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Correlation
Geological interpretation between
wells subsurface reservoir
framework
1
What is correlation?
Identification or demonstration of the
linkage or equivalence of two or more
geologic phenomena in different areas:
for example: this correlation implies that
between these two points this bedding plane
is continuous.
Learning objectives
1. Identify correlation markers
2. Correlate lithological units between wells using lithology and
wireline log information
3. Understand what correlation means and how to use the
available data (seismic, logs, biostratigraphic or
chronostratigraphic) to constrain a realistic correlation
4. Understand how interpretation of depositional environment
affects correlation of rock units
5. Show how different models (such as sequence stratigraphy) or
stratigraphic information can affect a correlation
6. Describe the pitfalls in correlation
Importance of correlation
You need to correctly correlate lithofacies
in the subsurface in order to identify flow
units and to map the distribution, thickness
and continuity of reservoir and seal facies
Correlation is an interpretation of the
available data and therefore the
interpretation may change as additional
data becomes available
4
Stratigraphy an essential
concept for correlation
The study of rocks and their distribution in space and
time with the object of reconstructing Earth history
(Lafitte et al. 1972)
Correlation or grouping of rocks by age, lithology, etc
for some purpose
Different purposes require different KINDS of
stratigraphy and therefore correlation
So we have lithostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy,
biostratigraphy, seismic stratigraphy,
magnetostratigraphy, chemical stratigraphy, sequence
stratigraphy.
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Deviated wells
measured depth gives
thicker units than true
vertical thickness,
meaning that
correlations drawn
using MD are
distorted:
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Lots of data:
Gamma Ray (GR): measures natural radioactivity, providing a lithology proxy
(clay versus sands)
Resistivity: measures resistance of the rock to an electric current, and shows up
the type and amount of pore fluid (hydrocarbons, rock and fresh water have high
resistivity while salt water has low resistivity). Since connected units often have
the same pore water chemistry, resistivity will have similar profiles across these
units, making it a good correlation tool
Sonic: identifies seismic markers (for correlation with seismic lines) and hard or
soft lithologies
Density: detects density changes (lithology) and porous zones
Caliper: measures the borehole diameter. Increase in borehole diameter
indicates washed out zones, and therefore areas where the other log data will be
unreliable (and also possibly areas of damage due to faulting or fracturing or soft
lithologies)
Dipmeter: identifies the dip of the rock units crossed, including faulted contacts.
Rock units in this context includes beds and features such as cross-bedding
within beds (so that current direction can sometimes be obtained from dipmeter
information). Changes in dip can indicate deformation, faulted contacts or
stratigraphic changes.
Mudlog: description of rock chippings, oil and gas shows
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How do we start?
Need to identify equivalence between wells. We
want to be correlating the same lithological units
together, so that our correlations do mean
connection of lithological units between wells...
Chronostratigraphy
Biostratigraphy
Magnetostratigraphy
Lithostratigraphy
Seismic stratigraphy or correlation using seismic data
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How do we start?
Chronostratigraphy identifying the age of
units. We can use absolute radiometric dating
(slow, costly), or isotope dating methods (ditto)
or magnetostratigraphy (ditto), or biostratigraphy
(much cheaper and relatively fast).
Chronostratigraphy gives us tie-points in each
well that we can use to identify the same
formations...
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Chronostratigraphy
http://activetectonics.coas.oregonstate.edu/nsaf_turbs.htm
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Chronostratigraphic
time scale
This is a geochronologic time scale (pure time). The terms
period, epoch and age are used here, rather than system,
series and stage, used in chronostratigraphy
The rocks belonging to the Devonian System were deposited
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during the Devonian Period
How do we start?
Biostratigraphy using fossils to define rock units,
either using extinction/evolution
(disappearance/appearance) events or abundances of
fossils, which can be correlated to a specific point in
time.
IF appearance and disappearance are related to the evolution
and extinction, and not to facies changes (i.e. some species are
restricted to x environment, while others can be deposited in
almost any environment)
IF evolution or extinction occurs at the same time everywhere
(no significant barriers between areas)
Therefore pick the right kind of species to work with...
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Biostratigraphy
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Biostratigraphy
Mesozoic North Sea
example of using
ammonite zones to
subdivide and
identify
lithostratigraphic
formations in the
Cretaceous
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Magnetostratigraphy
During the history of the earth, the orientation of the magnetic
field has switched, and the strength of other parameters has also
changed (such as the difference between the magnetic and
geographical north pole, eddies in the field).
