In this lecture youll learn

Chapter 14 Lecture

T
To explain
l i waves as ttraveling
li
disturbances that transport
energy but not matter
To describe waves
quantitatively in terms of
frequency period
frequency,
period,
wavelength, and amplitude
To describe specific types of
waves
Waves on strings
Sound waves
To describe interference,
reflection, and standing waves
To describe the Doppler effect
and shock waves

Wave Motion

Slide 14-2

Slide 14-1

Whats a Wave?

Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

A wave
a e is a tra
traveling
eling dist
disturbance
rbance that transports energ
energy and
momentum but not matter.
M
Mechanical
h i l waves are disturbances
di t b
off a material
t i l
medium.
The medium moves brieflyy as the wave g
goes by,
y, but
the medium itself isnt transported any distance.
The wave propagates as the disturbance of the
medium
di
iis communicated
i t d tto adjacent
dj
t parts
t off the
th
medium.
Electromagnetic waves, including light, do not require a
medium.
Nevertheless, they share many of the properties of
mechanical
h i l waves.

In a longitudinal wave, the disturbance

is parallel to the wave motion.
In a transverse wave
wave, the disturbance
is perpendicular to the wave motion.
Transverse waves cannot propagate
through a fluid.
Earthquakes produce both longitudinal
(P waves) and transverse (S waves)
waves propagating at different speeds.
Some waves, like surface waves on
water, involve both longitudinal and
transverse motions.

Longitudinal wave on a
mass-spring
i system:
t

Transverse wave on a
mass-spring
mass
spring system:

Slide 14-3

Clicker Question

Slide 14-4

Characteristics of Periodic Waves

Wavelength is the distance

over which a wave repeats in
space.

At a football game, the wave might circulate through

the stands and move around the stadium. In this wave
motion,
ti
people
l stand
t d up and
d sit
it d
down as th
the wave
passes. What type of wave would this be characterized
as?

Period T is the time for a

complete cycle of the wave at a
fixed position:
p
Frequency f = 1/T
Amplitude A is the peak value of
th wave di
the
disturbance.
t b

1) transverse wave
2) longitudinal wave

Wave speed is the rate at which

th wave propagates:
the
t

v = /T = f

Slide 14-5

Slide 14-6

Clicker Question

Clicker Question

A boat is moored in a fixed location,

location and waves make it move

Consider a wave on a string moving to the right, as shown

below. What is the direction of the velocity of a particle at the
point labeled B?

up and down. If the spacing between wave crests is 20 m

and the speed of the waves is 5 m/s
m/s, how long does it take
the boat to go from the top of a crest to the bottom of a
trough?

1)

1) 1 second

2)

2) 2 seconds
3) 4 seconds

3)
t + t

4)

4) 8 seconds

5)

zero

5) 16 seconds
d
Clicker 14-7

Description of a Traveling Wave

Clicker 14-8

Simple Harmonic Waves

A simple
p harmonic wave is described by
y a sinusoidal
function of space and time:
y x, t A cos kx t
(+x direction)
y measures the wave disturbance at position x and time t.
k = 2/ is the wave number, a measure of the rate at
which the wave varies in space.
space
= 2f = 2/T is the angular frequency, a measure of
the rate at which the wave varies in time.
The wave speed is v = f = /k.

Consider a wave pulse which has

the form y(x, 0) = f(x) at t = 0.
At a later time t, the wave pulse
h moved
has
d iin th
the positive
iti xdirection to a new position, but
maintained the same shape, thus
the displacement must be
described as y(x, t) = f(x-vt),
where v is the speed of the wave
p
pulse.
Similarly, y(x, t) = f(x+vt)
describes a traveling wave
propagating in the negative xxdirection.
2
2
Wave equation: y 1 y

x 2 v 2 t 2
Slide 14-9

Simple Harmonic Waves

Slide 14-10

Clicker Question
Microwaves travel with the speed of light
light, c = 3 108 m/s.
m/s
At a frequency of ~3 GHz these waves cause the water
molecules in your burrito to vibrate
vibrate. What is their
approximate wavelength?
1 GH
GHz = 1 Gi
Gigahertz
h t = 109 cycles/sec
l /
1) 0.1 mm
2) 1 cm
3) 10 cm
4) 100 m
5) 1 km
Slide 14-11

Clicker 14-12

Clicker Question

Clicker Question
The displacement of a wave is described by

What is the frequency of this traveling wave?

y(x t) = 4
y(x,
4.0
0 sin(10x + 30t),
t)
where x and y are in meters and t in seconds. What is the
wavelength?

