feet.

Pressure head is = feet Velocity head is the energy of motion.

1 psi = 2.31 ft. Velocity head = y(squared) divided by 2g
.433 psi = 1 ft. G = 32.2 ft. per second squared
Head loss in feet of pipe (PVC plastic pipe)

For head loss in feet, multiply PSI by 2.31. For instance, for 20 GPM and 1.5" diameter pipe,
multiplying 1.34 PSI by 2.31, you will get 3.1 feet. That is, for every 100 feet of 1.5" pipe with 20
GPM flowing through it you will lose 3.1 feet of head due to friction.
1.34 x 2.31 = 3.1 ft

Flow GPM pipe diameter (inches)

Water Withdrawal Estimation by Pipe Diameters
Table 2: Water Withdrawal Estimation by Pipe
Diameters Pipe
Diameter
in inches Gallons
per Minute
Discharged Gallons
accumulated
after 1 Hour Hours
To Reach
3 Million
Gallons Days

Pipe
Diameter
in inches

Gallons
Gallons
per Minute accumulated
Discharged after 1 Hour

Hours
To
Reach
3
Million
Gallons

Days

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60

3,600

833.3

34.7

93

5,580

537.6

22.4

188

11,280

266.0

11.1

325

19,500

153.8

6.4

500

30,000

100.0

4.2

750

45,000

67.7

2.8

1,200

72,000

42.7

1.7

10

Introduction
Head: The head or pressure at which the centrifugal pump will stop discharging. It is also the pressure
developed by the pump when it is operated against a closed discharged valve. This is also known as a cut
off head.
Cut-off Head: The head at which the energy supplied by a pump and the energy required to move the
liquid to a specified point are equal and no discharge at the desired point will occur.
Shut-off Head: The highest point the pump will lift liquid. At this point the pump will pump 0 gallons per
minute.
TDH: (Total Dynamic Head) A combination of two components - Static Head and Friction Head - and is
expressed in feet. Static head is the actual vertical distance measured from the minimum water level in
the basin to the highest point in the discharge piping. Friction head is the additional head created in the
discharge system due to resistance to flow within its components.

Head - Capacity
As might be expected, the capacity of a centrifugal pump is directly related to the total head of the
system. If the total head on the system is increased, the volume of the discharge will be reduced
proportionately. Figure 3-2 illustrates a typical head-capacity curve for a centrifugal pump. While this
curve may change with respect to total head and pump capacity based upon the size of the pump, pump
speed, and impeller size and/or type, the basic form of the curve will remain the same. As the head of the
system increases, the capacity of the pump will decrease proportionately until the discharge stops. The
head at which the discharge no longer occurs is known as the cut-off head.
As discussed earlier, the total head includes a certain amount of energy to overcome the friction of the
system. This friction head can be greatly affected by the size and configuration of the piping and the
condition of the system's valving. If the control valves on the system are closed partially, the friction head

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can increase dramatically. When this happens, the total head increases and the capacity or volume
discharged by the pump decreases. In many cases, this method is employed to reduce the discharge of a
centrifugal. It should be remembered, though, that this does increase the load on the pump and drive
system causing additional energy requirements and additional wear.
The total closure of the discharge control valve increases the friction head to the point where all the
energy supplied by the pump is consumed in the friction head and is not converted to pressure head. As a
result, the pump exceeds its cut-off head and the pump discharge is reduced to zero. Again, it is important
to note that even though the operation of a centrifugal pump against a closed discharge may not be as
hazardous as with other types of pumps, it should be avoided due to the excessive load placed on the drive
unit and pump. There have also been documented cases where the pump produced pressures higher than
the pump discharge piping could withstand. In these cases, the discharge piping was severely damaged by
the operation of the pump against a closed or plugged discharge.

Friction Head
Friction head, ft is the amount of energy used to overcome resistance to the flow of liquids through the
system. It is affected by the length and diameter of the pipe, the roughness of the pipe, and the velocity
head. It is also affected by the physical construction of the piping system. The number and types of ell's,
values, tees, etc., will greatly influence the friction head for the system. These must be converted to their
equivalent length of pipe and included in the calculation.

The roughness factor (f), varies with length and diameter as well as the condition of the pipe and the
material from which it is constructed, it is normally in the range of .01-.04.
Example:
What is the friction head in a system which uses 150 ft of 6 inch diameter pipe, when the velocity is 3
fps? The system's valving is equivalent to an additional 75 feet of pipe. Reference material indicates a
roughness factor of 0.025 for this particular pipe and flow rate.

