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Stratigraphy and

Correlation
Geological interpretation between
wells subsurface reservoir
framework
1

What is correlation?
Identification or demonstration of the
linkage or equivalence of two or more
geologic phenomena in different areas:
for example: this correlation implies that
between these two points this bedding plane
is continuous.

Learning objectives
1. Identify correlation markers
2. Correlate lithological units between wells using lithology and
wireline log information
3. Understand what correlation means and how to use the
available data (seismic, logs, biostratigraphic or
chronostratigraphic) to constrain a realistic correlation
4. Understand how interpretation of depositional environment
affects correlation of rock units
5. Show how different models (such as sequence stratigraphy) or
stratigraphic information can affect a correlation
6. Describe the pitfalls in correlation

Correlation is the step before mapping - Exercises give useful


experience
3

Importance of correlation
You need to correctly correlate lithofacies
in the subsurface in order to identify flow
units and to map the distribution, thickness
and continuity of reservoir and seal facies
Correlation is an interpretation of the
available data and therefore the
interpretation may change as additional
data becomes available
4

What are we trying to do?


The answer to that question determines the
method used and the graphical result that is
obtained
Usually you are trying to identify intervals or
units in one well that are related to, or connected
to units in another well
Could be the same age, the same lithology, same
chemical characteristics

Use computer correlation techniques or light


tables for visual comparison
Artform because it is purely subjective interpretation
Geological experience and judgement are essential
6

Stratigraphy an essential
concept for correlation
The study of rocks and their distribution in space and
time with the object of reconstructing Earth history
(Lafitte et al. 1972)
Correlation or grouping of rocks by age, lithology, etc
for some purpose
Different purposes require different KINDS of
stratigraphy and therefore correlation
So we have lithostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy,
biostratigraphy, seismic stratigraphy,
magnetostratigraphy, chemical stratigraphy, sequence
stratigraphy.
7

Lithostratigraphic correlation (all Biostratigraphic correlation (all


rock units are correlated between biostratigraphic markers (numbers) are
wells)
correlated between wells)
Implies that the correlated units
are continuous across the
intervening space

Implies that the correlated points are the


same age in each well the implication is
that the bottom sand in W1 is older than
the bottom sand in W2 perhaps these do
not connect between the wells?
8

What data do we have?


Log data usually needs preparation
Need to use comparable data-sets (similar
logging and vertical scales)
Logs that have depth scales of measured
depth (MD), along hole depth (AHD) or below
rotary table (RT) depths need to be converted
to true vertical depth (TVD), and normalised
to a depth datum (usually sea level or subsea
SS), giving TVDSS.
9

Why normalise scales?

Deviated wells
measured depth gives
thicker units than true
vertical thickness,
meaning that
correlations drawn
using MD are
distorted:

10

Ideal Composite Logs

Lots of data:
Gamma Ray (GR): measures natural radioactivity, providing a lithology proxy
(clay versus sands)
Resistivity: measures resistance of the rock to an electric current, and shows up
the type and amount of pore fluid (hydrocarbons, rock and fresh water have high
resistivity while salt water has low resistivity). Since connected units often have
the same pore water chemistry, resistivity will have similar profiles across these
units, making it a good correlation tool
Sonic: identifies seismic markers (for correlation with seismic lines) and hard or
soft lithologies
Density: detects density changes (lithology) and porous zones
Caliper: measures the borehole diameter. Increase in borehole diameter
indicates washed out zones, and therefore areas where the other log data will be
unreliable (and also possibly areas of damage due to faulting or fracturing or soft
lithologies)
Dipmeter: identifies the dip of the rock units crossed, including faulted contacts.
Rock units in this context includes beds and features such as cross-bedding
within beds (so that current direction can sometimes be obtained from dipmeter
information). Changes in dip can indicate deformation, faulted contacts or
stratigraphic changes.
Mudlog: description of rock chippings, oil and gas shows
11

Non-ideal Composite Logs


Reduced data set or problems with conversions:
Reduced suite of geophysics (usually GR, resistivity
and sonic)
Modified by an approximate conversion factor from
MD to TVD
Measured depth logs (avoid unless they are honestly
vertical wells).

12

How do we start?
Need to identify equivalence between wells. We
want to be correlating the same lithological units
together, so that our correlations do mean
connection of lithological units between wells...