1. 10 Hz
2. 5 Hz
3. 2 Hz

A. 5.0 m
B. 0.20 m
C. 3.0 m
D. 0.33 m
E. (10)-1 m

4. 0.2 Hz
5. 0.1 Hz

Clicker 14-13

Clicker Question

Clicker 14-14

Waves on Strings
Tension provides the restoring
force that helps transverse waves
propagate in strings
strings, fibers
fibers, long
springs, cables, wires, etc.,.
The speed of such waves is

A traveling wave is described by

y(x, t) = 4.0 cos(15x 30t).
What is the wave speed?

A. 4.0 m/s
B. 2.0 m/s
C. 0.5 m/s
D 120 m/s
D.
E. 60 m/s

In general, the speed of a

mechanical wave is given by

elastic property
inertial property

Clicker 14-15

Clicker Question

mv 2 2 R v 2

2 v 2
R
R
F tension
mass per unit length

2 F

Slide 14-16

Wave Power and Intensity

A wave pulse is sent down a rope of a certain thickness and

a certain tension. A second rope made of the same material
i ttwice
is
i as thi
thick,
k but
b t is
i held
h ld att the
th same tension.
t
i
How
H
will
ill
the wave speed in the second rope compare to that of the
first?
1) speed increases
2) speed does not change
3) speed decreases

The p
power carried by
y a wave is p
proportional
p
to the wave speed
p
and to the square of the wave amplitude
For waves on a string, the average power is

W
Wave intensity
i t
it is
i th
the power per unit
it
area (SI unit: W/m2)
In a plane wave
wave, the intensity
remains constant
A spherical wave spreads in three
dimensions, so its intensity drops as
the inverse square of the distance
from its source:
P
P
I

Clicker 14-17

1 2 2
A v
2

4 r 2
Slide 14-18

Clicker Question

Sound

You stand a certain distance away from a speaker and

you hear a certain intensity of sound. If you double your
distance from the speaker
speaker, what happens to the sound
intensity at your new position?

Sound waves are generally

longitudinal mechanical waves
that propagate through gases
gases,
liquids, and solids.
Sound waves can be described
either in terms of the motion or
displacement of the molecules
or the
th pressure variation.
i ti
Th
The
latter is easier to measure.
However, the displacement
p
wave is a quarter wavelength or
90 out of phase with the
pressure wave.
wave

1) drops to 1/2 its original value

2) drops to 1/4 its original value
3) drops to 1/8 its original value
4)) drops
p to 1/16 its original
g
value
5) does not change at all

Slide 14-19

Characteristics of Sound

Slide 14-20

Clicker Question

The speed of sound is different in different materials; in

general, it is slowest in gases, faster in liquids, and fastest in
solids. The speed depends somewhat on temperature,
especially for gases
gases.

When a sound wave passes from air into water, how

does the wavelength change?

The speed of sound is air is:

v 331 m/s
/ TK 273 K 331 0.60TC m/s
/

1) wavelength will increase

where TK/TC is the temperature in K/C

2) wavelength will not change

Pitch: related to frequency

3) wavelength will decrease

Audible range: about 20 Hz to 20,000

Hz; upper limit decreases with age.
Ultrasound: above 20,000 Hz.
Infrasound: below 20 Hz.
Loudness: related to the intensity of sound wave
Slide 14-21

Intensity Level: Decibels

Clicker Question

Loudness: related to intensity of the sound wave

The human ear can detect sounds with an intensity as low as
10-12 W/m2 and as high as 1 W/m2.
Perceived
P
i d lloudness,
d
iis nott proportional
ti
l tto th
the iintensity,
t
it b
butt iis
much more closely related to the logarithm of the intensity.
Sound intensityy levels are measured in
decibels with a reference intensity I0=
1012 W/m2:
10 log I I 0 .

