DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SESSION 2015-16

A
Project Report
On
SOLAR POWERED COMPRESSORLESS
REFRIGERATOR SYSTEM

Submitted To

Submitted By
Aditya Singh

Mr. Manoj kumar

(Assistant Prof. ME Department)

Akansh Shail
Avdhesh Sharma
Atul Sharma
Arun Gangwar

Mr.Inayat Hussain
(AssistantProf.MEDepartment

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled Solar Powered Compressorless
Refrigeration System submitted by Avdhesh Sharma, Arun Kumar Gangwar,
Aditya Singh, AkanshShail, Atul Sharma in partialfulfilment of the requirement for
the degree in Mechanical Engineering. in department of Mechanical Engineering from
Invertis University, Bareilly, is a record ofthe candidates work carried out by them
under my supervision. The matter embodied in this project elsewhere has not been
submitted for the award of any degree.

GUIDE NAME
MR.INAYAT HUSSAIN

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
MR.RAJEEV ARORA

MR.MANUJ KUMAR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Apart from our efforts, the success of this project depends largely on the encouragement and guidelines
of many others. We take this opportunity to express our gratitude to the people who have been
instrumental in the successful completion of this project. First of all, we would like to thank God
Almighty who made it possible for us to see through the turbulence and to set us in the right path.
We would like to show our greatest gratitude to Mr. Inayat Hussain and Mr.Manoj Kumar for his
tremendous support, guidelines and help. We feel motivated and encouraged every time we meet him
and ask him for help. Without his encouragement and guidance this project would not have
materialized.
We would also like to thank,Mr.Rajeev Aroa (HOD of ME Department).
Finally, yet importantly, we would like to express our heartfelt thanks to our beloved
parents for their blessings and our friends/classmates for their help and wishes for the successful
completion of this project .

Avdhesh Sharma
Aditya singh
Akansh Shail
Atul Sharma
Arungangwar

ABSTRACT
This paper outlines the implementation of photovoltaic driven refrigerator cum heating system powered
from solar panelswith a battery bank. Different from conventional refrigeration systems, thermoelectric
refrigeration, based on the Peltiereffect, does not require any compressor, expansion valves, absorbers,
condensers or solution pumps. Moreover, it does notrequire working fluids or any moving parts, which
is friendly to the environment and results in an increase in reliability. Itsimply uses electrons rather than
refrigerants as a heat carrier. Nowadays, thermoelectric refrigeration devices have a distinctplace in
medical applications, electronic applications, scientific equipment and other applications, where a highprecisiontemperature- -control is essential We demonstrate a Novel, Refrigeration cum Heater utilizing
3 Thermoelectric (TE) modulesmounted around a load cabinet. The Performance of this model is
Experimentally Evaluated with an Aluminium cabinet.The device is powered by a Non-conventional
energy resource, here PV Cells. The cabinet can attain a temperature of about8C(min) till
200C(max).The difference between the existing methods and this model, is that a thermoelectric
cooling system
refrigerates without use of mechanical devices(Conventional Condenser fins and Compressor) and
without refrigeranttoo. Since the Peltier module is compact in size, a refrigeration or heating system
can be designed according to the usersrequirements (in desired size and shape).

Elements Used
IR Transmitters x 3
IR Receivers x 3
LED Red x 2
LED Green x 1
LED Yellow x 1
8bit Microcontroller i.e ATMEGA8 for processing
DC Motor x 1
IC L293D for Motor Driver Circuit
10K Preset (Variable Resistance)
10K x1 Resistance, 150R x1 Resistance
22pF x2 Capacitance, 1000uF x1 Capacitance
Crystal Oscillator 3.57 MHz
12V DC Adapter Socket
3 pin Connector
Heat Sink
7805 (5V Voltage Regulator)
6pin Power Switch
General Purpose PCB
Soldering Iron