Chronostratigraphy
Biostratigraphy
Magnetostratigraphy
Lithostratigraphy
Seismic stratigraphy or correlation using seismic data

13

How do we start?
Chronostratigraphy identifying the age of
units. We can use absolute radiometric dating
(slow, costly), or isotope dating methods (ditto)
or magnetostratigraphy (ditto), or biostratigraphy
(much cheaper and relatively fast).
Chronostratigraphy gives us tie-points in each
well that we can use to identify the same
formations...

14

Chronostratigraphy

http://activetectonics.coas.oregonstate.edu/nsaf_turbs.htm
15

Chronostratigraphic
time scale
This is a geochronologic time scale (pure time). The terms
period, epoch and age are used here, rather than system,
series and stage, used in chronostratigraphy
The rocks belonging to the Devonian System were deposited
16
during the Devonian Period

How do we start?
Biostratigraphy using fossils to define rock units,
either using extinction/evolution
(disappearance/appearance) events or abundances of
fossils, which can be correlated to a specific point in
time.
IF appearance and disappearance are related to the evolution
and extinction, and not to facies changes (i.e. some species are
restricted to x environment, while others can be deposited in
almost any environment)
IF evolution or extinction occurs at the same time everywhere
(no significant barriers between areas)
Therefore pick the right kind of species to work with...
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Biostratigraphy

18

Biostratigraphy
Mesozoic North Sea
example of using
ammonite zones to
subdivide and
identify
lithostratigraphic
formations in the
Cretaceous

19

Magnetostratigraphy
During the history of the earth, the orientation of the magnetic
field has switched, and the strength of other parameters has also
changed (such as the difference between the magnetic and
geographical north pole, eddies in the field).
The switch from normal to reversed orientation is a global
event, and if preserved in the rock record, will provide a global
chronologically identical horizon worldwide.
The orientation of the field in the past is preserved in rocks by
the orientation of magnetic minerals:
Igneous and metamorphic rocks - crystals of magnetite and other
minerals, that preserve the orientation of the magnetic field at the
time of crystallization.
Sedimentary rocks - tiny grains of detrital magnetic minerals, if
undisturbed.
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Magnetostratigraphy

The rate of deposition will affect the thickness of the


observed magnetostratigraphic zone but the pattern
will remain constant, so long as zones are not removed
by erosion
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How do we start?

Lithostratigraphy identifying units of the same lithology and relative


stratigraphic position. These are formations or several similar formations
may be part of a group. Formations may be subdivided into members, but
these are of very restricted extent (formations must be mappable).
Formation tops in wells, are often easily identified and picked from
wireline logs, because they represent a large change in lithology.

http://nhm2.uio.no/norges/litho/rogaland.php
22

Lithostratigraphy
Top Hidra Formation note strong log shift

An Early Cretaceous lithostratigraphic and biostratigraphic framework


for the Britannia Field reservoir (Late BarremianLate Aptian), UK
North SeaPetroleum Geoscience, December 2000, v. 6:345367,doi:10.1144/petgeo.6.4.345

Marker bed
used for
correlation (or
biostratigraphic
marker)

Erosion of
units by
unconformity
(pinching out)

23

Correlation
Stratigraphic relationships are easier to
display if you align the logs so that
correlated rocks or units more-or-less line
up. This is called hanging, and usually
means that the sections are aligned so
that a specific horizon or boundary is
horizontal. For example

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Stratigraphic Correlation Panel (Bajenovskaya marker)

Structural Correlation Panel TVDSS

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Field B, 2002

Hanging

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Hanging

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Chemical Stratigraphy
Various geochemical properties of rocks can also be used in correlation. For
example, specific beds may have unique geochemical signatures created by the
conditions of deposition which can then be used to identify these layers and
use them as marker beds.
Common types of chemical stratigraphy include oxygen isotope stratigraphy
(used to track sea-level changes) and strontium isotope stratigraphy (used as a
form of dating marine rocks). Other isotopic ratios that can be used include Cisotopes (related to cycles of productivity), and S-isotopes.
Other types of chemical stratigraphy include major element chemistry (looking at
the total composition of the rock, measuring Si, Al, K, Ti, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, P
and S) and trace element chemistry (for example measuring Sr, Pb, As, Ag, Au).
Fluctuations in the amount of these elements can provide information about the
provenance (source) of sediments, about the weathering processes occurring
(and therefore climate information), about the depositional environment and
about the diagenetic processes. More importantly for stratigraphy fluctuations
can be basin-wide, and therefore useful in correlation between outcrops or cores.
28