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It is also possible to compute friction head by using a table such as that shown in Figure 2-10. The
calculation of friction by this method is illustrated in the Figure.
It is also possible to determine friction head on the suction side of the pump and the discharge side of the
pump. In each case, it is necessary to determine:
1. the length of pipe
2. the diameter of the pipe
3. velocity
4. pipe equivalent of valves, elbows, tees, etc.

Velocity Head
Velocity head is the amount of head or energy required to maintain a stated velocity in the suction and
discharge lines. The design of most pumps makes the total velocity head for the pumping system zero.
Mathematically the velocity head is:

Example:
What is the velocity head for a system which has a velocity of 4 fps?

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Example:
Determine Total Head using the data given on the diagram in Figure 7-1.
1. Determine Static Head, ft.

2. Determine Friction Head, ft

a. Find total length of pipe

b. Find equivalent length for valves and Ell's

c. Total pipe length

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Length = Pipe Length, ft + Equivalent Pipe, ft (L)

Length = 48 ft + 745 ft
Length = 793 ft

d.

3. Determine Velocity Head, ft

Due to pump charcteristics total velocity head is stated to be zero.

4. Determine Total Head, ft

Total Head, ft =
Static Head, ft + Friction Head, ft + Velocity Head, ft
Total Head, ft = 48 ft + 4.46 ft + 0
Total Head, ft = 52.46 ft

V1= Gate Valve (125 ft pipe equivalent)

V2= Check Valve (150 ft pipe equivalent)

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V2= 90 Elbow (65 ft pipe equivalent)

f = 0.03
Pipe Diameter = 9 inches
Velocity 3 fps

Velocity Heads are equal, canceling each other.

Estimating the Shutoff Head of a Centrifugal Pump

In the fifteenth century the Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli learned that the combination of head and
velocity was a constant throughout a piping system. He then wrote the formula showing the relationship
between this liquid velocity, and resultant head. As many of you know, I often quote this formula in my
pump and seal schools. The formula looks like this:

V = Velocity or speed of the liquid at the impeller outside diameter (ft/sec. or meters/sec.)
g = gravity = 32.2 feet/sec2 or 9.8 meters.sec2

My students have heard me quote this formula as the basis for my statement that you can estimate the
shutoff head of a 1750 rpm centrifugal pump by squaring the diameter of the impeller. How did I come to
that conclusion? Let's look at the formula again, and we will start by defining velocity:
Velocity is a measurement of speed using distance and time as the variables. The terms we use to discuss
velocity are feet/second or meters/second. In the inch system, the velocity of the impeller outside
diameter is determined by the following formula:

d = diameter of the impeller

= 3.14
rpm = speed of the impeller outside diameter
12 = twelve inches in a foot

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60 = sixty seconds in a minute

Now we will solve the problem. Substituting 1750 for the rpm we would get:

Going back to the original formula we will substitute the new value for "V"

This means that at 1750 rpm the shutoff head is 90% of the diameter of the impeller squared.

If you will check a typical pump curve as supplied by the pump manufacturers, you will learn that the
shutoff head actually varies from 90% to 110% of the diameter of the impeller squared. I elected to use
100% because it is a sensible average and in some cases it accounts for the additional velocity added to
the fluid as it moves from the impeller eye to the impeller outside diameter.
If we substitute 3500 rpm for the speed, the new numbers would look like this:

Going back to the original formula we will substitute the new value for "V"

We can round out the 3.6 to 4.0 and say that at 3500 rpm the shutoff head equals approximately the
outside diameter of the impeller squared, times four.
It is a little trickier in the metric system. Instead of using millimeters when measuring the impeller
diameter, move over two decimal places and use decimeters instead. It will make the calculations a lot
simpler because you will be using more convenient, larger numbers.

Inserting the numbers into the formula we would get a velocity of:

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Going back to the head formula we would get:

We can round this off to 3d2

If the pump were running at 2900 rpm you would get:

Going back to the head formula we would get:

We can round this off to 12d2

How do we use this information? You can combine this formula with your knowledge of how to convert
pressure to head and come up with an estimate to see if an operating pump is operating close to its BEP
(best efficiency point). As an example:
In the inch system a pump discharge pressure gage reads 120 psi. The pump suction pressure gage reads
20 psi. The pump is pumping the difference between these readings, so the pump is pumping 100 psi.