Introduction
The portable refrigeration unit design team collaborated to create an alternative energy powered
absorption refrigerator. The design uses solar energy to power the unit, allowing it to be completely off
of the electric grid.
The basic principle of an absorption refrigeration system is that it uses a source of heat to provide the
energy needed to drive the cooling process. In a Platen-Munters gas absorption refrigerator liquid
ammonia evaporates in the presence of hydrogen gas, providing the cooling. The now-gaseous
ammonia is sent into a container holding water, which absorbs the ammonia. The water-ammonia
solution is then directed past a heater, which boils ammonia gas out of the water-ammonia solution.
The ammonia gas is then condensed into a liquid. The liquid ammonia is then sent back through the
hydrogen gas, completing the cycle.
If solar power is used to provide heat to such a system, it may do so in two forms, thermal or
photovoltaic. Solar thermal harnesses solar heat directly using focused mirrors to heat a transfer fluid.
Solar photovoltaic uses solar panels that operate using the photo-electric effect to produce direct
current (DC) electricity. This electricity can then be inverted to power AC electronics and can also be
used to create heat via a resistive heat source.
The final system design for this project contained one absorption cycle refrigerator with an extra
absorption cycle that was painted and mounted for explanation and educational use. A resistive heating
wire made of nickel-chromium was used to generate the heat to make the cycle work, and the
electricity to run this heater came from two 12V batteries via a control circuit. The batteries were
charged through a charge controller from two, 135 watt photovoltaic panels that could be rotated to
face the sun and various angles. This entire system was mounted on a wheeled cart for easy mobility
and portability.
This system consists of Embedded devices, Solar panel, Charger, Battery, Display,Analog to Digital
Converter (ADC), Temperature sensor, Driver, Peltier Module, Temperature controlled chamber and
Keypad. The solar panel is applied to convert the heat energy into electrical energy and it is fed to the
charger, which is checked by the implanted system and the output of the charger is given to Battery to
store the electric potential. Again the Battery voltage is given to the ADC, the ADC is used to measure
the Battery voltage and converts it into a digital signal and given back to embedded system. When the
level of the voltage decreased below a threshold value (<11V), the charger is activated and solar
voltage is given to a battery for storage. The temperature sensor is used to measure the temperature of
the chamber and the output of the temperature sensor is given to ADC, where ADC converts analog
signal to digital signal and given to Embedded system. The Embedded system is programmed like that
when it receives the signal from the keypad it checks the temperature of the chamber and activates the
Driver. The driver is used to run the Peltier module. Peltier is a Module which generatesa voltage when
there is a differenttemperature on each side. Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, it creates a
temperature difference. At the atomic scale, an applied temperature gradient causes charge carriers in
the material to diffuse from the hot side to the cold side. So the Peltier module can cool and heat the
chamber. The keypad is used to set the temperature value to the chamber and at the same time the
display used in this system to show the process carried out in the system. The following Figure 1 shows
the overall system block diagram of the solar refrigerator for vaccine.

Overall system Block diagram

LITERATURE REVIEW
The prototype 40- liter solar refrigerator was designed and developed for monitoring its performance in
Indian climate and evaluates the economic feasibility and affordability in domestic, commercial and
industrial applications. In this method, this prototype solar refrigeration system, refrigerator used the
photovoltaic power for performing its operations. This system was designed with battery storage for
enhancing the performance of the refrigerator. The refrigerator consists of 48-watt, AC compressor. In
this prototype the following factors are concentrated. The natural convection heat transfer mode was
considered. The refrigerator cabinet had been divided into vertical and horizontal surfaces. Pressure
variations in the direction perpendicular to the plate are neglected. The viscous forces were assumed to
be negligible. The radiation heat transfer to the cabinet is negligible. In addition to this in this method
(Sanjaykumar A et al., 2008) for analyzing the cooling load and for mathematical modelling of the
refrigerator, the method of boundary layer analysis for natural convection was used. The photovoltaic
driven refrigerator cum heating system powered from solar panels with a battery bank was
implemented by Surith Nivas. M (2013). This was different from conventional refrigeration systems,
thermo-electric refrigeration. It was mainly based on the Peltier effect and it does not require any
compressor, expansion valves, absorbers, condensers or solution pumps. In this system electrons were
used as a heat carrier instead of the refrigerants. They have made a new refrigeration cum heating
utilizing 3 thermo-electric (Te) modules mounted around a load cabinet. The performance of this
method was evaluated with an aluminium cabinet. The cabinet attained a temperature of about 8c
(min) till 200c (max). It was observed in this experiment that the life span of thermo-electric heater
cum refrigeration was more than twice the life span of existing conventional refrigeration (or) heater
system. S. Haidar et al. described the conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy (Seebeck
effect) or electrical energy into thermal energy (Peltier effect) takes place with the help of thermoelectric devices. The electromotive force was generated when heating between two dissimilar metals
takes place. In this the reverse operation was also possible. The transformation of heat from one side to
another side was made possible by passing electric current with the development of semiconductors. In
this two Peltier cells were used as a heat pump. That was used for cooling the small refrigerator, CPU
coolers, and electronic component.