Seismic Stratigraphy
Correlation of seismic packages
Bounded by truncations of reflection events

Advantages
Continuous interpretation in inter-well areas
Direct hydrocarbon indicators (DHIs)

Disadvantages
Limited resolution, multiples, uncertainty as to
what seismic truncations really mean, must be
tied to well information for lithology and age
29

Seismic Stratigraphy
Tying our wells to the seismic

Pinchout

Using logs or VSPs


Can use to check likely position of
the same stratigraphic horizon in
the next well, check...

Seismic character
Helps identify lithology types
Chaotic, parrallel, clinoforms...

Faults indicated by discontinuities


30

Guidelines
1. Use the log patterns to correlate, but beware of differences caused by fluid effects
(such as the presence of oil or water) on the resistivity logs
2. Always correlate from the base upwards this is how the rocks were deposited
3. Always correlate from the large scale changes to the small scale worry about the
formation tops and markers first, before correlating minor changes and beds
4. Check for missing and repeated sections
5. Always correlate both the top and bottom of a bed or formation
6. Units that pinch out between wells are indicated by merging correlation lines (> or <)
7. Never correlate the top or bottom of a well these are artificial boundaries created
during drilling
8. Check for mudstone (shale) colour changes in the mudlogs these indicate changing
mudstone formations
9. Keep an eye on the caliper log indicates a loss of quality in the other logs but also
shows the location of less compacted or damaged layers
10. The dipmeter log is also important sudden changes may indicate the presence of
unconformities or faults
11. Natural gamma signature is a good lithological indicator, many formations and
markers have distinctive signatures
12. Volcaniclastics such as ash or tephra layers (eruption deposits) are excellent
marker beds, as they will be the same age everywhere, making them a
chronostratigraphic marker, and they will often have a characteristic log signature
13. Non-geological features such as scale changes, casing shoes and sonic log cycle 31
skips can sometimes mislead the unwary

Structural Discontinuities
Normal Faults: Section missing

Drilled succession

True succession

Example from
Tearpock and
Bischke 1991

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Structural Discontinuities
Reverse Faults: Repeated section

Drilled succession

True succession

Example from
Tearpock and
Bischke 1991

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Structural Discontinuities

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Using Wireline Logs


A reminder of the relevant rules:

Use the log patterns to correlate, but beware of differences caused


by fluid effects (such as the presence of oil or water) on the
resistivity logs
Check for mudstone (shale) colour changes in the mudlogs these
indicate changing mudstone formations
Keep an eye on the caliper log indicates a loss of quality in the
other logs but also shows the location of less compacted or
damaged layers
The dipmeter log is also important sudden changes may indicate
the presence of unconformities or faults
Natural gamma signature is a good lithological indicator, many
formations and markers have distinctive signatures
Non-geological features such as scale changes, casing shoes and
sonic log cycle skips can sometimes mislead the unwary
35

Correlation of Wireline Logs

Correlate patterns: absolute values depend on variables other than


the lithology (such as instrumentation, well-bore fluid and so on), so
are not reliable.

http://www.ags.gov.ab.ca/publications/wcsb_atlas/A_CH21/CH_21.html

36

Note use of abrupt shifts in gamma to correlate units (coarsening-up)

Correlation of
Wireline Logs

This example of correlation of


electrical logs from Kansas was
made to demonstrate the
continuity and uniform thickness
of the units of this age, since they
have subsequently suffered
various tectonic disturbances.
Data has been hung from a local
datum the top of the Stone
Corral dolomite bed.
Note the use of both log shifts
and different character of the log
patterns to define units (variable
or non-variable, trends, shapes,
internal patterns etc).

http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publication
s/Bulletins/162/06 pres.html

37

Remember about nongeological changes


Scale shifts, casing shoes, fluid contacts and so
on can all cause changes in wireline log patterns
that resemble lithological changes:

base of first log run


tool not moving

casing shoe
first reading
inside casing

base of pipe

top of second log run


38

Exercise: Correlating Wireline


Pg 32
Logs
Scale change note no resistivity measurements:
therefore this is probably inside casing or pipe.