Clicker 14-22

An increase in sound level of 3 dB

corresponds to a doubling in intensity

When Mary talks, she creates an intensity level of 60 dB at

your location. Alice talks with the same volume, also giving
60 dB at your location.
location If both Mary and Alice talk
simultaneously from the same spot, what would be the new
intensity
y level that yyou hear?
1) more than 120 dB
2) 120 dB
3)) between 60 dB and 120 dB
4) 60 dB

An increase in sound level of 10 (20,

30) dB corresponds to an increase in
intensity by a factor of 10 (100, 1000)

5)) less than 60 dB

Slide 14-23

Clicker 14-24

Clicker Question

Clicker Question

A quiet radio has an intensity level of about 40 dB.

Busy street traffic has a level of about 70 dB. How
much greater is the intensity of the street traffic
compared to the radio?

One loud speaker gives a sound level 1 = 100 dB. How

many identical
id ti l speakers
k
will
ill generate
t 2 = 124 dB?

1. 10-50

1) about the same

2. 50-200

2) about
b t 10 times
ti

3. More than 200

3) about 100 times

4) about 1000 times
5)) about 10,000
,
times
Clicker 14-25

Human Ear and Its Sensitivity

Clicker 14-26

Wave Reflection

The ear is a very sensitive detector of

sound waves: It can detect pressure
fluctuations as small as about 3 parts in
1010
The ear is divided into three sections:
Outer ear: sound waves travel down
the ear canal to the eardrum,
eardr m which
hich
vibrates in response
Middle ear: hammer, anvil, and
stirrup transfer vibrations to inner
ear
Inner ear: cochlea transforms
vibrational energy to electrical
energy and sends signals to the
brain
The ears sensitivity varies with frequency.

When a traveling wave

reaches a boundary with a
different medium, some or all
of the wave
a e is reflected
The reflected wave is
inverted,, when reflected
from a fixed end.
The reflected wave is not
i
inverted
t d when
h reflected
fl t d
from a free end.
More generally, a wave is
partially reflected and
partially transmitted at an
interface between different
media.
Slide 14-27

Wave Refraction and Diffraction

Waves striking an interface
at an oblique angle undergo
refraction, a change in the
di ti off propagation.
direction
ti

Slide 14-28

Superposition of Waves

Wh
When waves encounter
t an
obstacle, they bend around it.
This is called diffraction.

Unlike particles, two waves can be in the same place at the

same time.
The superposition principle says
y that when two waves pass
through the same point, the displacement is the arithmetic
sum of the individual displacements.

These phenomena will be explored in detail in Physics II.

Slide 14-29

Slide 14-30

Constructive and Destructive Interference

Wave Interference

Two waves have the same wavelength and frequency

Constructive interference occurs when the two waves are
in phase.
Destructive interference occurs when the two waves are
180 out of phase.

Interference from two closely spaced

sources results in patterns of alternating
highg and low-amplitude
p
oscillations.
rA
rB

rA
rB
Destructive

Constructive

Slide 14-31

Clicker Question

Constructive:

r rA rB
0, , 2 ,
m
m: integer
Destructive:
es uc e

3 5
,
2
2
1

m
2

Slide 14-32

Standing Waves
When two waves of the same frequency
q
y traveling
g with the same
speed in opposite directions interfere, the result is a standing
wave, i.e., the wave appears to be standing still.
The
Th two
t
waves can be
b created,
t d for
f example,
l b
by reflecting
fl ti a
wave off the boundary of a medium

These two
Th
t
loudspeakers
l d
k
are in
i phase.
h
They
Th emitit equall
amplitude sound waves with a wavelength of 1.0 m. At the
point indicated, is the interference maximum constructive,
perfect destructive or something in between?

y x, t A coskx t A coskx t
2 A sin kx sin t

1. maximum constructive
1
2. perfect destructive
3. something in between

Clicker 14-33

Properties of Standing Waves

y x, t 2 A sin kx sin t
/2

AN

No longer a traveling
wave!