EXISTING SYSTEM
In recent years the price of thermoplastic materials is declining, so the cost of semiconductor, solar
refrigeration production will decrease, and its performance has improved, which greatly contribute to
the promotion of the technology of solar semiconductor refrigeration. Now there are many mature
technology methods for the use of solar energy for refrigeration. However, no matter the absorption of
solar energy, or steam jet, etc., All of them need to use fluoride, lithium bromide and ammonia
refrigerants. In contrast, semiconductor refrigeration has more obvious advantages. It does not use
refrigerants without environment pollution and complicated transmission pipeline. It can only cool a
special device or a specific area. The cooling box has small size and light weight, and it can save the
construction area significantly. No mechanical rotation, so the cooling box is reliable and the
maintenance was easy without noise and wear. It can achieve the two different purposes of cooling and
heating by changing the direction of current. The cooling was quick and it can be controlled by
regulating the work of power, so the control is very convenient. In this case, the product was designed
by combining the two advantages. The system includes solar cells, controllers, batteries, semiconductor
refrigeration part, and so on. Since solar energy is not continuous, in order to ensure that the
refrigerator can be worked continuously at night and cloudy days, generally the system was equipped
with a battery (battery is also playing the role of the regulator in this system) and it was also equipped
with a controller which has the function of protecting battery to avoid over charge and over discharge.

10

From Research Papers

"This is the first step in the development of an electric field refrigeration unit," says Qiming Zhang,
distinguished professor of electrical engineering. "For the future, we can envision a flat panel
refrigerator. No more coils, no more compressors, just solid polymer with appropriate heat
exchangers."
Other researchers have explored magnetic field refrigeration, but electricity is more convenient.
Zhang, working with Bret Neese, graduate student, materials science and engineering; postdoctoral
fellows Baojin Chu and Sheng-Guo Lu; Yong Wang, graduate student, and Eugene Furman, research
associate, looked at ferroelectric polymers that exhibit temperature changes at room temperature
under*
an electrical field. These polarpolymers include poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) and
poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene)-chlorofluoroethylene, however there are other
polarpolymers that exhibit the same effect.
Conventional cooling systems, -- refrigerators or air conditioners -- rely on the properties of gases to
cool and most systems use the change in density of gases at changing pressures to cool. The coolants
commonly used are either harmful to people or the environment. Freon, one of the fluorochlorocarbons
banned because of the damage it did to the ozone layer, was the most commonly used refrigerant. Now,
a variety of coolants is available. Nevertheless, all have problems and require energy-eating
compressors and lots of heating coils.
Zhang's approach uses the change form disorganized to organized that occurs in some polarpolymers
when placed in an electric field. The natural state of these materials is disorganized with the various
molecules randomly positioned. When electricity is applied, the molecules become highly ordered and
the material gives off heat and becomes colder. When the electricity is turned off, the material reverts to
its disordered state and absorbs heat.
The researchers report a change in temperature for the material of about 22.6 degrees Fahrenheit, in
today's (Aug. 8) issue of Science. Repeated randomizing and ordering of the material combined with an
appropriate heat exchanger could provide a wide range of heating and cooling temperatures.
"These polymers are flexible and can be used for heating and cooling, so there may be many different
possible applications," said Zhang, also a faculty member of Penn State's Materials Research Institute.
Besides air conditioning and refrigeration units, applications could include heating or cooling of a
variety of clothing including cooling of protective gear for fire fighters, heating of mittens and socks or
shoes for athletes, sportsmen and law enforcement officer and even cooling of mascot and cartoon 02.5
65character costumes. Another pplication would be in electronics, where small amounts of the
polymers could effectively coo9*/ver heating circuit boards and allow closer packing, and therefore
smaller devices.
The U.S. Department of Energy supported this work

Story Source:
The above story is based on materials provided by Penn State.Note: Materials may be edited for
content and length.

Research Papers Literature

Fears about warming the globe may change the way we chill our foods. Concern about global warming,
as expressed in the President's Climate Change Action Plan of 1993, is the latest motivation for putting
11

future American refrigerators and freezers on a strict energy diet. A current national goal is to design an
environmentally sound refrigerator-freezer by 1998 that uses half as much energy as 1993 models.
Interest in designing a more energy-efficient refrigerator is not new. It first became a goal almost 20
years ago. In the 1970s, the United States was relying on increasingly unstable supplies of imported oil
for fuel, and energy prices began to rise. Utilities balked at building additional power plants because of
rising costs and investment risks. As a result, a premium was placed on developing energy-efficient
appliances, culminating in the passage of the National Appliance Energy Conservation Act of 1987.
In the late 1980s, refrigerator design was again a target of engineers because of the need to change
the refrigerant and insulation used. The reason: the Montreal Protocolcalled for the phasing out of
substances containing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) by the year 2000 because they were thought to be
destroying the earth's stratospheric ozone layer. Ozone shields humans from solar rays that can cause
skin cancer and cataracts. Among the CFCs to be phased out are common refrigerants like R-12 and the
refrigeratorinsulationblowingagentR-11.
Today, the ozone-friendly refrigerant R-134a has been designated to replace CFC-containing
refrigerants in new refrigerators because of its lack of chlorine, the main chemical element causing
ozone depletion. However, it may become a target for future phaseout because it contributes to global
warming, although much less so than CFCs. In that event, its likely replacement will be a hydrocarbon
such as isobutane or propane. These natural refrigerants will have to be "engineered around" in a new
refrigerator design because they are flammable. Thus, their widespread use may slow global warming
but raise the risk of house fires.