39

Exercise: Correlating Wireline


Logs
Noisy resistivity
suggests
formation
damage

40

Correlation
Displaying correlated logs:
Correlation panels or cross sections?
Horizontal log separation
does not imply distance the
logs are separated in reality.
Commonly used for purely
stratigraphic correlation, but
can be used to display
structural relationships.

Horizontal log separation is


proportional to the true
distance the logs are
separated in reality.
Used either to display
stratigraphic or structural
relationships.

41

42

Correlation
Cross sections
Shows relationships of rock units, and structure as it is
Or interpretation of series of events.

43

Structural Cross Section

Gulf of Mexico, from Tearpock and Bischke, 1991

Structural cross sections examples

44

Correlation

Fence diagrams
In these cases, lithological correlation, but other
sorts of correlation could be used here.
45

Correlation
Block diagrams either 3-D image of current geology/geography, or
interpretations of facies relationships, geological evolution etc.

46

47

Correlation
Correlation is an interpretation of available data:
Interpretation is affected by our preconceptions
Interpretation must be geologically realistic so we
must have an idea of the what the geology will be like
before we start:

A Model
Depositional environments and sequence stratigraphy

48

Geological
Realism

Any correlation needs to be able to


be explained by a reasonable
series of geological events.
- Correlated layers will be consistent
between wells (correlations lines ~
parallel). Some thickening and
thinning may be expected.
- One whole well is displaced a
consistent amount relative to the
adjacent well.
- Divergent or inconsistent
correlations are an indication that
the units do not in fact correlate
(channels, pinching out, isolated
sand bodies).
49

Sequence Stratigraphy
Large-scale studies of basins revealed that characteristically shaped packages of
sediments were deposited during cycles of sea-level rise and fall. These were
termed sequences and the concept of subdividing stratigraphy in a region in
terms of packages of sea-level and therefore time related deposition has since
been used globally and especially in the oil industry
Relative vs. Eustatic
sea-level changes.
Useful for determining the location and likely extent, shape, and continuity of
surfaces (along which fluids are likely to flow) and bodies of porous sandstone
(reservoirs), or other lithologies of interest.

A Model
50

Sequence Stratigraphy
A sequence is a stratigraphic unit composed of a relatively conformable
succession of genetically related strata and bounded at its top and base by
unconformities or their correlative conformities
The sequence is subdivided into SYSTEMS TRACTS and PARASEQUENCES

51

Sequence Stratigraphy
Packages of sediment bounded by surfaces
(unconformities and correlative conformities)
Can be any scale
Model of deposition
Hierarchy of stratal elements sequences,
systems tracts, bounding surfaces and
parasequences
Correlation of packages not lithologies
packets may contain vastly different lithologies in
different parts of the basin, but may belong to
the same cycle of sea-level rise and fall
52

Sequence
Stratigraphy
Movie
High sea-level:
Flooding surfaces
Reservoir units close to
shore/basin margin
Shales deposited in basin
centre
Low sea-level:
Exposure of shelf, incision,
erosion, unconformities
Deposition of reservoir units
in basin centre
53

Sequence Stratigraphy

Applying Deltaic and Shallow Marine Outcrop Analogs to the Subsurface (Janok P. Bhattacharya)
Search and Discovery Article #40192 (2006) Posted May 2, 2006
http://www.searchanddiscovery.net/documents/2006/06023janok/index.htm
54

Sequence Stratigraphy

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Sequence Stratigraphy Exercise

On the following diagram, identify the major surfaces, an systems


tracts, and also label the parasequences.

