Course Introduction and Review of Linear

Systems and Fourier Transform

ELEC3540 - Analog and Digital Communications

Dr. Duy Ngo

School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
University of Newcastle

Feb. 24, 2015

Course Outline, Chapter 1 (1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6),

Appendices A, B of textbook
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Course Admin Teaching Staff

Lecturer: Dr Duy Ngo

Office: EAG19 - EA Building
Email: duy.ngo@newcastle.edu.au
Phone: (02) 4921 8947
Consultation: Wednesday 10.00 AM - 12.00 NOON
Lab Demonstrator: Mr. Behzad Asadi
Office: ES230 - ES Building
Email: behzad.asadi@uon.edu.au

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Course Admin Contents

Textbook
Martin S. Roden, Analog and Digital Communication
Systems, 5th edition, 2003. ISBN: 9780964696976.
First half of Semester: Analog Communication
Review of Fourier transform, linear systems, random
processes
Analog baseband transmission, analog AM, FM, PM
Second half of Semester: Digital Communication
Baseband digital transmission, digital AM, FM, PM
Multiplexing techniques: TDM, FDM, CDM
References to Chapters/Sections of textbook will be given

at the beginning of lecture slides

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Course Admin Assessments

Assignments (15%)
2 assignment, 7.5% each
Due in Weeks 6 and 12
Hard copies; Marked by me
Labs (20%)
5 labs, 4% each
Report to be submitted 1 week after your assigned time slot
Hard copies; Marked by Lab Demonstrator
Mid-term quiz (15%)
To be conducted in lecture time, Week 7; Marked by me
Closed-book
Review lecture in Week 7
Final exam (50%)
Closed-book; Marked by me
Review lecture in Week 13
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Course Admin My Advice and Expectations

Lectures:
Buy and do read textbook
Regular attendance, take notes, no ringing phone, no
private chatting, questions are always welcome (do
interrupt!)
Solutions to example exercises are only given in the
lectures
Tutorials:
Regular attendance
Problem-solving skills needed for assignments, quiz and
exam
Solutions to tutorial problems are only given in the tutorials
Only solutions to unsolved questions posted on the
Blackboard site

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Course Admin My Advice and Expectations

Labs:
Complete online Lab Induction and Access Quiz to get
access
Contact Lab Manager (Mr. Peter Turner) if you have any
question regarding access
Attend your scheduled sessions
Quiz and Exam: will be based on textbook, lectures notes,

tutorial problems
Adverse circumstances: email (from UniMail), see me
Check Blackboard site and Email regularly for

announcements
Have fun!

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Overview of a Communication System

Transmitter: change raw information into a format that is

matched to channel characteristics

Channel: introduce changes to the signals
Linear channels with transfer function: H(f ) = A(f )ej(f )
Amplitude distortion: A(f ) is not a constant
Phase distortion: (f ) is not linear in f
Receiver: detect and process signals from channel

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Expanded Block Digram of a Communication System

This course studies the transmission techniques used to

reliably and efficiently transmit and receive signals over a
channel with uncertainty

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Types of Signals

Analog signals:
Waveform takes on a continuum of values for any time
within a range of times
E.g., human speech waveform
Analog sampled (or discrete) signals:
Sample analog signals at discrete time points
Signals can still take an infinite number of values

9 / 44

Types of Signals

Digital signals:
A form of discrete signals
Signals can only take a finite number of values
E.g., pressing keys at ATM, using computer keyboard, A/D
conversion
Advantages of digital over analog transmission:
Improved noise immunity
Processing simplicity

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Nyquist Sampling Theorem

Suppose a signal s(t) is defined over bandwidth [0, fm ]

We sample s(t) at all t = nTs where n is integer to obtain

ss (t)

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Nyquist Sampling Theorem

We can reconstruct s(t) from ss (t) precisely and

accurately if
1
2fm
fs > 2fm
Ts <

(1)
(2)

That is, sampling rate must be more than twice the highest

frequency of the signal for a perfect reconstruction

2fm is called Nyquist sampling rate
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A/D Conversion
Sampling an analog signal gives a discrete signal, which

still takes a continuum of values.

Analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion: Code the list of
infinite numbers into a set of finite code words.
Uniform quantization:
Divide the continuum of functional values into uniform-width

regions
Assign an integer code to each region
n-bit quantizer contains 2n regions.

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D/A Conversion

Digital-to-analog (D/A) conversion

An integer code is associated with a region
Usually, the analog value is taken as the centre point of the

region.

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Communication Channels

Copper wires, coaxial cables, fiber optic cables, air

All channels have a maximum frequency beyond which

input signals are almost entirely attenuated.

