(b)

Discuss the availability and accuracy of position fixing on a

modern wellequipped vessel.
A modern well equipped vessel shall be expected to be provided with the following
equipment for fixing the vessels position.

GPS

DGPS

GLONASS

RADARS WITH MAPPING FACILITIES.

COMPASS VISUAL BEARING

ECDIS COMBINED WITH GPS AND RADAR AND AUTO PILOT INPUTS.
GPS:
(a) Position accuracy is 33 -100mtrs (95% of the time) depending on the quality of
the
signal available.
(b)The datum used is also very important (WGS 84) when transferring the position
on to the chart.
(c) Off isolated islands, charted position may be several miles discrepant from the
positions arrived from the GPS.
(d)Alternative source of position must be utilised to check when navigating in close
proximity to island, reefs etc.
DGPS:
(a) Position accuracy is 1 to 5 mtrs depending upon the availability of the DGPS land
station.
(b)Requires special network of radio stations to provide correction to the GPS to
enhance the accuracy.
(c) The above system is not available all over the world especially this part of the
world and coverage is limited.
(d)Also subject to equipment errors and to be carefully used along with other
position fixing system.
GLONASS
(a) Position accuracy is 5 to 15 mtrs (when glonass datum PZ90 is referenced with
WGS 84 and plotted on the chart) depending on the availability of the signal and
its quality.
(b)They cannot be plotted directly on major admiralty charts which are referred to
horizontal datums.
(c) Also subject to equipment errors and to be carefully used along with other
position fixing system.
(d)The datum used is also very important (PZ90 / WGS 84) when transferring the
positions on the chart.
(e) Off isolated islands, charted position may be several miles discrepant from the
positions arrived from the GLONASS).
(f) Alternative source of position must be utilised to check when navigating in close
proximity to island, reefs etc.
LORAN C
Position accuracy depends upon
1) Condition of equipment
2) Additional correction Factor (ASF).
Not available at parts of the world.
Although not very accurate as a GPS fix, the position obtained from LORAN C can be
accurate to 1 mile at the edge of the coverage area.

RADAR WITH MAPPING FACILITY:

Position accuracy dependant upon
(a) the condition of the equipment, associated errors in bearing and range scales.
(b)the skill of the operating in obtaining targets in areas where the targets are not
well defined.
(c) Availability of well defined targets (depending upon the weather and visibility
conditions)
(d)The effective use of mapping facility.
COMPASS VISUAL BEARING:
Position accuracy depends upon the
(a) Condition of the equipment in use.
(b)Requires minimum 3 Position lines
(c) The skill of the person in using he equipment efficiently and identifying the
correct navigational mark
ECDIS:
Position accuracy depends upon:
(a) The effective GPS input.
(b)The updated charts version in the ECDIS system
(c) The skill of the operator.
(d)Use of appropriate scale of chart while transiting the areas.
(e) Provides real time position monitoring but charted accuracy may be based on
old
surveys and safe navigation would reflect the need for a continuous look out.
SEXTANT:
Position accuracy depends upon:
(a) The condition of the equipment
(b)The skill and experience of the operator.
(c) Impossible to make the best use in case of squally weather condition where the
horizon is obscured
ECHO SOUNDER
Position accuracy depends upon
a) the condition of the equipment
b) The skill of the navigation in interpreting the information obtained from the
equipment and the information from the chart.
c) Especially in the areas of shallow water, this equipment becomes a very handy
tool to check the accuracy of other position fixing method used.
Following table shows the reliability, accuracy and
equipment
Method
Reliability Accuracy at 20 miles
Radar bearings
Very good 650 mtrs degs +
G.E
Radar Ranges
Very good 550 mtrs (1.5%)
GPS
Very good 33 100 mtrs (95%)
Loran C
Very good 400 mtrs or better
Visual bearings
Echo Sounder

Excellent
Excellent

Similar to Radar
Better than required

availability of modern nav

Availability
100%
100%
100%
In selected
areas
Depends on vis.
100%

From the above it can be seen that for a vessel to maintain the utmost navigational
accuracy, the means of position fixing while transiting this area during ay time must
be a combination of above equipments viz., a well tuned radar on short ranges, good

visual look out, GPS with good Horizontal dilution of position and an echo sounder with
associated alarms.

