Marine Technology, Vol. 19, No. 1, Jan. 1982, pp.

73-82

Problems in Marine Riser Design

Michael M. Bernitsas 1
Major problems associated with the design of marine risers are identified. Two of these problems, namely,
the mathematical modeling of the riser's dynamic behavior and the prediction of the hydrodynamic forces
exerted on the riser, are studied. The first problem is studied with the aid of a set of consistent equations
describing three-dimensional, nonlinear, large deflections of a tubular beam under tension, and distributed
internal and external variable static pressure loads. The analysis of the second problem is based on the Morison formula and experiments. Particular emphasis is given to the identification of flows which cannot be
modeled by the Morison equation. For this purpose, experiments have been conducted at the MIT Towing
Tank, and the forces exerted on a harmonically oscillating circular cylinder, in any direction 0 with respect
to uniform current, have been measured. For the specific values of Reynolds number, reduced velocity, and
Keulegan-Carpenter number chosen, significant changes of the hydrodynamic force with angle 0 were observed, In addition, force components unpredictable by the Morison equation were measured.

Introduction
THE EVER-INCREASING demand for new energy resources has
extended drilling operations to offshore sites. The first offshore
drilling facility was installed in 1949, at a 20-ft (6 m) depth.
However, it was not until the late 1950's that the marine riser
concept was applied. Since then, the expansion of the offshore
oil industry has been very fast and it is estimated that by the early
1980's, 30 to 35 percent of the world's crude oil will be produced
from beneath the seas [1]. 2
Designs capable of operating in deeper waters and more hostile
environments are required by the industry and are attainable
with today's technology. However, deep-sea drilling creates a
number of new problems which must be resolved before we are
able to successfully design a structure capable of such an operation. One of these is the design of marine risers.
The marine riser, the various components of the offshore facility which have some influence on the riser design, and the environmental conditions are described in the first section. In addition, major problems of the design of marine risers are identified.
Forces are exerted on the riser by the drill ship, the tensioning
system, the circulating mud, the end systems, the weight of the
riser, the hydrostatic pressure, the drill string, the kill and choke
lines, the surface waves, and the ocean current. A comprehensive
mathematical model of the riser's dynamic behavior is presented
in the second section. The issues of the effect of the internal and
external static pressure on the riser's rigidity are also explained.
The hydrodynamic force exerted on a riser in a general twodimensional flow is a function of the body geometry, the fluid
properties, the history of the flow and the instantaneous flow
characteristics (velocity, acceleration, etc.) [2]. In the third section, experimental results available in the literature are briefly
reviewed and our ability to predict the hydrodynamic force exerted on a circular cylinder using the semi-empirical Morison
formula is discussed. An effort is made to identify the limits of
applicability of this approach, by finding some flows and values
of the nondimensional parameters for which this method gives
poor results. For this reason, the forces exerted on a harmonically
1 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts;
presently at The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
2 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.
Presented at the May 11, 1979 meeting of the New England Section
of THE SOCIETY OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS.

JANUARY 1982

oscillating circular cylinder, in any direction 0 with respect to a

uniform current, have been measured experimentally. The experiments have been conducted for specific values of Reynold's
number, Re, ratio of amplitude of oscillation to cylinder's diameter, So~D, reduced velocity Uo/fo/D, and angle 0 varying
between 0 and 90 deg in 15-deg increments.

The marine riser design problem

Description of the riser system. The configuration of a
marine riser system varies depending on the type of the supporting structure, the site of operation, and the environmental
conditions. However, the concept of the riser design hardly
changes. The six major components which make up the riser
system are as follows (see Fig. 1):
1. The marine riser is a long tubular beam connecting the
supporting structure with the wellhead at the seabed and is
composed of rigid steel pipes with an average length of 40 ft (12
m) and outer diameter between 16 and 42 in. (40 and 106 cm).
These pipes, made out of forged weldable steel, are connected by
the riser connectors which are designed to minimize installation
time and to provide joints able to withstand high tension loads.
In areas of high bending stresses--near the end systems--flexible
joints are used instead. The riser diameter, determined by the
size of the BOP stack and the wellhead, determines the magnitude of the external hydrodynamic force and along with the
thickness of the pipes it defines the weight of the riser per unit
length and the stress level in the material.
Usually, depending on the depth of the water and the size of
the riser, additional buoyancy is needed to reduce the required
tension at the top of the riser. This buoyancy is provided by
buoyancy modules mounted on the riser pipes at the expense of
a substantial increase of the hydrodynamic forces [3]:
2. The kill and choke lines are high-pressure pipes needed
to control sudden increases of the well pressure. T h e y run along
the riser and are mounted directly on the connectors through
which they exert concentrated moments and forces on the riser.
In recent designs the kill and choke lines are mounted inside the
riser.
3. The drilling mud circulates between the riser and the drill
string and inside the latter. The mud exerts on the riser static
pressure force, Coriolis and centrifugal forces due to the riser's
local rotation, and vertical and torsional forces due to its viscosity.
Of these forces, only the first is significant.

0025-331618211901-0073500.4510

73

Z
DRILL

SHIP

TENSIONING

SLIP

SYSTEM

JOINT

JOINT

KILL AND
CHOKE LINES

MODULE

RISER

CONNECORS

JOINT

The BOP, placed on top of the wellhead, has the following four
functions [1]: (a) Close in around the drill pipe, circulate a conventional well kick, and sustain these conditions over a long pcriod of time; (b) hang off the drill string and close in the well; (c)
reestablish connection to the drill vessel, circulate the well, and
sustain the pressure before the reconnection of the drill string;
and (d) monitor the pressure relief kill and choke line.
The BOP stack is connected to the riser lower end through the
marine connector and to the well through the wellhead connector.
D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . The sources of environmental excitations which may influence the riser directly, or indirectly by exerting forces on other components of the riser system, are the following:
(a) The ocean current. Its speed is usually not greater than
2.5 knots. Timewise the current is slowly varying, while depthwise
it may change considerably and even reverse its direction. It exerts significant hydrodynamic forces on the riser and the supporting structure.
(b) The surface waves. They exert two types of forces on the
drilling system: (i) fast small-amplitude oscillatory forces and
(ii) slow large-amplitude ones. The wave spectrum is in general
a function of the wave frequency w0 and its direction of propagation 00 [4].
In the presence of a current the wave properties are changed
according to the equations
h = )to