Slide 14-34

Standing Waves on a String with Fixed Ends

AN

AN

Different places x experience oscillations of different amplitude

Some have no motion at all. These are called nodes.
Some experience maximum amplitude. The are called
antinodes.
antinodes
Distance between two adjacent nodes or antinodes is
Distance between adjacent node and antinode is
All points between two nodes move in phase
There is no transport of energy over large distance
Slide 14-35

The length
g of the string
g restricts the
allowed wavelengths and frequencies
to discrete values.
The ends must be nodes because
they are fixed. Thus the string length
must be an integer multiple of a halfwavelength: L = n/2, with n an
integer.
The wavelengths and frequencies of
standing waves are:
n

2L
n

fn

v
nf1 n 1,2,3
2L

where v is the wave speed: v F

The lowest frequency f1 is called the fundamental frequency,
and the higher frequencies are called harmonics or overtones.
Slide 14-36

Stringed Musical Instruments

Clicker Question

The strings on a guitar can be

effectively shortened by fingering,
raising the fundamental pitch
pitch.

Explain how you can lower the pitch of a tone on a string by

altering
g ((a)) the length
g of the string,
g ((b)) the tension of the
string, or (c) the thickness or the mass the string.

The pitch of a string of a given

length can also be altered by
using a string of different density.
A piano uses both methods to
cover its more than seven-octave
range the lower are both much
longer and much thicker than the
higher ones.

1) shorter,
shorter looser,
looser and more massive
2) longer, tighter, and more massive
3) longer,
longer looser
looser, and lighter
4) shorter, tighter, and lighter
5) llonger, llooser, and
d more massive
i

Slide 14-37

Clicker Question

Clicker 14-38

Air Column Open at Both Ends

A tube open
p at both ends has p
pressure nodes, and therefore
displacement antinodes, at the ends.

A standing wave on a string vibrates as shown at the top.

Suppose the tension is quadrupled while the frequency and the
l
length
th off the
th string
t i are h
held
ld constant.
t t Whi
Which
h standing
t di wave
pattern is produced?

The natural frequencies of vibration form a series whose

harmonics are equal to integral multiples of the fundamental
frequency, similar to those on a string with fixed ends.

Clicker 14-39

Air Column Open at One End

Clicker Question

A tube closed at one end has a displacement

p
node ((and
pressure antinode) at the closed end.
The fundamental frequency is lower by a factor of 2 than that
in a tube with the same length but open at both ends
There are no even multiples of the fundamental frequency:
fn n

Slide 14-40

v
nf1 n 1,3,5,7
4L

An open-open tube of air supports standing waves at

frequencies of 300 Hz and 400 Hz, and at no
frequencies
q
between these two. The second
harmonic of this tube has frequency
1. 800 Hz.
2. 600 Hz.
3. 400 Hz.
4. 200 Hz.
5. 100 Hz.

Slide 14-41

Clicker 14-42

Clicker Question

Clicker Question

If you blow across the opening of a partially filled soda

bottle, you hear a tone. If you take a big sip of soda and
th blow
then
bl
across the
th opening
i again,
i how
h
will
ill th
the
frequency of the tone change?

You blow into an open pipe and produce a tone. What

happens to the frequency of the tone if you close the end of the
pipe and blow into it again?
1) depends on the speed of sound in the pipe

1) frequency will increase

2) you hear the same frequency

2) frequency will not change

3) you hear a higher frequency

3) frequency will decrease

4) you hear a lower frequency

Clicker 14-43

Clicker 14-44

Clicker Question

Quality of Sound

Determine the wavelength of the standing wave in the organ

pipe closed at one end.