Discuss the changed situation facing the navigator if the vessel is fitted with
a GPS receiver.
1) A modern vessel could be equipped with ECDIS. This system would be provided
with two independent position monitoring system either GPS and/or DGPS.
2) GPS provides an immediate position and if working with ECDIS would provide
real time and very accurate monitoring.
3) However it is not error free and may incur datum errors which are usually not
charted.
4) The navigator can feed in the passage plan and therefore one can keep the
cross track error to minimal making the navigation more accurate.
5) While plotting the position of the vessel using GPS, appropriate datum correction
to be applied before transferring the position on the chart.
6) Over reliant on the GPS is always a danger. Where possible its position need to
be verified by means of secondary means viz., visual bearing, radar ranges,
celestial observations, echo sounder etc.,
7) Care should be taken to ensure that GPS does not go into DR mode where in the
position obtained from it will result in catastrophy especially when navigating
between islands, shoals and reefs.

Differentiate between Adopted and Non-adopted schemes

ADOPTED SCHEME

NON-ADOPTED SCHEME

These are routeing system adopted

by IMO

These routeing system are established by

the national government or the local
authorities and are not adopted by the
IMO
The authorities lay down the regulations
governing its use. Such regulations may
not only modify Rule 10 but also other
steering and sailing rules.

These schemes are adopted by IMO

in accordance with Rule 10 of the
COLREGS, applies to all vessels in
or near the area of TSS adopted by
the IMO and does not relieve any
vessel if her obligation under any
other rule.
These are intended for use by all
The use such scheme are governed by the
vessels, by day, by night, in all
regulations laid down by the national or
weather, in ice free waters or under
local authorities.
light ice conditions where no extraordinary manoeuvres or assistance by
ice breakers are required.

When carrying out an appraisal of any passage, various environmental

and climatic factors must be considered. Admiralty routeing charts will

invariably be used when carrying out the above appraisal.

or the passage from Durban to Melbourne:
a) Outline the relevant information that a routeing chart can provide:
In order to plan a ocean voyage routeing charts show at a glance important information. They cover the
oceans of the world and are complied for each month of the year. The following are the relevant information
that a routeing chart can provide:
1) Recommended tracks and distances between the ports.
2) Routes at a glance indicate whether they are rhumb line or great circle.
3) Fuelling terminals.
4) Loadline zones
5) Date line information
6) Predominant ocean currents
7) Bailie Wind roses
8) Ice information Iceberg limits and Pack ice limits.
9) TRS tracks for the month
10) Percentage frequency of wind force beaufort force 7 and above.
11) Percentage frequency of visibility less than 5 nm.
12) Percentage frequency of visibility less than 1 nm.
13) Mean sea temperature
14) Dew point temperature
15) Mean air temperature
16) Mean air pressure
b) Describe how this information should be used to assist in the planning the
passage
1) The routeing chart gives the recommended track and distances for each month. So while planning the
passage the relevant information pertaining to the recommended track must be obtained from the
appropriate routeing chart.
2) This route must however be analysed as to whether it will be suitable depending on the vessels
condition draft and cargo onboard including deck cargo.
3) The loadline zones are clearly indicated on the chart which enables the navigator to assess at a glance
whether the vessel can enter other zone without contravening the loadline regulations.
4) The movement of the TRS and their likelihood of affecting vessel on her passage can be vividly seen
at one glance based on the tracks of TRS given in the chart.
5) The meteorological condition for the month can be obtained and this information can be used to
assess whether the vessel will encounter any deteriorating met conditions during her passage. If
required vessel can plan and adopt an alternative route which may be given in the routeing chart.
6) The likely wind condition direction and beaufort force is readily available from the chart.
7) The charter party requirement may require the vessel to adopt a limiting latitude in which case the
navigator can use this as limiting latitude and plan his passage with additional information on the
recommended route from the chart.
8) The chart provides information about the ice limits and pack ice limits and this information is of
utmost important to ensure that while planning the passage the vessel is well clear of the ice limits.
9) The routeing chart provides information on predominant ocean current. A navigator can use this
information while planning the passage so as to make optimum use of the current for his passage
which would result in commercial benefits. However this should be done with jeopardizing the safety
of navigation.
10) The information on frequency of deteriorating visibility including fog can be obtained from the chart.
This helps in ascertaining which part of the passage the vessel is likely to encounter restricted
visibility.