2 - - -U sinOo

(1)

0
BLOWOUT

PREVENTER
SEABED

WELL

HEAD

/[sin20oll/2
a =aO/[s~n20]

(2)

sin0 sin0o/( - oSin0o)

Fig. 1

Marine riser system

4. The drill string is the instrument that the riser protects

from the environmental forces and guides to the wellhead. Its
outer diameter is 4 to 6 in. (10 to 15 cm). It may come in contact
and wear out the riser, unless the drill collars are properly
spaced.
5. The upper-end system consists of a supporting structure,
a tensioning system, a slip joint, a ball joint, and a variable-size
buoy. The motion of the supporting s t r u c t u r e - - f o r example, a
drill ship, a semisubmersible, or a s u b m e r s i b l e - - h a s two components: first, a fast small-amplitude periodic one due to the
surface waves, and second, a slow large-amplitude nonperiodic
one due to the wind, the ocean currents, the wave second-order
drift forces and the controller action. The second motion is limited when a mooring system is used instead of a dynamic positioning one. In addition, the supporting structure carries the
tensioning system, which holds the upper end of the riser through
the moonpool.
The slip joint compensates for the vessel heave motion and
facilitates the elimination and damping of the vertical motions
of the upper end of the riser.
The upper ball joint alleviates excessive bending moments due
to rolling and pitching of the supporting structure.
The upper buoy is a variable buoyancy tank, found a few
hundred feet below the free surface. It provides additional tension
at the top of the riser but is subject to wave forces which may be
significant. Consequently, it is designed to be of variable size and,
depending on the environmental conditions, its volume is adjusted to provide maximum tension within the structural
limits.
6. The lower-end system consists of a ball joint, a BOP and
a marine connector. The ball joint is a stress-alleviation device
at the riser lower end, which is an area of high bending stresses.
74

where co, )to, 0o, and ao are the original wave characteristics, that
is, phase velocity, length, direction of propagation, and amplitude, respectively, c, X, O, a are the current-modified wave
characteristics, and U is the velocity of the current [5].
Similarly the wave spectrum S(o~,O) is modified:

S(w,O)=I~o)2S(wo, O o ) ~

(4)

(c) Strong winds and gusts. They offset the drill ship from
its original place and the riser from its vertical position.
Other sources of excitation, not so often encountered, are as
follows:
(a) Internal waves. They propagate on the surface between
different-density layers [6]. Internal wave currents may be as
strong as the ocean surface currents [4].
(b) Microseismic waves. They are surface standing waves
created by the vibrations of the bottom of a tank or of the ocean.
They generate a second-order pressure term which does not decay
exponentially with depth but is constant in the whole domain
[71.
(c) Tides. They can influence the riser in two ways: first by
varying the water level and second by generating currents of
considerable speed. Both effects are significant for shallow-water
drilling operations.
(d) Tidal or volcanic waves. Their existence is rather iraprobable. However, in case that a drilling facility is in operation,
when such waves appear, its probability of surviving is low. The
riser should be disconnected and the drill ship moved away in
time.
P r e l i m i n a r y r i s e r design. At first the site of operation is
chosen and the required length of the marine riser is determined.
T h e task of the designer is to compute the outer diameter, the
thickness, the material of the riser pipes, the required capacity
of the tensioning system, the total buoyancy, and the distribution
of the buoyancy modules along the riser. The riser design should
MARINE TECHNOLOGY

be optimized to keep the maximum stress low. To achieve this

task the designer should solve several problems related to the
riser behavior. The most important of these are the following:
(a) Modeling of the dynamic behavior of the riser, taking into
account all significant forces. This problem is studied in the next
section with the aid of the general model developed in reference
[81.
(b) Prediction of the hydrodynamic forces exerted on the
riser under various flow conditions. We study this problem in
final section based on Morison's equation and model tests [9].
(c) Calculation of the resultant stresses in the material due
to the dynamic response of the riser [10].
(d) Simulation of the riser dynamic response and statistical
analysis of the results [11].
(e) Analysis of the static buckling problem. This is of particular importance for long risers since it has been proven that
slender tubular columns may buckle globally, as Euler columns,
even if they are in tension along their entire length [12, 13].
(f) Formulation and solution of the static and dynamic design
optimization problem. This problem is particularly difficult
because of the difficulty in predicting the external hydrodynamic
loads. However, the static parametric design optimization
problem has been formulated and solved in closed form in references [14-17].
Each of the foregoing problems has been identified and studied
early in the research on marine risers [3]. Many computer programs which calculate the stresses in risers exist [18]. However,
none of these problems has been fully resolved and further theoretical analysis is required.

Dynamic behavior of marine risers

The weight of the riser, the external hydrodynamic loads, the
frictional, Corriolis, and centrifugal forces due to the motion of
the drilling mud, the concentrated forces exerted on the riser at
the points of its occasional contacts with the collars, the concentrated forces and moments applied on the riser by the kill and
choke lines through the riser connectors, and the thermal stresses
caused by the variation of the water temperature with the depth,
all tend to deform the centerline of the riser to a general threedimensional curve.
These forces are balanced by the riser's bending rigidity, the
inertia forces and moments, and the effective tension, that is, the
real tension in the riser pipes modified by the external hydrostatic
pressure and the internal mud static pressure.
The end conditions of the problem are defined by the partic-

ular construction of the lower- and upper-end systems, and the

motions of the supporting structure.
The first decision that a designer has to make, before mathematically modeling his problem, regards the required degree of
accuracy of his results. This is dictated by two factors: first, his
knowledge of the external loads, and second, the available computer funds for the solution of his model. In the particular case
of the marine riser, the cost of the structure is such that the second factor practically sets no limits to the designer. On the other
hand, our knowledge of the hydrodynamic loads exerted on the
riser is limited. We can find in the literature information about
the average hydrodynamic force exerted on circular cylinders [19]
but only for a limited number of flows. However, little is known
about the pressure distribution on the cylinder's surface. Consequently, the riser is studied globally as a beam and not locally
as a shell.
By the same argument, the following two assumptions regarding the motions of the riser contents are justified:
(a) The drill string can either be neglected [18] or assumed
to be concentric and in rigid contact with the riser through the
collars [20]. The former underestimates the weight of the riser
and its contents, while the latter overestimates the riser's bending
rigidity. Both approximations are acceptable, since they introduce minor errors. In this paper the former approach is adopted.
Should the latter be used instead, a simple modification of the
equations of motion would be required.
(b) The translational and rotational velocity of the drilling
mud is small. Consequently, the centrifugal and Coriolis forces
exerted on the m u d - - a n d by reaction on the riser--due to the
riser's local angular velocity are negligible. For the same reason,
the frictional force exerted on the riser due to the mud's viscosity
is not taken into account.
The mathematical model. The model used to study the riser
dynamic behavior in this section has been developed in reference
[8]. Its salient features are the following:
(a) It is a set of consistent equations for large deflections of
a beam under tension [21].
(b) It models the bending of the riser in three dimensions.
(c) Axial motion effects, which couple the longitudinal and
transverse motions of the riser, are taken into account.
(d) The hydrostatic and mud static pressure and their effects
on the riser stiffness are properly modeled.
(e) The initial position of the riser may be any three-dimensional curve and not necessarily a straight vertical line.
(f) The riser material is assumed elastic and linear.
(g) It is a Bernoulli-Euler type model which is satisfactory