The characteristic sound of any instrument is referred to

as the quality of sound, or the timbre
The sound quality depends on the mixture of harmonics in
th sound
the
d

1) 4 3
2)) 4 5
3) 4 7
4) 4 9
Clicker 14-45

Beats: Interference in Time

Slide 14-46

Clicker Question

When waves of slightly

g y different frequencies
q
interfere, the result
is constructive and destructive interference alternating in time.
y x, t A coskx 1t A coskx 2t
1
1

2 A cos 1 2 t cos kx 1 2 t
2
2

f1 = 80 Hz

You hear three beats per second when two sound

tones are generated. The frequency of one tone is
known to be 610 Hz
Hz. The frequency of the other is

f2 = 90 Hz

1. 604 Hz.
2. 607 Hz.

fbeat = 10 Hz

3. 613 Hz.
4. 616 Hz.

0.1 s

For each cycle of the slow oscillation, there are two amplitude
peaks. Thus the frequency with which the amplitude varies, or
the beat frequency,
frequency is simply:

5. Either 2 or 3.

beat 1 2 or f beat f1 f 2
Slide 14-47

Clicker 14-48

Clicker Question

The Doppler Effect

The traces
Th
t
below
b l
show
h
beats
b t that
th t occur when
h two
t
different
diff
t
pairs of waves interfere. For which case is the difference in
frequency of the original waves greater?

Case I: Moving
g Source
& Stationary Observer

The change in the wavelength is given by:

' vsourceT vsource

1) pair 1

vsound

2) pair 2

1 source
v
sound

3) same
sa e for
o bo
both pa
pairs
s
4) impossible to tell by just looking

The change in the frequency is then:

v
v

f ' sound sound

vsource
'
1
vsound

Pair 1

Pair 2
Clicker 14-49

The Doppler Effect

The wavelength remains the
same, but the wave speed is
different for the observer.

vsound
vsound vsource

: toward
+: away from
Slide 14-50

Clicker Question
Case II: Moving Observer
& Stationary Source

v' vsound vobserver

Amy and Zack are both listening to the source of sound

waves that is moving to the right. Compare the
f
frequencies
i each
hh
hears.

The change in the frequency is then:

f '

v'

vsound vobserver
v
v
f sound observer
vsound f
vsound

+: toward
: away from

When both source and observer are moving:

v
v
f ' f sound observer
vsound vsource

1. fAmy < fZack

2. fAmy = fZack

Upper: toward
Lower: away from

3. fAmyy > fZack

The Doppler effect for light is similar but slightly different.

Slide 14-51

Slide 14-52

Clicker Question

Clicker Question

You are heading toward an island in a speedboat and you

see your friend standing on the shore, at the base of a cliff.
You sound the boats
boat s horn to alert your friend of your arrival
arrival.
If the horn has a rest frequency of f0, what frequency does
your friend hear?

IIn the
th previous
i
question,
ti
the
th horn
h
had
h d a restt frequency
f
off f0,
and we found that your friend heard a higher frequency f1 due
to the Doppler
pp shift. The sound from the boat hits the cliff
behind your friend and returns to you as an echo. What is
the frequency of the echo that you hear?
1) lower than f0

1) lower than f0

2) equal to f0

2) equal to f0

3) higher than f0 but lower than f1

3) higher than f0

4) equal to f1
5) higher than f1

Slide 14-53

Slide 14-54

Shock Waves

Summary

Shock waves occur when a wave source moves through

g the
medium at a speed greater than the wave speed.
The angle of the conical wave front, the Mach angle, is given by
sin = vobject/vsound. The ratio vobject/v
/ sound is called the Mach number
number.

A wave is a traveling disturbance that carries energy but not matter

Mechanical waves including sound waves involve the
disturbance of a medium
Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium to propagate
Simple harmonic waves are sinusoidal in shape:

y ( x, t ) A cos((kx
k t )
The speed of a wave follows from its frequency and wavelength
or from its angular frequency and wavenumber: v = f = /k

vobjt

Slide 14-55

Important wave phenomena include

Reflection
R fl ti and
d refraction
f ti
Interference
Standing
g waves
The Doppler effect
Slide 14-56