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Correlation and Environmental


Interpretation
Accurate correlations depends on a little
knowledge of the environment of
deposition of the sediments.
In different environments, the geometry and
extent of sediment bodies is different.
For example in marine settings sand bodies may
extend several kilometres, but in fluvial settings
they would rarely be wider than a few hundred
metres as each body represents a channel fill.
57

Stratigraphic Cross Section


Shallow Marine
Cook Fm., L. Jur.
From Livbjerg and Mjos, in
Collinson, 1989

Fluvial-deltaic
Ness Fm., M.Jur.
From Ryseth, in Collinson,
1989
58

Channels in correlations

Channels are erosive features, deeper in the centre, thin to the


edge, elongate in the downstream direction, shorter in cross-section.
They are generally filled with coarse material (sand etc), although
abandoned channels can be filled with mud (oxbow lakes).
The fill is always flat topped (law of horizontality)
Iftops arethesamedepth
(relativetoamarker),the
channelmaybeconnected
betweenwells.Ifnot,the
channelsaredifferent
(althoughoverlapmaylead
toconnection)

59

Exercise 4: Environments
Pg 29
make a difference
These panels of well logs show alternating
sandstones (dots) and mudstones (grey).
Relative to the green marker bed at the top
of the wells, are the sandstones at roughly
the same depth? If so then they are likely
to be laterally continuous and therefore
correlatable. If not

If you think the sandstones correlate,


then connect the top and bottom of
each bed
If not, then perhaps they are channel
sands, so draw them in as boat shaped
bodies.
Although there is roughly the same
volume of sand in each panel, how does
your correlation affect the reservoir
connectivity and volume?

60

Exercise 4

1. a marine environment (think extensive sheets of sandstones)

61

Exercise 4

2. a fluvial environment (think localised channel-shaped sandstones)

62

Stratigraphy and Reservoir


Performance
Stratigraphy and the depositional
environment give you the architecture of
the reservoir
Locations of traps, likely flow paths and
parameters
This information can give you estimates of
the reservoir performance and the
recovery likely from that reservoir.
63

Flow Units
(after Ebanks 1987)

Characterized by the
same poro-perm
properties
Not necessarily uniform
Recognizable on logs
Correlatable between
wells
Include pay and non-pay
Include fluids within
May be connected
64

Reservoir Architecture

Geologically realistic model from Weber and van Geuns (1990)

Layered reservoirs:

Low permeability contrasts between vertically


stacked layers which are laterally extensive
Sometimes called layercake architecture.

Mixture of high and low permeability


sedimentary layers and bodies:

variable overlap of high permeability bodies,


variable difference of permeability vertically and
horizontally.
Sometimes called jigsaw architecture.

Isolated high permeability bodies within low


permeability background:

variable overlap of high permeability bodies,


variable difference between sandbodies and
background sediment.
Sometimes called labyrinth architecture.

65

Example: Aeolian
Environments
Sheet-like

66

Example: Fluvial
Environments

Channels either isolated or larger stacked channel bodies. In


sheets of floodplain muds, with wedges of crevasse splay deposits,
and sheets of silt-sand deposited during flood events.
This example from a deltaic system, so underlain by more sheetlike
shallow marine sediments.

67

Example: Shallow Marine


Environments
Sheet-like

Fulmar Formation shallow marine

Piper Formation wave


dominated delta front
68

Example: Deltaic
Environments
Pods,
lenses,
channels (in
delta plain)
Sheets and
lenses (delta
front)

Ness = delta top fluvial. The whole unit


correlates, but the individual sand bodies
do not.

Etive = shallow marine


Rannoch = delta front
69

Example: Turbidite
Environments
Sheets and lenses (fans
versus channelized; distal
versus proximal)

Brae = proximal; sheets and


channels, conglomerates and
sandstones

Forties = distal; sheetlike


sandstones

70

Architectural Matrix
HORIZONTAL HETEROGENEITY

LOW

Wave-dominated
(proximal) delta
Sand-rich strand plain
Barrier island

MODERATE

HIGH

Distributary mouth bar

Meandering fluvial
(single point bar)

Proximal delta front


Tidal deposits
Mud-rich strand plain

River dominated delta


(single package)
Back Barrier
(single package)

MEDIUM

Shelf bars
Wave-modified
(distal) delta
Eolian

Alluvial fan
Fan Delta

Braided river

Distal delta front

Tide dominated delta

Layered architecture
(Layercake)
Mixed architecture
(Jigsaw)
Isolated architecture
(Labyrinth)

Wave modified delta


(proximal)
River dominated delta
(stacked packages)

HIGH

VERTICAL HETEROGENEITY

LOW

Submarine fan
(Turbidite)

Meandering fluvial
Braid plain

Meandering fluvial
(Stacked pt. bars)
Back barrier
(stacked packages)
Submarine fan
(stacked packages)
(from Tyler and Finlay, 1991)