As frequencies increase, parallel capacitance short out

the signal
Series inductance open circuits
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Communication Channels

Bandpass channel: Low-frequency cutoff

Lowpass channel: No lower-frequency cutoff (i.e., dc

coupled)
Narrowband: f < 300Hz
Voiceband: 300Hz < f < 4kHz
Wideband: f > 4kHz
The higher the frequency, the more the transmission takes
on the characteristics of light

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Classification of Signals

Signal is any function that carries some information.

Continuous-time signal x(t) when t takes real numbers.

E.g., x(t) = A cos(2f0 t + ).

Discrete-time signal x[n] when n takes integral values.

E.g., x[n] = A cos(2f0 n + ).

Real signals take values in the set of real numbers:

x(t) R.
Complex signals take values in the set of complex

numbers: x(t) C.

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Classification of Signals

Deterministic signals: x(t) is a real or complex number at

any time instant t.

Random signals: x(t) is random variable at any time

instant t, defined by a probability density function.

Periodic signals:
Continuous: x(t + kT0 ) = s(t), t, k Z and period T0 > 0
Discrete: x[n + kN0 ] = s[n], n, k Z and period N0 Z+ .

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Some Important Signals

Sinusoidal: x(t) = A cos(2f0 t + ) with amplitude A,

frequency f0 and phase .

Complex exponential: x(t) = Aej(2f0 t+) .
Impulse (or Delta): Precisely, (t) is not a function, but a

distribution or a generalized function.


0, t 6= 0,
(t) =
, t = 0.
Z
(t)(t)dt = (0).

(3)
(4)

Sinc:


sinc(t) =

sin(t)/(t), t 6= 0,
1,
t = 0.

(5)

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Energy and Power

For any signal x(t), the energy content or energy Ex is:

|x(t)| dt = lim

Ex =

T /2

T T /2

|x(t)|2 dt.

(6)

The power content or power Px is:

1
Px = lim
T T

T /2

|x(t)|2 dt.

(7)

T /2

For real signals, |x(t)|2 = x 2 (t).

A signal x(t) is an energy-type signal iff Ex < .
A signal x(t) is a power-type signal iff 0 < Px < .
A signal cannot be both energy-type and power-type.
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Example
Consider signal x(t) = A cos(2f0 t + )
x(t) is not energy-type:

T /2

Ex = lim

T T /2

A2 cos2 (2f0 t + )dt =

(8)

The power of x(t):

1
Px = lim
T T

T /2

A2 cos2 (2f0 t + )dt

T /2
Z T /2

1
A2
[1 + cos(4f0 t + 2)] dt
T T T /2 2
 2


A T
A2
= lim
+
sin(4f0 t + 2)
8f0 T
T 2T
= lim

A2
<
2
x(t) is a power-type signal
=

(9)
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Exercise
Suppose x(t) is periodic with period T0
Show that x(t) is not an energy-type signal.

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Exercise
Suppose x(t) is periodic with period T0
Show that the power content of x(t) is equal to the average

power in one period.

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Systems

System is an interconnection of various elements and

behaves as a whole
A set of rules that associate an output time function to

every input time function

Example: y(t) = ax(t) + bx 2 (t) defines a system
Communication viewpoint:
A system is excited by an input signal x(t) and, as a result
of such an excitation, produces an output signal y (t).
Output y(t) must be uniquely defined for any legitimate

input x(t) (i.e., must not be a one-to-many mapping!).

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Classification of Systems
Continuous-time systems: Continuous-time input x(t)

and continuous-time output y(t)

E.g., differentiator:

y(t) =

d
x(t)
dt

(10)

Discrete-time systems: Discrete-time input x[n] and

discrete-time output y[n]

E.g., discrete-time differentiator:

y[n] = x[n] x[n 1]

(11)

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Classification of Systems

Linear systems: Superposition property is satisfied.

T [x1 (t) + x2 (t)] = T [x1 (t)] + T [x2 (t)],

(12)

where x1 (t), x2 (t) are two legitimate inputs and , are

two scalars.
E.g., y(t) = x 2 (t) is nonlinear because its response to

2x(t) is:
T [2x(t)] = 4x 2 (t) 6= 2x 2 (t) = 2T [x(t)]

(13)

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Classification of Systems
Time-invariant systems: The response due to an input is

independent upon the actual time of occurrence of the

input.
T [x(t t0 )] = y(t t0 ).

(14)

E.g., y(t) = x(t) cos(2f0 t) is a time-varying system

because the response to x(t t0 ) is

x(t t0 ) cos(2f0 t) 6= y(t t0 )

(15)

Causal systems: For physical realizability of systems

y(t0 ) = T [x(t) : t t0 ].