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of Shore based routeing and

shipboard Routeing.

Advantages:
1) Distinct benefits gained by using a well tried and tested route organisation taking into account
present and future weather conditions.
2) No delay to arrival times as it would not be necessary to alter course for bad weather.
3) Saving in fuel and time.
4) Reductions in ship and cargo damage.
5) Reduction in wear on main engine propulsion system.
6) Passenger comfort.
7) Maintenance can be carried out at sea in better weather conditions.
8) Reduced insurance premium.
Disadvantages

1) The prediction and routeing is based on output of a super computer.

Machineries can never be trusted to be 100% all the time.
2) In order for this routeing system to be effective, the Masters regular report
of weather conditions experienced is required and hence the system is not
independent on its own.
3) It is the vessel which experiences the actual weather and not the shore
based organisation. Effective decisions are generally based on the
experience rather than based on predictions.
4) There has been many instance where the routeing advise has put vessel in
severe weather conditions and hence the purpose of shore based routeing is
not achieved.
5) Additional cost involved in paying shore based organisation.
SHIPBOARD ROUTEING:
Advantages:
1) The Master can feel the effect that the weather / seas are having on his vessel. Effective
decisions can be made to avoid such heavy weather.
2) The navigation equipments on bridge has become much modernised, that the vessel has
access to latest weather report and weather charts.
3) The weather faxes and messages gives a clear picture of expected weather condition and the
Master can decide the route to adopt prior departure from a place.
4) Decisions are not based on results from super computer.
Disadvantages:
1) Although considerable information are available to a mariner aboard, it is unlikely that he
will have up-to-date information available to shore based operators.
2) The action taken by Master will avoid bad weather today but make the vessel into worse
weather tomorrow because he cannot see the whole picture.
3) Increased cost of burning extra fuel.
4) Weather delays in making port.
5) Damage to ship and cargo.
6) Undue stress on main engine and propulsion system.
7) No maintenance.
8) Requires skill to interpret weather reports and weather faxes.
9) Lack of experience can endanger life at sea.
Describe FIVE objectives of weather routeing

1) Least time :
The main objective was the reduce the time on passage.
2) Least time with lease damage to hull and cargo:
The desired objective of this planned route is to reduce and minimise damage and associated costs. This
objective is probably the most important consideration of vessels using weather routeing system
3) Least Damage:
The desired objective is to minimise the damage and is widely used by vessels
with particularly sensitive
cargoes such as livestock or vehicles.
4) Minimum speed:
A requirement often stipulated by C/P that the vessel maintains a given minimum speed throughout the
period of passage. Failure to achieve the speed could incur financial penalties.
5) Fuel Saving:
The desired objective of the weather routeing is to minimise the amount of fuel used because of todays
increased fuel costs which have become significant to
ship owners regarding the commercial and
economic considerations of the
voyage.

A tug and tow is to make a passage from Cape Town to Colombo in early May. With ref data
sheets Q1(A) (D)
(a) Outline the navigational and environmental factors which should be taken into account
when appraising the passage
NAVIGATIONAL FACTORS:
1) Draught of the vessel in relation to the depth of the water and UKC required.
2) Load line zones and requirements.
3) The course or route to be adopted whether G/C or R/L.
4) Position fixing :
a) Method to be used and its relative accuracy
b) Nav aids and other sources available for position fixing.
c) Frequency of position fixing.
5) Availability of charts:
a) For port approaches port of dep and destination.
b) Large scale charts for coastal passage.
c) Small scale charts for ocean passage.
6) Al charts corrected to latest NTMs
7) Route /recommendations to safely accomplish the intended passage. The ocean passage for the world
provides recommended passage for the category of vessel and for the season. This publication should
however be read in conjunction with the relevant Admiralty Sailing Directions.
8) All relevant publications are available for the voyage and are corrected to latest NTMs.
9) Vessel to have sufficient bunkers to safely accomplish the voyage.
10) Reserve bunkers should be made available prior departure to meet any contingencies or delay to
make the destination owing to bad weather.
11) The total distance involved to the destination.
12) The speed of the vessel.
13) Routeing information.
14) Operational status of navigational equipments.
15) Vessel to have all pertinent navigational warnings available for the intended voyage.
16) Distance off islands and dangers to pass.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
1) The prevailing weather conditions.