Nomenclature
BOP = blowout preventer
/~(s,t) = unit vector in binormal direction
D,Do = riser's outer diameter
D~ = riser's inner diameter
D(s,t) = force due to hydrostatic pressure
Dm(s,t) = force due to mud static pressure
E(s) = Young'smodulus
f0 = frequency of cylinder's oscillation
fb.fra,fr, = nondimensionalizedforce per unit
f~,ft,fx,fy
length in direction indicated by
subscript
hm = z-coordinateof the mud free
surface
hw = z-coordinateof the water free
surface
Ibb(s), = secondmoment of cross section

l..(s)
Jc = mass inertia tension
JANUARY 1982

Jbb,Jnn,Jtt = mass inertia moments

K(s,t) = curvature
Mb = bending moment in binormal
direction
Mn = bending moment in principal
normal direction
f~(s,t) = unit vector in principal normal
direction
PSD = power spectral density
Pe(S,t) = effective tension
Qb = shear force in binormal direction
Qm = shear force in principal normal
direction
R = torsionalmoment
So = amplitude of cylinder's oscillation
t = time
[(s,t) = unit vector in tangential direction
T = tension

Uo = velocity,in general
= displacementin x-direction
= displacementin y-direction
= displacementin z-direction
= weight of buoyancy modulesper
unit length
Wr(s) or = riser weight per unit length

u(s,t)
v(s,t)
w(s,t)
Wb(s)

WR(s)
Wm(s) = drilling mud weight per unit
length
Greek symbols

~(s,t) = strain of differential element ds

0 = angle in degrees
pr = density of riser material
Pw = water density
r(s,t) = torsion
6%= 27rf0
&(s,t) = angular velocity
75

ft(s)ds

t D(s12ds)

fb(Sd)s
B(s)ds ~ l -

WR(s)ds
f (s)ds
n

D(s-ds)

0 (o,o,o)

~"

/'x
Fig. 2

Freebody diagram for a differential element ds.

directions
forces

andhydrodynamic

Localprincipal

for low frequencies and long wavelengths [22].

(h) Thermal effects are neglected [23].
The quantities involved in this model are depicted in Figs. 2
through 5.
Figure 2 shows the three princil~al local directions, tangent
[(s,t), normal ~(s,t), and binormal b(s,t), and the corresponding
hydrodynamic forces exerted on the differential element ds.
Figure 3 depicts the structural restoring forces and moments;
that is, the tension T(s,t) and torsion R(s,t) in the tangential
direction [(s,t), the shear force Q,, (s,t) and the bending moment
M~ (s,t) in the principal normal direction r~(s,t), and the shear
force Qb (s~t) and the bending moment Mb (s,t) in the binormal
direction b(s,t).
Figure 4 shows the weight of the riser element ds, WR (s)ds, and
the effect of the hydrostatic pressure force on ds. This force,/~ ....

Fig. 4

Freebody diagram for a differential element ds.

pressure and riser's

weight

Externalhydrostatic

can be computed by integrating the pressure force on the wetted

sides of the element ds. In the case of two-dimensional bending,
a formula correct to first order has been derived by Breslin [24,
25].
An alternative method which yields the exact force,/~w, in the
case of three-dimensional bending is shown in Fig. 4. If the cylindrical element ds was disconnected from the riser, was closed
on both ends, and was fully submerged in water, the vector sum
of/~w and the hydrostatic pressure forces which would be exerted
on the bases of the cylindrical element ds would be equal to the
buoyancy B*dsf~. Therefore
B*dsf~ = FIw(s)ds + [ - D ( s + ds)[(s + ds)]
-[-D(s

- lds)i(s - ds)]

(5)

Z i

R(s+lds) /
T(s+1ds) /
-~b(S

Qn(.s-ds)

0(o,o,o)

/ T(s-}ds)
/ R(s-lds)

Wm(S)ds

D~(s-ds)
__

f X

Freebodydiagramfora differential element ds. Structuralrestoring

forces and moments

76

m
l

J
Fig. 3

~%(s +ds)

+212
ds)

Fig. 5

Freebody diagram for a differential element ds. Mud static

pressure
MARINE TECHNOLOGY

where B* is the buoyancy per unit length of the riser tubes only,
without considering the buoyancy tanks.
This method shows that the force exerted on ds due to the
hydrostatic pressure is not equal to the buoyancy force. The
term
~rD~(s)
D ( s ) i ( s ) = Pwg ~
[h~ - z ( s ) l i ( s )
(6)
which appears in equation (5) has the same effect on the structure
as the tension T(s) (see Fig. 3); that is, it increases the riser effective stiffness.
We can use the same method to derive the mud static pressure
force exerted on the internal surface of the riser element ds,
/~:
-Wmds]~ = flmds + [ - D m ( s + ds)i(s + ds)]
- [ - D m ( s - ds)[(s - ds)]

(7)

Equation (7) shows the riser does not support the total weight
of the drilling mud. The effect of the correction term
(8)

which appears in equation (7) is opposite to that of T(s); that is,

it decreases the riser effective stiffness.
Since T(s), D(s), and D,n(S) all act in the same direction, [(s),
we can introduce a new term Pe (S)
7rD02
Re(s) =- T(s) + Pwg - - ~ [hw - z(s)]
7rD]
- Pmg~
[h~ - z(s)]

(9)