The switch from normal to reversed orientation is a global
event, and if preserved in the rock record, will provide a global
chronologically identical horizon worldwide.
The orientation of the field in the past is preserved in rocks by
the orientation of magnetic minerals:
Igneous and metamorphic rocks - crystals of magnetite and other
minerals, that preserve the orientation of the magnetic field at the
time of crystallization.
Sedimentary rocks - tiny grains of detrital magnetic minerals, if
undisturbed.
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Magnetostratigraphy
How do we start?
http://nhm2.uio.no/norges/litho/rogaland.php
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Lithostratigraphy
Top Hidra Formation note strong log shift
Marker bed
used for
correlation (or
biostratigraphic
marker)
Erosion of
units by
unconformity
(pinching out)
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Correlation
Stratigraphic relationships are easier to
display if you align the logs so that
correlated rocks or units more-or-less line
up. This is called hanging, and usually
means that the sections are aligned so
that a specific horizon or boundary is
horizontal. For example
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Field B, 2002
Hanging
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Hanging
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Chemical Stratigraphy
Various geochemical properties of rocks can also be used in correlation. For
example, specific beds may have unique geochemical signatures created by the
conditions of deposition which can then be used to identify these layers and
use them as marker beds.
Common types of chemical stratigraphy include oxygen isotope stratigraphy
(used to track sea-level changes) and strontium isotope stratigraphy (used as a
form of dating marine rocks). Other isotopic ratios that can be used include Cisotopes (related to cycles of productivity), and S-isotopes.
Other types of chemical stratigraphy include major element chemistry (looking at
the total composition of the rock, measuring Si, Al, K, Ti, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, P
and S) and trace element chemistry (for example measuring Sr, Pb, As, Ag, Au).
Fluctuations in the amount of these elements can provide information about the
provenance (source) of sediments, about the weathering processes occurring
(and therefore climate information), about the depositional environment and
about the diagenetic processes. More importantly for stratigraphy fluctuations
can be basin-wide, and therefore useful in correlation between outcrops or cores.
28
Seismic Stratigraphy
Correlation of seismic packages
Bounded by truncations of reflection events
Advantages
Continuous interpretation in inter-well areas
Direct hydrocarbon indicators (DHIs)
Disadvantages
Limited resolution, multiples, uncertainty as to
what seismic truncations really mean, must be
tied to well information for lithology and age
29
Seismic Stratigraphy
Tying our wells to the seismic
Pinchout
Seismic character
Helps identify lithology types
Chaotic, parrallel, clinoforms...
Guidelines
1. Use the log patterns to correlate, but beware of differences caused by fluid effects
(such as the presence of oil or water) on the resistivity logs
2. Always correlate from the base upwards this is how the rocks were deposited
3. Always correlate from the large scale changes to the small scale worry about the
formation tops and markers first, before correlating minor changes and beds
4. Check for missing and repeated sections
5. Always correlate both the top and bottom of a bed or formation
6. Units that pinch out between wells are indicated by merging correlation lines (> or <)
7. Never correlate the top or bottom of a well these are artificial boundaries created
during drilling
8. Check for mudstone (shale) colour changes in the mudlogs these indicate changing
mudstone formations
9. Keep an eye on the caliper log indicates a loss of quality in the other logs but also
shows the location of less compacted or damaged layers
10. The dipmeter log is also important sudden changes may indicate the presence of
unconformities or faults
11. Natural gamma signature is a good lithological indicator, many formations and
markers have distinctive signatures
12. Volcaniclastics such as ash or tephra layers (eruption deposits) are excellent
marker beds, as they will be the same age everywhere, making them a
chronostratigraphic marker, and they will often have a characteristic log signature
13. Non-geological features such as scale changes, casing shoes and sonic log cycle 31
skips can sometimes mislead the unwary
Structural Discontinuities
Normal Faults: Section missing
Drilled succession
True succession
Example from
Tearpock and
Bischke 1991
32
Structural Discontinuities
Reverse Faults: Repeated section
Drilled succession
True succession
Example from
Tearpock and
Bischke 1991
33
Structural Discontinuities
34
http://www.ags.gov.ab.ca/publications/wcsb_atlas/A_CH21/CH_21.html
36
Correlation of
Wireline Logs
http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publication
s/Bulletins/162/06 pres.html
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casing shoe
first reading
inside casing
base of pipe
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Correlation
Displaying correlated logs:
Correlation panels or cross sections?
Horizontal log separation
does not imply distance the
logs are separated in reality.
Commonly used for purely
stratigraphic correlation, but
can be used to display
structural relationships.