2)
3)
4)
5)

The expected weather conditions during the intended passage.

Availability of met warning prior to sailing from the port.
General climatic conditions as per publications for the month of the intended passage.
The activities of TRS and Monsoon, its frequency for the period of intended passage and its influence
on vessel.
6) The state of visibility expected based on the met information and research made using relevant
publications.
7) Ocean currents expected and its influence on the vessels passage.
8) The general sea and swell pattern.
9) The pressure system prevailing for the season.
10) The ice limits and its effect.
11) Abnormal waves that can be encountered off Cape Good Hope especially those generated by
Southerly gales.
12) The Marpol requirements with respect to disposal of garbage, machinery space, bilges etc
SPECIAL AREAS.
13) Limits of passing distance from shore for tankers 25 miles.
(a) Explain why there are multiple routes for a passage from Cape Town to Colombo, both East and West of
Madagascar.
The reason why there are multiple routes for the passage between Cape Town and Colombo both east and
West coast of Madagascar are:
1) Routes which can be adopted by vessel according to the category classified by the Ocean Passages
for the world viz.,
a) High powered vessel
b) Low powered vessel
2) The season of the year during which the passage is to be accomplished.
3) Through Mozambique channel
a) Current is against and due to Agulhas and Mozambique current and has direct bearing on the
speed of the vessel.
b) Swell is smothered due to lee provided by the Madagascar island.
c) In the vicinity of TRS, the vessel could be land locked and caught up in the lee shore.
4) Through East of Madagascar:
a) Weak current exits and does not affect the speed of the vessel.
b) Wind nearly on the beam of the vessel.
c) Swell quite predominant especially those created by southerly gale, however generally on the
beam.
d) Open sea and more sea room available to avoid TRS.

Outline three possible actions open to Master to avoid encountering the worst of the storm
(NOV 2005 new syllabus)
The Master has the following options:
1) Continue on the present course.
2) A/c course to starboard and proceed on a easterly course.
3) Turn around and proceed SWly towards southern tip of Madagascar.
1) Continue on the present course: TRACK 1 on the chartlet
a) Not an ideal option because if the storm continues on the present course, the distance of the
tug from the storm after 12 hours will be approximately 220 miles and will keep decreasing
with the time.
b) The vessel will be forward of trough line for a long period of time and hence prolonged
exposure to worst weather.
c) The condition is worsened if the TRS recurves further.
2) Proceed on a easterly course: TRACK 2 on the chartlet
a) Reasonable option so long as the storm continues its present course.

b)
c)
d)
e)

After 12 hours the vessel will be approximately 320 miles from the storm centre.
Vessel will cross and be behind the trough line much earlier as compared to above choice.
Hence exposure to bad weather is reduced.
However the condition will be worsened if the storm recuves further and puts the vessel
forward of trough line. In this case the vessel will have prolonged exposure to high seas and
worst weather conditions.