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Oil Recovery and Strategy

from Tyler and Finley (1991)


72

Recovery and Geology


NORTH SEA RESERVOIRS
Debris flow (Brae)
Turbidite (Magnus)
Submarine fan (Forties)
Shallow marine (Piper)
Fluvial (Crawford)
Submarine fan (Andrew)
Aeolian (Auk)
Turbidite (Katrine)
Lacustrine (Lewis)
Shallow Marine (Fulmar Sd)
Shallow marine (Piper Sd)
0

Water Injection

Jigsaw
Layercake
Labyrinth

Primary Recovery

Jigsaw
Layercake

20

40

60

80

73

Compartmentalisation
Is the reservoir subdivided into discrete flow unit areas or
compartments? Could be caused by:
Sedimentary structures or stratal architecture
(facies models)
Turbidites (Forties), fluvial reservoirs (Brent Ness
Formation), deltas etc

Faulting
Seismically resolvable faults (Gullfaks)
Sub-seismic faulting (Thistle)

Combination - faulting and architecture (NW Hutton)


Some fields have no compartments
74

Learning objectives
1. Identify correlation markers
2. Correlate lithological units between wells using lithology and
wireline log information
3. Understand what correlation means and how to use the
available data (seismic, logs, biostratigraphic or
chronostratigraphic) to constrain a realistic correlation
4. Understand how interpretation of depositional environment
affects correlation of rock units
5. Show how different models (such as sequence stratigraphy) or
stratigraphic information can affect a correlation
6. Describe the pitfalls in correlation

Correlation is the step before mapping - Exercises give useful


experience
75

76

Exam Question worked


answer
The figure shows wireline logs and interpreted lithology from 5
appraisal wells in an onshore oil field. The interval shown on
the logs is approximately 110 m thick and the logs have been
hung on a well-established stratigraphic datum. Twelve
biostratigraphic samples were taken from different depths in
the 5 wells (shown alongside logs). Samples 3, 7, 10 and 12
indicate a marine environment, whilst all the others indicate
non-marine deposition.
Using the lithology and shape of the wireline logs for
guidance, draw a correlation panel for the wells, using your
understanding of the depositional system represented (11
marks). Remember that the aim of this type of stratigraphic
correlation is to indicate the lateral extent of potential reservoir
sandbodies.

77

non-marine

non-marine
non-marine
non-marine

non-marine

non-marine

non-marine

non-marine

marine
marine
marine

marine
78

79

80

Deltaic mouth-bar, Delta top

http://www.ags.gov.ab.ca/publications/wcsb_atlas/a_ch24/ch_24.html

81

Exam Question b, c and d


B) Give reasons for your correlation (5
marks)
C) Describe the broad environment of
deposition (4 marks).
D) How would the reservoir behaviour of
the sandbodies in the upper half of the
panel differ from those in the lower half
(below 65 m) (5 marks)?
82

Exam Question marking


schedule

Neatness (1)
Correlation of both bed surfaces (1)
Coals correlate across the panel (except the eroded one (2)
Lenticular shape of lower sandstone (2) and boat shapes of upper
sandstones (2)
Sandstone in well three erodes coal (1)
Sharp based ?channel sand in well three (1)
Interfingering of lower sandstone with mudstone in well two (1)
Marine sandbody likely to be bar and channel, lenticular in shape,
correlates across several wells. (2)
Channel sandstones likely to be lenticular in cross-section, but could be
elongate down-dip/flow direction. (3)
Environment of depositions: Lower half = delta front mouth bar with
associated distributary channel; upper half = fluvial or delta plain with
coals and channel sandstones (4).
Reservoir behaviour: Good lateral sweep and pressure support in lower
sandstone (2) , channel sandstone may act as preferred conduit for flow
(being better sorted (1)). Upper sandstones are likely to be isolated,
83
some may connect laterally or vertically (2).

Correlation Exercise
December 2013 Exam Question
With Fault!

Question Text
You have been given 5 wells with interpreted lithology and
selected wireline log information (Attachment B2). Fossil
samples from the locations 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 11 contained
a palynomorph assemblage consistent with temperate nonmarine environments, while samples 3 and 9 contained a
fossil assemblage consistent with shallow marine conditions,
and samples 4 and 6 contained a microfossil assemblage
indicating a deep marine environment. An angular
unconformity has been identified using image logs and
biostratigraphic information, and is indicated in the logs using
a wiggly line. A clear disruption assumed to be due to a fault
has been identified in Well 3 (indicated on the attachment),
assume that there are no other faults disrupting the
stratigraphy.