(16)

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LTI Systems
We will consider linear time-invariant systems (LTI).
For this class of systems, the input-output relation is

particularly simple and can be expressed in terms of the

convolution integral.
Instead of requiring that we know the response due to

every possible input, we need only know the output h(t) of

one test input (t).
h(t) = T [(t)].

(17)

For an LTI system, the impulse response h(t) completely

characterizes the system. It is all the information we need

to describe the system behavior.

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Analysis of LTI Systems in Time Domain

Response to x(t) is the convolution of x(t) and h(t):

Z

y(t) = T [x(t)] = T
x( )(t )d

Z
=
x( )T [(t )] d

Z
=
x( )h(t )d

= x(t)Fh(t).

(18)

Given an LTI system, the time-domain analysis involves:

Find impulse response h(t) by applying an impulse (t) at
the input.
To obtain output y(t) to other input x(t), perform the
convolution integral:
Z
y (t) = x(t)Fh(t) =
x( )h(t )d.
(19)

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Motivation of Fourier Series

Analyzing LTI systems requires direct application of

convolution integral. Although straightforward, evaluating

the integral is not always easy.
Alternative approach:
Expand the input as a linear combination of some basic

signals whose output can be obtained easily;

Then, employ the linearity properties of the system to

obtain the corresponding output.

Question: Which basic signals?
Complex exponentials ej2f0 t are the eigenfunctions of

LTI systems
Response to a complex exponential is a complex

exponential with the same frequency and with a change in

amplitude and phase.
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Fourier Series of Periodic Signals

Question: Which signals can be expanded in terms of

complex exponentials? And how?

Fourier series theorem: Let signal x(t) be a periodic

signal with period T0 = 1/f0 . Subject to the Dirichlet

conditions, x(t) can be expanded as:
x(t) =

xn ej2nf0 t ,

(20)

n=

where the Fourier series coefficients are

Z +T0
1
xn =
x(t)ej2nf0 t dt,
T0

(21)

for some arbitrary .

To describe x(t), it is sufficient to specify a countable set of
(in general, complex) numbers.
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Fourier Series of Periodic Signals

For real signal x(t):

x(t) =

a0 X
+
an cos(2nf0 t) + bn sin(2nf0 t),
2

(22)

n=1

where
an =

2
T0

+T0

x(t) cos(2nf0 t)dt,

(23)

Z +T0

2
x(t) sin(2nf0 t)dt.
(24)
T0
Parsevals relation: Result of orthogonality of the basis of
complex exponentials
Z +T0

X
1
|x(t)|2 dt =
|xn |2 .
(25)
T0
n=
bn =

LHS: power content of x(t); |xn |2 : power content of

xn ej2nf0 t , the nth harmonic.

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Response of LTI Systems to Periodic Signals

Given impulse response h(t), response to the exponential

ej2f0 t is H(f0 )ej2f0 t , where the frequency response H(f ) is

defined as:
Z
h(t)ej2ft dt.
(26)
H(f ) =

With Fourier series expansion of x(t), response to x(t) is:

"
y(t) = T [x(t)] = T
=
=

#
xn ej2nf0 t

n=

h
i
xn T ej2nf0 t

n=

X
n=

xn H(nf0 ) ej2nf0 t .
| {z }

(27)

yn

Output y(t) is also periodic with period T0 = 1/f0 .

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From Fourier Series to Fourier Transform

Extend the ideas of Fourier series representation for

periodic signal to non-periodic signals.

Suppose x(t) is non-periodic, we define truncated signal

x(t), T20 < t T20 ,

(28)
0,
otherwise.
P
Define periodic signal xTP (t) =
n= xT0 (t nT0 ), then
0


xT0 (t) =

xTP0 (t) =
=

xnP ej2nf0 t

n=
"

X
n=
"

1
T0

x( )e

j2nf0

d ej2nf0 t

T0 /2

T0 /2

n=

T0 /2

#
x( )ej2f d ej2ft ,

(29)

T0 /2

where f = nf0 and f = (n + 1)f0 nf0 = 1/T0 .

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Fourier Transform for Non-Periodic Signals

To obtain the result for non-periodic signal x(t), we let

T0 . Then, f0 0 and summation over n becomes

integration.

Z Z
x(t) =
x( )ej2f d ej2ft df .
(30)

Define the Fourier transform of x(t) as:

Z
X (f ) =

x(t)ej2ft dt.

(31)

Then, x(t) can be expressed as:

x(t) =

X (f )ej2ft df .

(32)

Notation: X (f ) = F[x(t)] and x(t) = F 1[X (f )].

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Exercise Fourier Transform

Find the Fourier transform of the rectangular function:


(t) =

A, T2 < t <
0, otherwise.