3) Proceed towards southern tip of Madagascar TRACK 3 on the chartlet.

a) This is by far the best option taking into consideration the speed of the TUG.
b) The vessel will at any given time will more than 300 miles from the storm centre.
c) More so if the TRS recurves further, the vessel will definitely be well clear of the storm field
and less exposure of bad weather.

d) State giving reasons, which of these options a prudent Master would choose.
1) A prudent Master will choose the option of TRACK 3 ie., turn around and proceed towards
the southern tip of Madagascar.
2) This action is based on three major factor viz.,
a) the Speed of tug which is only half the speed of the TRS
b) The tug has a tow which might severely hamper her manoeuvring in the vicinity of
TRS
c) The TRS has already recurved.
3) Presently the vessel is approximately 480 miles from the storm centre.
4) After 12 hours forecast and if the storm maintains the course and speed, the distance from the
storm centre will be approximately 350 mils.
5) It is more likely that the TRS will further recurve to follow SE ly track.
6) Although the vessel is presently forward of the trough line and in dangerous semi-circle, the
distance from the storm centre is far that the vessel will not experience worst weather
condition.
7) So the speed of the tug will not be affected much and hence can reach the Southern tip of
Madagascar early so as to make use of the island as lee.
8) If the TRS recurves further, the vessel will clear the trough line early and hence improvement
in weather condition. So the vessel will clear the storm field very early and hence can resume
her passage.

STCW 95 and several other relevant publications contain guidance to

Master on determining the composition of the Bridge tem under varying
operational conditions.
Outline the various factors that should be considered by the Master when
deciding appropriate manning levels necessary on the bridge.
The need to maintain a proper lookout should determine the basic composition of the navigational watch.
There are a number of circumstances and conditions that could influence at any time the actual watch
keeping arrangements and the bridge manning levels.
A bridge team organization should be effective to manage all the resources that are available to the bridge
and promote good communication and teamwork.
When determining the adequacy of the navigational watch to ensure proper look out and execution of other
routine bridge related duties, Master should take the following factors into account:
1) The state of visibility

2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

The state of sea and weather conditions.

Daylight / darkness
The nature of water in which vessel is navigating.
Traffic separation and other activities at sea in vicinity of the vessels track.
The size of the vessel or routeing schemes and attention required in these.
The bridge configuration that might hinder detection by sound or visually.
Additional work load caused by the nature of the vessels functions, immediate operating requirements
and anticipated manoeuvres.
9) The fitness for duty.
10) The experience of the OOW.
11) Need for OOW to carryout additional duties in proximity to navigational hazards.
12) Familiarity of the OOW with vessels equipment, procedures and manoeuvring characteristics.
13) Activities taking place on the bridge e.g communication and the availability of additional help.
14) The operational status of bridge instrumentation and controls, including alarms.
15) Use and operational condition of the nav aids such as radar or electronic position indicating devices
and any other equipment affecting safe navigation of the ship.
16) Availability of operational auto pilot.
17) UMS controls, alarms and indicators provided on the bridge, procedures for their use and limitations
18) Rudder and propeller control and manoeuvring characteristics.
19) Knowledge of Masters confidence in the professional competence of the vessels officers and crew.
20) Any unusual demands on the navigational watch that may arise as a result of special operational
circumstances
21) Any other relevant standard, procedures r guidance relating to watchkeeping arrangements and fitness
for duty.
In open sea conditions, the OOW may be the only person looking after all aspects of navigation. The Master
should be satisfied regarding the following on each occasion before commencing sole lookout watchkeeping:
1) The OOW has had sufficient rest prior to commencing the watch.
2) The OOW confirms that the workload is well within his/her capacity to maintain proper lookout and
remain in full control of the prevailing circumstances.
3) The OOW is aware of the back up assistance that has been designated for the bridge and whom and
when to call for assistance.
4) All designated back up personnel are aware of response times, any limitations on their movements,
and are able to hear alarm or communications on bridge. Preferably there should be two way radio
contact between bridge and one of the designated person.
5) All essential equipments and alarms on the bridge are fully functional.
1) Last but not the least, the competency and the complacence of the navigating officer involved in
navigation in these areas has a direct bearing on the maintenance of navigational accuracy.
b) Explain why a fully operational GPS receiver would be an advantage when transiting the islands.
1) A modern vessel could be equipped with ECDIS. This system would be provided with two
independent position monitoring system either GPS and/or DGPS.
2) GPS provides an immediate position and if working with ECDIS would provide real time and
very accurate monitoring.
3) However it is not error free and may incur datum errors which are usually not charted.
4) The navigator can feed in the passage plan and therefore one can keep the cross track error to
minimal making the navigation more accurate.
5) While plotting the position of the vessel using GPS, appropriate datum correction to be
applied before transferring the position on the chart.
6) Over reliant on the GPS is always a danger. Where possible its position need to be verified by
means of secondary means viz., visual bearing, radar ranges, celestial observations, echo
sounder etc.,
7) Care should be taken to ensure that GPS does not go into DR mode where in the position
obtained from it will result in catastrophy especially when navigating between islands, shoals
and reefs.