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Correlation
Cross sections
Shows relationships of rock units, and structure as it is
Or interpretation of series of events.
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Correlation
Fence diagrams
In these cases, lithological correlation, but other
sorts of correlation could be used here.
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Correlation
Block diagrams either 3-D image of current geology/geography, or
interpretations of facies relationships, geological evolution etc.
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Correlation
Correlation is an interpretation of available data:
Interpretation is affected by our preconceptions
Interpretation must be geologically realistic so we
must have an idea of the what the geology will be like
before we start:
A Model
Depositional environments and sequence stratigraphy
48
Geological
Realism
Sequence Stratigraphy
Large-scale studies of basins revealed that characteristically shaped packages of
sediments were deposited during cycles of sea-level rise and fall. These were
termed sequences and the concept of subdividing stratigraphy in a region in
terms of packages of sea-level and therefore time related deposition has since
been used globally and especially in the oil industry
Relative vs. Eustatic
sea-level changes.
Useful for determining the location and likely extent, shape, and continuity of
surfaces (along which fluids are likely to flow) and bodies of porous sandstone
(reservoirs), or other lithologies of interest.
A Model
50
Sequence Stratigraphy
A sequence is a stratigraphic unit composed of a relatively conformable
succession of genetically related strata and bounded at its top and base by
unconformities or their correlative conformities
The sequence is subdivided into SYSTEMS TRACTS and PARASEQUENCES
51
Sequence Stratigraphy
Packages of sediment bounded by surfaces
(unconformities and correlative conformities)
Can be any scale
Model of deposition
Hierarchy of stratal elements sequences,
systems tracts, bounding surfaces and
parasequences
Correlation of packages not lithologies
packets may contain vastly different lithologies in
different parts of the basin, but may belong to
the same cycle of sea-level rise and fall
52
Sequence
Stratigraphy
Movie
High sea-level:
Flooding surfaces
Reservoir units close to
shore/basin margin
Shales deposited in basin
centre
Low sea-level:
Exposure of shelf, incision,
erosion, unconformities
Deposition of reservoir units
in basin centre
53
Sequence Stratigraphy
Applying Deltaic and Shallow Marine Outcrop Analogs to the Subsurface (Janok P. Bhattacharya)
Search and Discovery Article #40192 (2006) Posted May 2, 2006
http://www.searchanddiscovery.net/documents/2006/06023janok/index.htm
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Sequence Stratigraphy
55
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Fluvial-deltaic
Ness Fm., M.Jur.
From Ryseth, in Collinson,
1989
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Channels in correlations
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Exercise 4: Environments
Pg 29
make a difference
These panels of well logs show alternating
sandstones (dots) and mudstones (grey).
Relative to the green marker bed at the top
of the wells, are the sandstones at roughly
the same depth? If so then they are likely
to be laterally continuous and therefore
correlatable. If not
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Exercise 4
61
Exercise 4
62
Flow Units
(after Ebanks 1987)
Characterized by the
same poro-perm
properties
Not necessarily uniform
Recognizable on logs
Correlatable between
wells
Include pay and non-pay
Include fluids within
May be connected
64
Reservoir Architecture
Layered reservoirs:
65
Example: Aeolian
Environments
Sheet-like
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Example: Fluvial
Environments
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Example: Deltaic
Environments
Pods,
lenses,
channels (in
delta plain)
Sheets and
lenses (delta
front)
Example: Turbidite
Environments
Sheets and lenses (fans
versus channelized; distal
versus proximal)
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Architectural Matrix
HORIZONTAL HETEROGENEITY
LOW
Wave-dominated
(proximal) delta
Sand-rich strand plain
Barrier island
MODERATE
HIGH
Meandering fluvial
(single point bar)
MEDIUM
Shelf bars
Wave-modified
(distal) delta
Eolian
Alluvial fan
Fan Delta
Braided river
Layered architecture
(Layercake)
Mixed architecture
(Jigsaw)
Isolated architecture
(Labyrinth)
HIGH
VERTICAL HETEROGENEITY
LOW
Submarine fan
(Turbidite)
Meandering fluvial
Braid plain
Meandering fluvial
(Stacked pt. bars)
Back barrier
(stacked packages)
Submarine fan
(stacked packages)
(from Tyler and Finlay, 1991)
71
Water Injection
Jigsaw
Layercake
Labyrinth
Primary Recovery
Jigsaw
Layercake
20
40
60
80
73
Compartmentalisation
Is the reservoir subdivided into discrete flow unit areas or
compartments? Could be caused by:
Sedimentary structures or stratal architecture
(facies models)
Turbidites (Forties), fluvial reservoirs (Brent Ness
Formation), deltas etc