P~(s) has no real meaning but simplifies the notation. Likewise,

we introduce We (s)
W~(s) =- - B * ( s ) + Win(s) + WR(S)
+ Wb(S) -- Pwg

7r(D~ - D~)

(10)

Using the foregoing notation we can derive the equations of

equilibrium for the differential element ds subject to the forces
and moments shown in Figs. 2 through 5:
Equilibrium of forces in the tangential direction:
0z
1
K ( s ) Q n ( s ) "t- ft(S) -- We(s) -~8 - g [WR(S)
ox +

+ Wb(S)] [0t2 0s

~-~-~s

o woz l
0t 2 0s] = 0

(11)

OQAs)

OMb (s)
-t- Qn(s) - 7-(s)Mn(s)
Os

~ [{gc(s)t(o(s,t)] 5(s) = 0
0t

(16)

where K ( s ) is the local curvature

K2(8)

=(o2x/2 (o2,/2

(~82 ] ~- 1082 ] "4- [082 ]

(17)

r(s) is the local torsion of the riser's centerline

"r(s)= ,-y-;-v,, l O2xlbs 2

^ (s ) L o3x/os~,

OylOs

Oz/Os

-I

02y/~)s 2 02z/Os21
O'dy/Os 3 03Z/O83_j

(18)

and ~'l(S), ~ ( s ) , 3'3(s) are the directional cosines of the binormal

unit vector b(s)
1 [by 02z 0z 02y]
71(s) = K--~s) ~ss bs 2 bs ~-~s2]
(19a)
1 [Oz 02x
"y2(s) = K--~s) ~ss 0s 2

Ox b2z]
0s /)s 2j

1 [0X 02y
73(s) = K--~s) ~s 0s 2

0y 02X]
0s 0s 2]

(19b)

(19c)

To complete the set of equations (11) to (16), which describe the

riser dynamic behavior, we should derive the constitutive relations.
Assuming that the planes remain plane [2@ the constitutive
relations of bending in the osculating plane (t,ri) is
Mb(s) = E(s) Ibb(S) K ( s )

(20)

Likewise, since the torsion of the riser centerline, ~(s), also

called second curvature [27], is the rate of change of the direction
of the binormal, the constitutive relation of bending in the rectifying plane (t,~) is
Mn(s) = E(s) Inn(S) ~r(s)

7r [n02(s) _ D~(s)] + T(s,to)

T(s,t) = e(s)E(s) -~
02z
1
[WR(s) + Wb(S) + Win(s)]
Os 2 g
[02u 02x 02v 02y 02w 02z]
[~-~ ~s2 + ~-~ ~ s 2 + - ~ - ~ s 2J = 0

(21)

(22)

where e(s) is the strain of the riser element ds(to):

(12)

7(s)Qn(s) + fb(s) -- We(s)~3(8)

_ 1_ [WR(s) + Wb(S) + Wm(s)]
g

[02u

, ,

02v

X [~7~1[8) -I- ~ 2 ( S )

02w

-t- -~-"[3(8)] ----0

(13)

Equilibrium of moments in the tangential direction:

OR(s) _ K ( s ) M n ( s ) - ;:) [{g~(s)}&(s,t)][(s) = 0

os

JANUARY 1982

~[

ds(t) - ds(to)
ds (to)
where to is the time of the initial equilibrium position.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the m a t h e m a t i c a l model. The mathematical model summarized in the previous section is valid for
large three-dimensional deflections, since all nonlinear terms due
to squares or products of displacements and slopes are retained.
It is understood that the solution of the model is hard. However,
it is very useful because it reveals basic properties of the dynamic
behavior of the riser and at the same time it gives to the designer
the opportunity to appreciate the significance of the errors involved in the various simplified riser or cable models which appear in the literature.
Some of the basic properties of the dynamic behavior of the
riser are as follows:
(a) The influence of the hydrostatic pressure on the behavior

c(s,t) -

Equilibrium of forces in the binormal direction:

OS

Equilibrium of moments in the binormal direction:

K(s)P~(s) + r(S)Qb(s) + In(s)

1
- WAs) -K(s)
1
X ~-~

OQb(s)

(15)

Finally, the constitutive relation of tension is

Equilibrium of forces in the principal normal direction:

- - +
Os

OMn(s) + K ( s ) R ( s ) + ~(s)Mb(s) - Qb(s)

Os
O
- - - [Ig~ (s)}(o(s,t)]ri(s) = 0
0t

- 1 F x/s

7r 2

D m ( s ) t ( s ) = Ping ~ Di (s)[hm - z(s)][(s)

OPe(S)os

Equilibrium of moments in the principal normal direction:

(14)

77

of cables [23] has been a controversial issue for many years [24].
It was modeled correctly to the first order by Goodman [25] and
his results have been included in recent riser analyses [28]. In this
model the exact answer has been derived by the simple method,
shown in Fig. 4, independently of the extension of the riser or the
Poisson effect [25]. It is obvious from equations (9) that the hydrostatic pressure increases the effective tension of the riser and
its apparent strength. This actually explains why cables heavier
than water may not collapse but stay upright without support.
(b) Opposite is the effect of the static pressure of the drilling
mud. It decreases the effective tension. Actually if the riser ends
were restrained from longitudinal extension, the internal pressure
could cause lateral buckling. In fact this formulation was used
in reference [8] to prove that internal pressure may cause global
buckling of slender tubular columns even if they are in tension
along their entire length. Discrete model analogs and energy
methods were used to explain this phenomenon in [13].
(c) The effective tension along the riser is basically determined by its effective weight.
(d) The equations of motion are partial nonlinear differential
equations coupled by the slope, curvature, and torsion of the
centerline of the riser.
(e) Three-dimensional effects are important for the computation of the stresses in the riser, particularly for large deflections.
(f) The performance of the analysis in the t, rl, and/~- directions has two basic advantages. First it facilitates the prediction
of the hydrodynamic forces exerted on the riser and second it
makes easy the calculation of the mass of the mud entrained by
the riser in each direction [8].
Simplified mathematical models. The models of the riser
dynamic response published in the literature are simplified. It
is useful to review the assumptions required to derive these
models:
(a) The derivative of the angular momentum vector (b/St)
({Jc}w) is Small [20].
(b) The torsional moment R(s,t) is negligible.
(These two assumptions are reasonable and simplify the
analysis considerably.)
(c) The centerline of the riser is a two-dimensional curve.
This assumption may introduce serious errors for large deflections, since certain neglected terms are of the same order of
magnitude as the nonlinear terms retained in some models
[29].
(d) All nonlinear terms due to products or squares of slopes
are negligible [30]. This assumption makes the analysis valid only
for small deflections of the riser and small excursions of the
supporting structure and decouples the equations of motion.
Consequently, the analysis can be carried out independently in
two mutually perpendicular planes. However, the resultant
bending moment may not be correct since the results are not
additive [31].