Outline the precautions that should be observed by the Officer of the Watch when using
parallel indexing to monitor the vessels progress in the passage
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

The choice of object for PI should be such that it appears as a strong echo on the radar.
The Tidal ranges should be taken into account.
The object chosen should be a distinct feature of land.
The object should not fall within the blind / shadow sector of the radar.
The radar error centring error must be taken into account while using PI.
The radar should be tune to provide optimum performance.
Range scale used should be appropriate so as to give a better and clear picture of the object to be
used for PI.
8) The type of radar used for PI.
9) At any given time not more than 2 PI should be used. One for the present course and one for the next
course.
10) The appropriate mode should be used during Parallel Indexing.

State the procedure to be followed when the GPS position does not match with the chart.
1)
2)
3)
4)

Prepare Form H 102 b form for recording GPS observation and corresponding chart position.
Mention of whether receiver was set to WGS84 datum or other datum
Can include extra information such as receiver model, PDOP, HDOP or GDOP values.
These reports will assist in providing evidence for notes detailing approximate difference between
the WGS84 datum and the datum of the chart.

Passage Plan should be from berth to berth and not between pilot stations. State reasons for
this recommendation.
1) To make the bridge team aware of the nature of passage the vessel will be taking on between the
berth and the pilot station.
2) The manoeuvring area available to vessel is severely restricted due to the limited width available for
navigation, presence of other vessels and no go areas.
3) Although pilot has experience and sound local knowledge, it is essential that the ships officers have
complete knowledge of vessels passage from pilot station to berth and vice versa.
4) By having a PP from berth to berth,
a) Vessels PP can be discussed and compared with pilots PP / knowledge.
b) The bridge now being well aware of the proposed PP, can now effectively
monitor the
vessels progress along the planned track thus eliminating
complete dependence on the pilots expertise.
c) Even if pilot becomes incapacitated, the Master who is now well aware of the
PP can take immediate con of the vessel and her safe passage.
5) The Master is still in command of the vessel and is responsible for safe navigation and so the whole
bridge team
6) Contingencies w.r.t restricted waters expected and response to such will be marked and available for
ready reference ad use by bridge team.

Enumerate problems associated with navigation in High Latitudes (Polar navigation)

Navigation Difficulties:
1) Directions changes fast with movement of the observer.
2) Near pole, meridians converge. Excessive longitudinal curvature renders the meridians and paralles
impracticable for use a navigation reference.
3) All time zones meet at poles and hence LMT has little significance.

4)
5)
6)
7)

Sunrise / sunset, night / day are quite different when compared to temperate zones.
Sun rises and set once a year.
Moon rises once each month and provides illumination when full. Aurora can give more light.
Planet rise on each sidereal period (12 yrs for Jupiter and 30 years for Saturn)

Charts:
1) Charts are based on aerial photography.
2) Only few surveys are carried out.
3) Poor accuracy of survey.
4) Geographical positions unreliable.
5) Sounding, topography and all navigation information are sparse.
Gyro compass:
1) Gyro compass looses all its directive force. Reliable upto 70 degs only.
2) To be checked every 4 hours after 70 degs.
3) Practically useless after 85 degs.
4) Errors occurs due to frequent change in course and speed.
Magnetic compass
1) It is of little value.
2) Large diurnal changes in variation as much as 10 degs.
3) Requires swinging of ship and compass adjustment prior use.
4) Frequent comparison between Gyro and Magnetic to be made.
Echo Sounder
1) To be run continuously to detect signs of shoal water.
2) Depth changes abruptly.
3) When in drift ice, vsl must be slowed down to obtain sounding (to reduce hull noise or ice under
ship).
Celestial observation
1) Sights cannot be relied upon.
2) No twilight, cloud cover hinder observation
3) In summer long days and short nights and hence stars could not be used.
4) Poor DR and hence use of transferred position lines is impractical.
5) Forced to use low altitude celestial body.
Radar
1) Useful but not to be over relied.
2) Ice poses poor radar target, extreme care must be taken when using radar.
3) Tuned to peak performance.
Others
1) GPS becomes useless in polar navigation.
2) Also vessel will be out of INMARSAT foot prints.