At its BEP (best efficiency point) the pump should be running between 80% and 85% of its shutoff head.
100 psi is 83% of 120 psi. The pressure to head conversion is:

The pump has an 8.5 inch impeller running at 3500 rpm. The shutoff head would be (8.5 inches)2 4 =
288 feet. Pretty close!
In the metric system we can make the calculation for 295 millimeter impeller turning at 2900 rpm.
The pump discharge pressure gage reads 10 bar. The pump suction pressure gage reads 1 bar. The pump
is pumping the difference between these readings so the pump is pumping 9 bar.
At its BEP (best efficiency point) the pump should be running between 80% and 85% of its shutoff head.
9 bar is 83% of 10.8 bar. The pressure to head conversion is:

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The pump has a 295 mm impeller running at 2900 rpm. The shutoff head would be (2.95 decimeter)2 12
= 104.4. Pretty close!
These two graphs show the capacity and efficiency of the Head.

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Review
In this lesson we learned about all the types of head losses. Friction loss, and velocity losses as well as
minor losses (within the fittings used in the system) are all involved in properly calculating the head losses
within the entire system. Head loss is defined as the measure of the reduction in the total head of the
liquid as it moves through a system. The total head is the sum of the elevation head, velocity head and
pressure head. Head loss is unavoidable and is present because of the friction between the fluid and the
walls of the pipe. Head loss is a measure of the reduction in the total head of the fluid as it moves through
a pumping system . Head loss is unavoidable . The head loss for fluid flow is directly proportional to the
length of pipe as it flows through a system.
The head is the vertical distance, height or energy of water above a specific point. A head of water may be
measured in height, ft. or pressure, psi. To calculate head loss in feet you should multiply the psi times
2.31 or the psi is equal to 0.433 times the feet of head.
Each of these can be found by reading or using a pressure gauge. Head loss is the combination of the
different types of losses, with Friction loss being the main loss. This is caused by water flowing through a
pipeline, which through years of use, is no longer smooth and now has scale and corrosion on the inside of
the pipeline, SLOWING the flow. Friction losses are very dependent upon the viscosity of the liquid
and the amount of turbulence in the flow. The head loss is inversely proportional to the diameter of the
pipe.
The TDH or Total Dynamic Head, 1 - is the vertical distance the water is being pumped to the point of
use, 2 - The operating pressure desired at the point of use (expressed in ft. of water) or 3 - the friction
losses from water moving through the piping system (measured as ft. of head loss). This is used when
water is being pumped from a well (to determine the distance from the water level to the ground surface).
The drop in water level while the pump is in operation, called the drawdown of the well. The vertical
distance the water must be elevated is then the sum of the drawdown, the distance from the normal water
elevation to the wellhead, and the rise from the wellhead to the point of distribution in the water system.
The proper sizing of lines and fittings is very critical to utility operations. Pressure, flow, and source water
are all important information when sizing a pump. But fittings such as elbows, terrain, and curves will

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change all the calculations, water lines do NOT go in straight lines, although it would be easier to calculate
if they did. Proper sizing of a pump can be complex and simple at the same time. All you need to know is
the required gallons per minute and the total dynamic head, TDH, we wish, but as you learned from this
lesson there are a lot of other factor involved with these calculations as well.
We learned that the relationship of the shut-off head of a centrifugal pump is equal to the diameter of the
impeller squared. This concept is easier to understand if we look at the velocity. This is done by
multiplying pi (3.14) d or diameter rpm by 12 (inches/ft) 60 (sec/min). Using 1750 as the rpms,
this is then calculated to mean that at 1750 rpm the shutoff head is approximately 90% of the diameter of
the impeller squared. A pump's BEP (Best Efficiency Point) is calculated based on the pump discharge
pressure and suction pressure. Velocity is a measurement of speed using distance and time as the variable.
The term head velocity refers to gains or losses in pressure caused by friction or gravity as the water
moves through the system.

Resources
Water Supply & Pollution Control - 4 th Edition
Water Distribution Operator Training Handbook - AWWA
Op Flow Bulletins - July 1998, Sept. 2000

Assignment
Answer the following questions and either email or fax to the instructor.

For water equations, one hp equals 33,000ft-lb/min. IF you divide 33,000 ft-lb/min by 8.34 lb/gal (1 gal
water = 8.34 lb) you will get approx. 3960 gal/min/ft. OR

1. A pump is pumping against a total head of 46.2 feet at a rate of 800 gpm. What is the water hp
required?
2. A pump running at 5 hp is delivering a flow of 420 gpm. How much head is it pumping against?
3. What is the maximum pumping rate (in gpd) of a 15 hp pump, pumping against a head of 65 ft?
4. What is velocity?
5. ______________ varies from 90% to 110% of the diameter of the impeller squared.
6. What is the name for the type of head that is lost by fluid flowing in a stream or conduit due to
friction per unit weight of fluid?
7. TDH is the sum of what?
8. _______________ refers to the losses in pressure caused by gravity and friction as water moves
through the system, most often given in feet of water.

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