H y d r o d y n a m i c forces exerted on the marine riser

In the previous section a mathematical model for the dynamic
behavior of the marine riser was presented. To solve this set of
equations we should first express the hydrodynamic forces ft (s,t),
fn (s ,t), and fb (s,t) in a mathematical form.
In early riser designs the kill and choke lines were mounted
outside the riser on the connectors. This arrangement made the
configuration of the cross section of the riser too complicated for
experimental analysis. Very limited experimental data are
available in the literature for such configurations. Consequently,
the presence of the kill and choke lines was neglected and the riser
was assumed to be a circular cylinder. Recent designs make this
assumption obsolete since they have these lines mounted inside
the riser.
Since the beginning of this century, when Von Karman ob78

served a regular street of vortices behind a circular cylinder in

a steady uniform flow, a tremendous experimental and theoretical effort has been made to understand this phenomenon [32]
and the salient features of viscous fluid flows past circular cylinders. However, our knowledge on this subject is still limited.

Components of the hydrodynamic force; the Morison

equation. From theoretical analysis and laboratory experiments,
it is known that the following hydrodynamic forces are exerted
on circular cylinders:
(a) The drag force. It is proportional to Arellfi, rell, where Arel
is the instantaneous relative velocity vector of the water with
respect to the cylinder ]33]. ,4re1 is normal to the cylinder's axis
(empirical).
(b) The lift force. It is proportion~ toArel]Arell and is applied
in the direction which is normal to Arel and to the cylinder axis
[34] (empirical).
(c) The added-mass force. This is proportional to the added
mass and the relative acceleration, tire1, of the water with respect
to the cylinder. It is applied in the direction of 5rel [35] (theoretical).
(d) The pressure gradient force. It is proportional to the
absolute fluid acceleration, a fluid, and the displaced fluid volume.
Its direction is that of the pressure gradient [36] (theoretical).
Therefore, the total hydrodynamic force, Fhydro, exerted on
a circular cylinder can be written in the form

/~hydro

----

PwlDoeDnrellnrel[ "{- PwlDoeLb

~D~I

+ Pw T

2~lrellArell
~D~)l 5

(CM -- 1)arel 4- Pw T

fluid (23)

where

Pw = density of water
Do = outer diameter of cylinder
CD,CL,CM = drag lift and inertia coefficients, respectively

2rel
and d is the unit vector in the direction of the cylinder axis.
The Morison equation, which was first used in 1950 [33] to
model the hydrodynamic force exerted by waves on fixed piles,
has the form

Fhydro

PwIDoCDArellffirell .~_13pwTrDo2 (CM -- 1) 5re1 (24)

Since 1950, the prediction of forces exerted on circular cylinders

has been based, almost exclusively, on the Morison equation.
However, its application is still very controversial [37].
Use of equations (23) or (24), for the prediction of the hydrodynamic forces exerted on marine risers, implies the following
assumptions:
(a) The value of length I, along which the flow can be considered as two dimensional, is known or can be estimated. The
correlation length is not studied in this paper [38].
(b) Hydroelasticity effects have no influence on the hydrodynamic forces exerted on the riser [39].
(c) The hydrodynamic torque exerted on the cylinder is neglected. This torque is due to the assymmetry of the flow caused
by the generated and shed vortices behind the cylinder.
(d) The values of the hydrodynamic coefficients, CD, CL, and
CM can be computed theoretically or measured experimentally
[19].
The hydrodynamic coefficients. In spite of the efforts of
various investigators during the past 50 years to understand and
model the properties of viscous fluid flows past circular cylinders,
no satisfactory theory for the prediction of the hydrodynamic
forces has been established as yet. Consequently, the major effort
is concentrated on the experimental calculation of the coefficients
CD, CM, and CL.
MARINE TECHNOLOGY

The separation point, the rate of growth, the strength, the time
of shedding of a vortex, and the motion of the fluid in the wake
are functions of the instantaneous velocity and acceleration and
of the time history of the flow [2]. All these features of the flow,
and in general all our ignorance of the fluid mechanics in the vicinity of the cylinder, are lumped in the hydrodynamic coefficients. As a result, CD, CL, and CM strongly depend on the flow
pattern and the values of the nondimensional parameters which
describe it.
The calculation of the hydrodynamic coefficient is done in the
following steps:
(a) A specific flow is modeled experimentally. Thus the input
to equation (23) is defined.
(b) The output, that is, the hydrodynamic forces, are measured experimentally.
(c) The coefficients CD, CM, and CL, which describe the
system, are computed using the data derived in Steps (a) and
(b).
Obviously, this procedure is applicable only to simple flows
which can be described by a limited number of nondimensional
parameters. More complicated flows are hard to model experimentally and in addition a systematic study with respect to all
the nondimensional parameters would be extremely time-consuming. So we can find in the literature experimental and theoretical studies of the following four simple flows:
(a) Steady flow past a fixed circular cylinder. This case has
been studied extensively in the past. The drag coefficient Co has
been measured for low and intermediate Reynold's numbers (Re)
in 1953 [40], and for high Re in 1961 [41]. The vortex shedding
frequency and the lift forces [34] have been measured as well. One
nondimensional parameter, namely, Reynold's number, is required to describe the flow.
(b) Cylinder sinusoidally oscillating in calm water [35] or
sinusoidally oscillating fluid past a fixed cylinder [36, 42]. Besides
Reynold's number, the Keulegan-Carpenter number, KC, is
needed to describe this flow:

KC = 2~ S----9-

(25)
Do
where So is the amplitude of oscillation, and Do the outer diameter of the cylinder.
(c) Sinusoidally oscillating cylinder traverse to a uniform
current [43].
(d) Sinusoidally oscillating cylinder in line with a uniform
current [44, 45].
The last two flows are fully described by three parameters,
namely, Reynold's and Keulegan-Carpenter numbers, and the
reduced velocity, U*:
U * - Vcur

(26)