Enumerate the features of ECDIS and its advantages and disadvantages.

ECDIS Electronic Chart Display and Information system.

1) It uses electronic chart meeting IMO specifications.

2) With adequate backup ECDIS can be accepted as complying with the SOLAS requirement.
3) The system uses either Electronic navigation chart (ENC) often known as vector chart or Rastar
Navigation charts (RNC).
4) It forms part o Integrated Bridge System (IBS)
5) Updation of these charts are carried out using compact disc correction.
6) Contains inputs from GPS/ARPA/Compass and provides real time display of navigation charts.
7) Requires two independent position fixing system.
8) When combined with AIS, can give overall picture of all vessels in the area which are fitted with
AIS.
9) When using Rastar charts, it must be done in conjunction with an appropriate portfolio paper chart.
10) When ENC is used, another fully operational ECDIS must be available as back up.
11) Then RNC is used, full set of paper charts must be available as back up.
Advantages:
1) ENC do not wear out and the cost for replacing and removing is eliminated.
2) Once onboard, no longer dependant on the chart suppliers to provide paper charts.
3) Automatic chart corrections.
4) Time saving in chart corrections.
5) Risk of human error in chart correction is removed.
6) Full navigation is available at a single control position.
7) Instant real time display of the current position.
8) No manual correction to GPS position required when plotting position.
9) Simplifies handover procedure.
10) No need to change chart in busy areas.
11) Easy check on nav hazards ahead of track by scrolling.
12) Allows passage to be planned, together with setting of alarms such as cross track errors, sounding,
waypoint approach etc.
13) Automatic input of courses eliminate risk of human error.
14) Workload and fatigue reduced.
Disadvantages
1) Requires backup system and hence not economical
2) Next RNC chart not available.
3) Vessels position between charts may not be the same.
4) Accuracy of navigation information is doubtful.
5) Datum shift.
6) GPS failure switches the system to DR mode.
7) Hardware failure.
8) Software failure.
9) Power failure
10) Failure to update chart
11) Input failure
12) Virus infection of computer files.
13) Over reliance / complacency.
14) Competency of operator and skill to interpret.

State the function and usage of ships performance curve in the above routeing system.
1) The ships performance curve is drawn using ships speed against wave height for various sea states
and respective headings such as HEAD SEA, BEAM SEA and FOLLOWING SEAS.
2) Provides the effective speed of the vessel when entered with ships original speed and wave height.

3) Used to determine how far the vessel would travel during 12 hour or 24 hour on various courses
taking into consideration predicted wave height and direction at the time of the voyage.
4) Enables the optimum speed of advance to be predicted.

When checking compass error by the amplitude method, state the correct position of the SUN
in relation to the visible horizon, giving reasons for your answer.
1) When observing the amplitude, the centre of the body should be on the celestial horizon of the
observer.
2) But the visible horizon does not coincide with the celestial horizon because of the combined effect of
the refraction, parallax and dip.
3) Thus when checking the compass error by amplitude, the lower limb of the sun must be semidiameter above the visible horizon where by the suns centre will be at the celestial horizon.
Explain why in higher latitude, checking compass error by the amplitude method is unreliable.
In higher latitude the rate that the body is changing its azimuth is comparatively large.
Consequently a small change in altitude results in a large change in azimuth.
Accuracy of the observation is unreliable.
If the latitude of the observer and declination of sun value and sign are closer, then the observation would be
more reliable. This is highly impossible in higher latitude.

Sensible horizon

Visible horizon

LAT and DEC

closer in value
and sign

Large diff. in
LAT and DEC
value and sign