T
2,

(33)

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Table of Common Fourier Transforms

Time Domain

Frequency Domain

(t)

(f )

(t t0 )

ej2ft0

ej2f0 t

(f f0 )

cos(2f0 t)
sin(2f0 t)

1
1
2 (f f0 ) + 2 (f + f0 )
1
1
2j (f f0 ) 2j (f + f0 )

(t)

sinc(f )

sinc(t)

(f )

(t)

sinc2 (f )

sinc2 (t)
P

(f )
1 P

n= (t

nT0 )

T0

n= (f

fn0 )
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Fourier Transform for Periodic Signals

Fourier series representation of periodic signal x(t):

x(t) =

xn e

j2 Tn t
0

(34)

n=

Taking Fourier transform of both sides gives:



n
.
X (f ) =
xn f
T0
n=

(35)

The spectrum is no longer continuous, but consists of

discrete lines at multiples of f0 = 1/T0 .

It can be shown that:

  


1 X
n
n
X (f ) =
XT
f
.
(36)
T0 n= 0 T0
T0
 
A convenient way to compute xn is: xn = T1 XT0 Tn .
0
0
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Key Properties of Fourier Transform

Linearity: For any (real or complex) scalars , ,

F[x1 (t) + x2 (t)] = X1 (f ) + X2 (f ).

(37)

Scaling: For any real a 6= 0,

1
F[x(at)] =
X
|a|

 
f
.
a

(38)

Time shift:

F[x(t t0 )] = ej2ft0 X (f ).

(39)

F[x(t)ej2f0 t ] = X (f f0 ).

(40)

Modulation:

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Key Properties of Fourier Transform

Convolution:
If x(t) and h(t) possess Fourier transforms:
F[x(t)Fh(t)] = X (f )H(f ).

(41)

Much simpler to find response in frequency domain than in

time domain.
This result is the basis of frequency domain analysis of LTI

systems.
Parsevals relation:

|x(t)| dt =

|X (f )|2 df .

(42)

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Fourier Transform of Real, Even and Odd Signals

Z

X (f ) =

x(t)ej2ft dt

x(t) cos(2ft)dt j

x(t) sin(2ft)dt

= XR (f ) jXI (f ).

(43)

If x(t) is real
XR (f ) is real and even; XI (f ) are real and odd.
X (f ) = X (f ).
|X (f )| = |X (f )|.
X (f ) = X (f ).
If x(t) is real and even, XI (f ) = 0. Then X (f ) = XR (f ) is

real and even.

If x(t) is real and odd, XR (f ) = 0. Then X (f ) = jXI (f ) is
imaginary and odd.
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Energy and Power Relations

The energy content of an energy-type signal x(t):

|x(t)| dt =

Ex =

|X (f )| df =

Gx (f )df . (44)

Energy spectral density: Gx (f ) = |X (f )|2 .

We define autocorrelation function Rx ( ) as:

Rx ( ) = x( )Fx ( ) =

x(t)x (t )dt.

(45)

It can be easily verified that

Ex = R(0)

(46)

Gx (f ) = F[Rx ( )].

(47)

Input-output relation for y (t) = x(t)Fh(t):

Ry (t) = Rx (t)FRh (t)

(48)
2

Gy (f ) = Gx (f )Gh (f ) = |X (f )| |H(f )| .

(49)
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Energy and Power Relations

Time-average autocorrelation of power-type signal x(t):

1
Rx ( ) = lim
T T

T /2

x(t)x (t )dt.

(50)

T /2

By setting = 0, we obtain the power content of x(t):

1
Px = Rx (0) = lim
T T

T /2

|x(t)|2 dt.

(51)

T /2

Define power spectral density: Sx (f ) = F[Rx ( )], then:

Sx (f )df .

Px = Rx (0) =

(52)

Input-output relation of y(t) = x(t)Fh(t):

Ry (t) = Rx (t)Fh(t)Fh (t)

2

Sy (f ) = Sx (f )|H(f )| .

(53)
(54)
43 / 44

Energy and Power Relations

For periodic (i.e., power-type) signal x(t):

1
Rx ( ) =
T0

T0 /2

x(t)x (t )dt =
T0 /2

|xn |2 e

j2 Tn
0

n=

Power spectral density of x(t):


n
Sx (f ) = F[Rx ( )] =
|xn | f
.
(55)
T0
n=
R
P
2
Power content of x(t): Px = Sx (f ) =
n= |xn | .
Input-output relation for y (t) = x(t)Fh(t):
  2 


X

n 
n
2
2
Sy (f ) = Sx (f )|H(f )| =
|xn | H
f
T0 
T0
n=




X

n 2
Py =
|xn |2 H
.
(56)
T0 
n=
2

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