/oDo
where Vcur is the constant current velocity and f0 the frequency
of oscillation of the cylinder.
More complicated flows have not been studied (see "Experimental work" later in this section).
Application of Morison's equation to marine risers. The
analysis of the previous subsection reveals that the hydrodynamic
coefficients strongly depend on the pattern of the relative flow
of the water with respect to the riser. In general, it is not possible
to predict the hydrodynamic forces exerted on circular cylinders
for flows which have not been studied experimentally. Consequently, the task of the designer is:
(a) To determine the local relative flow patterns along the
riser, and distinguish those for which no experimental data are
available (treated later).
(b) To identify those flows for which the hydrodynamic
forces are not properly modeled by Morison's equation (treated
later).
(c) To find those flows which have not been analyzed in the
JANUARY 1982

past, and for which an approximate estimation of the hydrodynamic coefficients from the available experimental data is possible. All other flows should be investigated experimentally. One
of these is studied next.
Local flow patterns along the riser. The motion of the drill
ship has two components:
(a) A slowly varying, nonperiodic, large offset motion due
to the second-order drift forces, the wind, the current, and the
action of the controller and thrusters.
(b) A high-frequency small-amplitude periodic motion due
to the action of the surface waves.
The relative flow past the riser varies with the water depth
because the ocean currents, the influence of the motions of the
ship, the wave-induced velocities, and the motion of the riser vary
with the water depth. We can identify three zones along the riser
where a different flow pattern exists (see Fig. 1).
ZONE A: The water particles have a constant velocity
component due to the ocean current and an oscillatory one due
to the surface waves. In general the two velocity components are
not codirectional. In addition, the riser is moving in some other
direction. This flow is as complicated as the most general case of
a random relative flow. No experimental data are available
[19].

Z O N E B: In this zone the wave-induced velocities are attenuated but the motion of the riser is still influenced by both
components of the ship motion. In general, the riser motion is not
sinusoidal. Nevertheless, depending on the exciting force and the
excited mode, the motion of the riser can be considered locally
as sinusoidal. This approximation simplifies the analysis considerably.
ZONEC: At depths greater than 2000 ft (609 m), the cylinder is sensitive only to the slowly varying nonperiodic
component of the motion of the ship. Consequently, the relative
flow can be considered as quasi-steady.
Limitations of the applications of Morison's equation. Earlier
in this section it was pointed out that Morison's equation is a
combination of empirical and theoretical terms. It is the sum of
a drag and an inertia force, expressed in terms of constant coefficients and the instantaneous velocity and acceleration, respectively.
In ideal fluid flows past circular cylinders, two length scales
are involved, namely, that of the nonuniformity of the stream,
characterized by ~/I vl [46], and the cylinder diameter. Hereafter, for reasons of simplicity, we shall call the former "NUscale" and the latter "D-scale." The fundamental assumption
for the derivation of the two theoretical terms, the added-mass
force and pressure gradient force defined earlier in this section,
is that the D-scale is very small compared with the NU-scale
[46].
In viscous fluid flows, a third length scale is involved, that is,
the thickness of the boundary layer, which we shall hereafter call
the "5-scale. Viscosity induces two more force components, the
skin friction and the form drag. These two terms are lumped in
the drag force term of Morison's equation. The fundamental
assumption implied is that the 5-scale properties of the flow can
be expressed in terms of the NU-scale properties, namely, the
instantaneous velocity and acceleration of the undisturbed

flOW.
Since Morison's equation expresses the force in terms of the
instantaneous velocity, Areb and acceleration, 5rel, of the undisturbed flow, it is bound to be correct only if there is no flow
property independent of Arel and 5re1. This may be the case for
other body configurations, but not for circular cylinders. The
vorticity generated at the separation point of the boundary layer
is accumulated to form large discrete vortices behind the cylinder.
That is, another D-scale property is generated. This is a nonuniformity of the flow which is not in agreement with the first assumption. In addition, it is a function of the history of the flow
and not its instantaneous properties. Consequently, all effects
79

.5

o
~}, D - - - -

.4
ImPVcur,

.3
.2
~ . .....T I C

.1

.O
Fig. 6

15

Direction of uniform current and cylinder's sinusoidal oscillation

45

60

75

90

PSDs of fx, fy, fs, and fr for f = 1 Hz versus angle

Fig. 8

related to those large discrete vortices generated and shed behind

the cylinder are completely neglected by the Morison equation.
The preceding reveals that:
(a) The Morison formula can model properly flows for which
the drag forces are dominant; h)r example, steady flow past a
fixed cylinder [32] or pure harmonic flow for Keulegan-Carpenter
number greater than 25 [36].
(b) Morison's equation can also model correctly flows for
which the inertia forces are dominant and in addition no vortices
are ~;enerated; for example, pure harmonic flow for KeuleganCarpenter number less than 6 [30].
(c) When vortex effects are as significant as inertia and drag
effects, Morison's equation should not be applied. Such cases,
for example, would be the following: (i) Pure harmonic flow past
a fixed circular cylinder for Keulegan-Carpenter number between
6 and 25. As indicated in Sarapkaya's results [42], this is, in fact,
the range of maximum differences between measured and predicted forces. (ii) Harmonic oscillations of a circular cylinder
transverse to a uniform current and at frequencies close to the
vortex shedding one [43]. (iii) A third case is demonstrated by the
experiments described next.
Experimental work. In Zone B (defined earlier), the motion
of the riser with respect to the water can be approximated with
that of a sinusoidally oscillating cylinder in any direction with
respect to a uniform current (see Fig. 6). This motion has been
modeled experimentally at the MIT Towing Tank.
The technique adopted for the experiments is that of forced
oscillations and simultaneous translation of the model in still
water. The oscillatory displacement of the model, provided by
a dc motor and a scotch-yoke mechanism, was very close to a sinusoidal curve (see Fig. 7). The model was a 10-in.-long (25.4 cm),
1-in.-diameter (2.54 cm) circular cylinder, with 4-in.-diameter
(10.16 cm) thin circular end plates to minimize end effects.