Faulting
Seismically resolvable faults (Gullfaks)
Sub-seismic faulting (Thistle)
Learning objectives
1. Identify correlation markers
2. Correlate lithological units between wells using lithology and
wireline log information
3. Understand what correlation means and how to use the
available data (seismic, logs, biostratigraphic or
chronostratigraphic) to constrain a realistic correlation
4. Understand how interpretation of depositional environment
affects correlation of rock units
5. Show how different models (such as sequence stratigraphy) or
stratigraphic information can affect a correlation
6. Describe the pitfalls in correlation
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non-marine
non-marine
non-marine
non-marine
non-marine
non-marine
non-marine
non-marine
marine
marine
marine
marine
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http://www.ags.gov.ab.ca/publications/wcsb_atlas/a_ch24/ch_24.html
81
Neatness (1)
Correlation of both bed surfaces (1)
Coals correlate across the panel (except the eroded one (2)
Lenticular shape of lower sandstone (2) and boat shapes of upper
sandstones (2)
Sandstone in well three erodes coal (1)
Sharp based ?channel sand in well three (1)
Interfingering of lower sandstone with mudstone in well two (1)
Marine sandbody likely to be bar and channel, lenticular in shape,
correlates across several wells. (2)
Channel sandstones likely to be lenticular in cross-section, but could be
elongate down-dip/flow direction. (3)
Environment of depositions: Lower half = delta front mouth bar with
associated distributary channel; upper half = fluvial or delta plain with
coals and channel sandstones (4).
Reservoir behaviour: Good lateral sweep and pressure support in lower
sandstone (2) , channel sandstone may act as preferred conduit for flow
(being better sorted (1)). Upper sandstones are likely to be isolated,
83
some may connect laterally or vertically (2).
Correlation Exercise
December 2013 Exam Question
With Fault!
Question Text
You have been given 5 wells with interpreted lithology and
selected wireline log information (Attachment B2). Fossil
samples from the locations 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 11 contained
a palynomorph assemblage consistent with temperate nonmarine environments, while samples 3 and 9 contained a
fossil assemblage consistent with shallow marine conditions,
and samples 4 and 6 contained a microfossil assemblage
indicating a deep marine environment. An angular
unconformity has been identified using image logs and
biostratigraphic information, and is indicated in the logs using
a wiggly line. A clear disruption assumed to be due to a fault
has been identified in Well 3 (indicated on the attachment),
assume that there are no other faults disrupting the
stratigraphy.
Question Text
On the attachment, correlate the various
lithologies present. Is this correlation a crosssection or a correlation panel and why?
Deep marine
Shallow
marine
Nonmarine
Start with the bottom section: The unconformity is horizontal correlate that.
We are told the unconformity is angular, that means the beds below are orientate
differently to the beds above
Look at the beds are there some that consistently change position between wells?
Correlate those (remember that all lines between adjacent wells should be consistent)
We now see that we have beds dipping to the left, but they have been disrupted by the fault
we know is in well 3. What kind of fault? Missing section or repeated section?
Look at the coal it is thinner and the overlying mudstone is missing. Therefore this is a
normal fault, which means the right side being downthrown is the hanging wall. Now draw it!
Now for the sand bodies below the coal are any at the same height relative to the coal
in adjacent wells? These might be connected if not, they are isolated channels.
In the upper section, everything agrees in terms of depth relative to our marker,
so we can correlate across the panel.
The sand-mud relationship in well 3 is interfingering caused by shifting location of the shoreline and
therefore the facies being deposited. This is shown by pinching out in both directions. 9 marks
Question Text
Explain your choice of correlation, justifying your
decisions and specifically mentioning your
interpretation of the changing depositional
environments.
Question Text
What processes must have acted on the lower
sedimentary succession in order to create the
observed geometrical arrangement of strata? What
type of fault is present?
Fault marks a missing part of the succession in well 3, so
is a normal fault. (1)
Processes in order - deposition, burial, compaction,
lithification, tilting, faulting, uplift, erosion. (3)
4 marks
Question Text
Identify a potential trap on your correlation. Is
this a stratigraphic or a structural trap?
Stratigraphic traps of sands etc pinching out against
muds, (either the channels in the lower half or the sand
bodies in the upper half assuming an appropriate
structural tilt) and also against the unconformity in the
east where it is overlain by muds. Pinchouts require
appropriate tilting of beds (not given).
3 marks
Answer