Question Text
On the attachment, correlate the various
lithologies present. Is this correlation a crosssection or a correlation panel and why?

It is a correlation panel, because the wells


are equally spaced, whereas in reality they
are probably unevenly spaced. 2 marks

First transferring the information from the text

Deep marine

Shallow
marine

Nonmarine

Start with the bottom section: The unconformity is horizontal correlate that.

Everything below the unconformity is at different heights, while everything


above is at the same height (relative to our marker). Why is that?

We are told the unconformity is angular, that means the beds below are orientate
differently to the beds above

Look at the beds are there some that consistently change position between wells?
Correlate those (remember that all lines between adjacent wells should be consistent)

We now see that we have beds dipping to the left, but they have been disrupted by the fault
we know is in well 3. What kind of fault? Missing section or repeated section?

Look at the coal it is thinner and the overlying mudstone is missing. Therefore this is a
normal fault, which means the right side being downthrown is the hanging wall. Now draw it!

Now for the sand bodies below the coal are any at the same height relative to the coal
in adjacent wells? These might be connected if not, they are isolated channels.

Remember that interpretation of channels as being isolated or connected is your


Interpretation, so either solution is correct. The only way to tell would be a pressure test

In the upper section, everything agrees in terms of depth relative to our marker,
so we can correlate across the panel.

The sand-mud relationship in well 3 is interfingering caused by shifting location of the shoreline and
therefore the facies being deposited. This is shown by pinching out in both directions. 9 marks

Question Text
Explain your choice of correlation, justifying your
decisions and specifically mentioning your
interpretation of the changing depositional
environments.

Depositional environment in lower part indicated as temperate non-marine


(palynology). Although sand bodies correlate between a few wells in the lowest
section, they vary in thickness, and do not correlate across all 5 wells. They
display fining upwards trends in gamma. They are probably therefore fluvial
channels interbedded with floodplain mudstone (1).
The coal indicates changing depositional environment, and is superseded by
thick mudstone which may indicate lacustrine environments, which is
superseded by interbedded sandstone and mudstone possibly indicating a
return to braided fluvial depositional environments (see very variable,
uncorrelatable gamma logs), all offset by a normal fault. (2)
The unconformity correlates across the panel. (1)
Shallow marine environments above the unconformity should and do correlate
(blocky wireline signature), with interfingering into the deeper marine
environment to the east. A general transgression indicated by limestone and
then deep marine turbidite layers (fining upwards) follows (3)
7 marks

Question Text
What processes must have acted on the lower
sedimentary succession in order to create the
observed geometrical arrangement of strata? What
type of fault is present?
Fault marks a missing part of the succession in well 3, so
is a normal fault. (1)
Processes in order - deposition, burial, compaction,
lithification, tilting, faulting, uplift, erosion. (3)
4 marks

Question Text
Identify a potential trap on your correlation. Is
this a stratigraphic or a structural trap?
Stratigraphic traps of sands etc pinching out against
muds, (either the channels in the lower half or the sand
bodies in the upper half assuming an appropriate
structural tilt) and also against the unconformity in the
east where it is overlain by muds. Pinchouts require
appropriate tilting of beds (not given).
3 marks

Correlation from the beginning


Here is an example for you to correlate:
Three wells, A-B 6 km apart, B-C 21 km apart.
Biostratigraphic zonation provided for each
well.
Try lining the wells up by depth it is difficult to
match the curves.
Line the wells up by one or other of the
biostratigraphic zones much easier to see
the similarities.
Correlate lithologic units.
Make a correlation panel, and a cross-section.
Try taking your stratigraphic correlation and
creating a structural arrangement put them
back into depth order.
97

Answer

The real example comes from one


formation Kimmeridge Clay
Formation.
There are two limestone bands,
but the rest of the variation is due
to alternating carbonate, mud and
organic rich layers within the
shale.
However it could have been
alternating sandy and shaley
units...
Your subdivision is your
interpretation based on the
available information.
98

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