30

The values of the nondimensional parameters chosen were

dictated by the two purposes of the experiments, namely
(a) To investigate the possibility that small deviations from
a steady flow past a fixed circular cylinder could cause significant
changes of the hydrodynamic forces.
(b) To demonstrate what was derived by the analysis, given
earlier, that Morison's equation cannot model oscillatory force
components due to the generation and shedding of vortices.
Thus the experiments were conducted for
Re-

Vcu~" D _ 7400,

So_
D 0 - 0.375,

woSo _
ands0.23

(27)

where
Vcur =
So =
Do =
=
~00 =

constant current velocity

amplitude of oscillation
outer diameter of cylinder
kinematic viscosity of fresh water
frequency of oscillation

From equation (27) we can compute the vortex shedding frequency, [s = 2.05 sec -1, and the frequency of oscillation of the
cylinder, f0 = 1 sec -1.
The power spectral densities (PSD's) of the oscillatory force
components due to the cylinder's oscillation and the vortex
shedding are shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively, as functions of
angle 8. The terms fx, fy, fs, and fr are the nondimensionalized
force components in the x, y, s, and r-directions, respectively
(Fig. 6) [9].
Figures 8 and 9 show strong dependence of the PSD's on angle
8. In addition, comparing the two figures, we see that the force

.8
.4

.7

~So

.3

.6

.2

.5

.1
.0

.4

t sec
0

--.1

.1

--.3

/
.A..

.3
.2

--.2

/"

%,.

/!
////

jV

.o-- - -'.-..@"

.-~.--~
O

.0

--.4

15
Fig. 7

80

For s y m b o l s see Fig.

Oscillatory displacement of the model

Fig. 9

30

45

60

75

cOO

PSD's of fx, fy, fs, and fr for f = 2 Hz versus angle 0

MARINE TECHNOLOGY

10 Morgan, G. W., "Marine Riser Systems," Offshore Drilling and

Production Technology, Petroleum Publishing Co., Dallas, Tex., 1976,
pp. 44-48.
11 Gardner, T. N. and Kotch, M. A., "Dynamic Analysis of Risers
and Caissons by the Finite Element Method," OTC Paper No. 2651,
Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Tex., 1976, pp. 405-421.
Conclusions
12 Bernitsas, M. M., "Riser Top Tension and Riser Buckling Loads,"
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Applied Mechanics Division,
1. A comprehensive mathematical model for the dynamic Vol. 37, Nov. 1980.
behavior of the marine riser is presented and discussed. This
13 Bernitsas, M. M. and Taylor, J. E., "Stability of Slender Tubes
model is a set of consistent equations for large three-dimensional Under Static Pressure and Tension," Journal of Structural Mechanics,
deflections of a beam under tension and for internal and external to appear in 1982.
14 Bernitsas, M. M. and Papalambros, P., "Riser Design Optimizavariable static pressure force. Axial motion effects are also in- tion Under Generalized Static Load," Intermaritec '80, Hamburg, Gercluded in the formulation.
many, Sept. 1980.
15 Bernitsas, M. M., "Static Analysis of Marine Risers," Department
2. The external hydrostatic pressure increases the effective
of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering Publication No. 234, The
tension and consequently the riser rigidity.
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., June 1981.
3. The normal static pressure diminishes the effective ten16 Bernitsas, M. M. and Papalambros, P., "A Study of Global
sion. Should the riser ends be restrained from longitudinal ex- Buckling Effects on Optimum Riser Design," International Conference
tension, the internal pressure could cause lateral buckling.
on Optimum Structural Design, Tucson, Ariz., Oct. 1981.
4. Analysis of the three-dimensional large deflections of the
17 Papalambros, P. and Bernitsas, M. M., "Monotonicity Analysis
riser, in the local osculating, rectifying, and normal planes, reveals in Optimum Design of Marine Risers," Progress in Engineering Optimization, ASME Book No. I00141 and Journal of Mechanical Design,
that two-dimensional modeling of riser bending may considerably to
appear in 1982.
underestimate the stresses in the riser.
18 "Comparison of Marine Drilling Riser Analyses," American Pe5. Morison's equation, traditionally used for the prediction troleum Institute Bulletin, Jan. 1977.
19 "A Critical Evaluation of the Data on Wave Force Coefficients,"
of the hydrodynamic forces exerted on offshore structures,
W278, British Ship Research Association, Aug. 1976.
completely neglects the effects of the large discrete vortices Report
20 Botke, J. G., "An Analysis of the Dynamics of Marine Risers,"
generated and shed behind the cylinder. Consequently, it cannot Delco Electronics, Aug. 1975.
model properly flows for which the vortex effects are signifi21 Jones, N., "Consistent Equations for the Large Deflections of
cant.
Structures," Bulletin of Mechanical Engineering Education, Wynn
Williams, Publishers (U.K.), Vol. 10, 1971, pp. 9-20.
6. The limited applicability of Morison's equation was ex22 Crandal, S. H., Karnopp, D. C., Kurtz Jr., E. F., and Pridmore
perimentally demonstrated by measuring the hydrodynamic Brown,
D. C., Dynamics of Mechanical and Electromechanical Systems,
forces exerted on a sinusoidally oscillating circular cylinder in
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.
any direction 0 with respect to a uniform current. The vortex
23 Reid, R. O., "Dynamics of Deep-Sea Mooring Lines," Texas A&M
University Project 204, Reference No. 68-11F, College Station, Tex., July
effects were found significant and strong dependence of the flow
1968.
on angle 0 was observed.
24 Breslin, J. P., "Dynamic Forces Exerted by Oscillating Cables,"
7. Morison's equation can model properly two types of flows:
Journal ofHydronautics, Vol. 8, No. 1, Jan. 1974, pp. 19-31.
(a) those for which the drag forces are dominant, and (b) those
25 Goodman, T. R. and Breslin, J. P., "Statics and Dynamics of
Anchoring Cables in Waves," Journal ofHydronautics, Vol. 10, No. 4,
for which the inertia forces are dominant and in addition no
Oct. 1976, pp. 113-120.
vortices are shed behind the cylinder.
26 Timoshenko, S. P., Strength of Materials, Van Nostrand, New
York, 1940.
27 Eisenhart, L. P., An Introduction to Differential Geometry,
Acknowledgements
Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1947.
28 Young, R. D., Fowler, J. R., Fisher, E. A., and Luke, R. R., "DyThe author would like to thank Professor C. Chryssostomidis
namic Analysis as an Aid to the Design of Marine Risers," Journal of
for his invaluable assistance. The comments and advice of ProPressure Vessel Technology, Trans. ASME, Vol. 100, May 1978, pp.
200-205.
fessors J. H. Milgram, F. Noblesse, J. K. Vandiver, and R. J.
29 Bennett, B. E. and Metcalf, M. F., "Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis
Vanhouten are deeply appreciated. The experimental work has
of Coupled Axial and Lateral Motions of Marine Risers," OTC Paper No.
been supported by the New England Section of The Society of
2776, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Tex., 1977, pp. 403Naval Architects and Marine Engineers; this support is gratefully 412.
acknowledged.
30 Burke,B. G., "An Analysis of Marine Risers of Deep Water," OTC
Paper No. 1771, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Tex., 1973,
pp. 449-464.
31 Morgan,G. W., "Dynamic Analysis of Deep Water Risers in Three
References
Dimensions," Petroleum Division, PET 20, American Society of Me1 Harris, L. M., Deepwater Floating Drilling Operations, Petroleum chanical Engineers, Sept. 1975.
32 Roshko, A., "On the Drag and Shedding Frequency of TwoPublishing Co., 1972.
Dimensional Bluff Bodies," NACA Technical Note 3169, National
2 Sarpkaya, T. and Garrison, C. J., "Vortex Formation and Resistance in Unsteady Flow," Journal of Applied Mechanics, Trans. ASME, Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, July 1954.
Vol. 30, Series E, No. 1, 1963, pp. 16-24.
33 Morison, J. R., O'Brien, M. P., Johnson, J. W., and Shaaf, S. A.,
3 "Dynamic Stress Analysis of the Mohole Riser System," Report "The Forces Exerted by Surface Waves on Piles," Petroleum TransacS.N. 183-2A, National Engineering Science Co., Jan. 1965.
tions, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 189, 1950, pp.
4 Milgram,J. H., "Waves and Wave Forces," Proceedings, Behavior 149-154.
of Offshore Structures Symposium, Vol. 1, 1976, pp. 11-37.
34 Bishop,R. E. D. and Hassan, A. V., "The Lift and Drag Forces on
5 Longuet-Higgins, M. S. and Steward, R. W., "The Changes in a Circular Cylinder in a FlowingFluid," Proceedings of the Royal Society,
Amplitude of Short Gravity Waves on Steady non-UniformCurrents," Series A, Vol. 227, 1964, pp. 32-50.
Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 10, 1965, pp. 529-549.
35 Keulegan, G. H. and Carpenter, L. H., "Forces on Cylinders and
6 Tritton, D. J., Physical Fluid Dynamics, Van Nostrand Reinhold, Plates in an Oscillating Fluid," Journal of Research of the National
New York, 1977.
Bureau of Standards, Vol. 60, No. 5, May 1958, pp. 423-440.
7 Longuet-Higgins, M. S., "Can Sea Waves Cause Microseisms?"
36 Sarpkaya, T., "In Line and Transverse Forces on Cylinders in
Symposium on Microseisms, Sept. 1952, pp. 74-93.
OscillatoryFlow at High Reynold's Numbers," Journal of Ship Research,
8 Bernitsas, M. M., "A Three Dimensional, Non-Linear, Large
Vol. 24, No. 4, Dec. 1977, pp. 200-216.
Deflection Model for Dynamic Behavior of Risers, Pipelines and Cables,"
37 Wade, B. G. and Dwyer, M., "On the Application of Morison's
Journal of Ship Research, to appear in 1982.
Equation to Fixed Offshore Platforms," OTC Paper No. 2723, Offshore
9 Bernitsas, M. M.,"Analysis of the Hydrodynamic Forces Exerted Technology Conference, Houston, Tex., 1976, pp. 1181-1189.
on a Harmonically Oscillating Circular Cylinder in any Direction with
38 King, R., "A Review of Vortex Shedding Research and its AppliRespect to a Uniform Current," Proceedings, Behavior of Offshore cation," Ocean Engineering, Pergamon Press, Vol. 4, 1977, pp. 141Structures Symposium, London, Aug. 1979.
171.

components due to vortex shedding are of the same order of

magnitude as those due to the cylinder's oscillation and should
not be neglected as in the Morison type of approach.

JANUARY 1982

81

39 Blevins, R. D., Flow-Induced Vibration, Van Nostrand Reinhold,

New York, 1977.
40 Roshko, A., "On the Development of Turbulent Wakes from
Vortex Sheets," NACA Technical Note 2918, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, March 1953.
41 Roshko, A., "Experiments on the Flow Past a Circular Cylinder
at Very High Reynold's Number," Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 10,
1961, pp. 345-356.
42 Sarpkaya, T., "Forces on Cylinders and Spheres in a Sinusoidally
Oscillating Fluid," Journal of Applied Mechanics, Trans. ASME, March
1975, pp. 32-37.
43 Bishop, R. E. D. and Hassan, A. V., "The Lift and Drag Forces on
a Circular Cylinder Oscillating in a Flowing Fluid," proceedings of the
Royal Society, Series A, Vol. 277, 1964, pp. 51-75.
44 Mercier, J. A., "Large Amplitude Oscillation of Circular Cylinder
in a Lowspeed Stream," Ph.D. Thesis, Mechanical Engineering, Stevens
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N.J., 1973.
45 Mercier, J. A., "The Forces of Circular Cylinders Due to Combined
Action of Waves and Currents," West Gulf Section, SNAME, Feb.
1976.

82

46 Newman, J. N., Marine Hydrodynamics, MIT Press, Cambridge,

Mass., 1977.
47 Bernitsas, M. M., "Contributions Towards the Solution of Marine
Riser Design Problem," Ph.D. Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.,
Sept. 1979.
48 Fischer, W. and Ludwig, M., "Design of Floating Vessel Drilling
Riser," Journal of Petroleum Technology, March 1966, pp. 272-280.
49 Gnone, E., Signorelli, P., and Giuliano, M., "Three-Dimensional
Static and Dynamic Analysis of Deep-Water Sealines and Risers," OTC
Paper No. 2326, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Tex., 1975,
pp. 799-812.
50 Huang, T. and Dareing, D. W., "Buckling and Lateral Vibration
of Drill Pipe," Journal of Engineering for Industry, Trans. ASME, Vol.
90, Nov. 1968, pp. 613-619.
51 Osborne, A. R., Brown, J. R., Burch, T. L., and Scarlet, R. I., "The
Influence of Internal Waves on Deepwater Drilling Operations," OTC
Paper No. 2797, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Tex., May
1977, pp. 537-544.
52 Timoshenko, S. P. and Gere, J. M., Theory of Elastic Stability,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961.

MARINE TECHNOLOGY