Brooks Lunger, a guest user at ORNL's Buildings Technology Center from DuPont, checks instrumentation on test refrigerators.

Large Energy User

Home refrigerators are a significant user of world electricity; hundreds of millions are currently in use,
and 58 million new units are manufactured worldwide each year. In the United States, refrigeration
systems (including air conditioners and heat pumps) account for 41% of the energy consumed by
residential and commercial buildings. The buildings sector requires about 36% of the energy used in
the United States. If no improvements are made, energy use in the buildings sector is projected to climb
37%from 29 quads (quadrillion British thermal units) today to 40 quadsby 2010.
The goal of the Department of Energy's Refrigeration Systems Program, in which ORNL's Buildings
Technology Center (BTC) plays a large role, is to develop and market advanced refrigeration systems
to reduce the projected energy consumption in U.S. buildings by 10% in 2010. There are several
reasons for the current energy reduction goal. They include saving money, reducing reliance on
imported oil, and helping utilities avoid risky capital investments in new power plants to meet
escalating demands for electricity during certain times of day.
12

The most compelling reason to curb demand for electricity is to slow global warming. Fossil fuels used
for electricity production are a large source of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that may
alter the climate. Energy use in buildings accounts for 36% of carbon dioxide emissions produced in
the United States, suggesting that buildings may have a significant impact on outdoor as well as indoor
environments.
ORNL's Role
ORNL has been heavily involved in the refrigerator redesign efforts of the past two decades. Today the
Laboratory has the largest and most comprehensive refrigerator-freezer research program supported by
DOE. ORNL has the expertise and experience to help meet the challenge of increasing energy
efficiency of refrigeration. Since 1977, ORNL's contributions to developments of commercial
refrigerator-freezers and other refrigeration equipment include
Design of more-efficient refrigerator, refrigerator compressor, and supermarket refrigeration systems
through collaboration with subcontractor firms;
Improvement of a computer model of a refrigerator developed by an ORNL subcontractor that is still
being used to design energy-efficent refrigerators, including single-door models being built and sold in
India;
Identification of a refrigerant blend that is ozone safe and of a new refrigerator design that allows the
blend to be used without loss of energy efficiency; and
Introduction of a computer model that allows engineers to optimize heat-exchanger designs rapidly to
produce efficient appliances.
BTC is now working on developing a highly energy-efficient refrigerator-freezer that uses an efficient
and environmentally acceptable refrigerant and insulation. This work is being done under cooperative
research and development agreements (CRADAs) with the largest manufacturers in the refrigeration
industry.
ORNL also will play a role in DOE's latest effort to save energy. In addition to developing new highly
efficient refrigerators, DOE seeks to help industry sell existing energy-efficient refrigeration
equipment.
Among the researchers who have led the more recent developments in BTC's $1-million-a-year
refrigeration research program are Van Baxter, Phil Fairchild, Steve Fischer, Patrick Hughes, Keith
Rice, Jim Sand, John Tomlinson, and Ed Vineyard, all of the Energy Division, and Tom Kollie, Ron
Graves, and Ken Wilkes, all of the Metals and Ceramics Division. Several of these researchers have
been influential in their fields.
In three of the past five years, Sand and Vineyard have won American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) technical paper awards; the award
recognizes the best papers presented at the annual meetings of the international organization. Vineyard
has participated on technical panels for ASHRAE, the Super Efficient Refrigerator Program of the
Consortium for Energy Efficiency, the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers (AHAM), and
the United Nations Environment Programme (which in 1991 and 1994 produced Technical Progress on
Protecting the Ozone Layer, to which he contributed a chapter). Sand is a member of an advisory
committee for the Materials Compatibility and Lubricant Research program of the Air-Conditioning
and Refrigeration Institute (ARI), which sponsors research aimed at solving the equipment problems
resulting from the use of alternative refrigerants. He also was a panelist for a February 10, 1994, video
conference on CFC refrigerant recovery and replacement, which was broadcast by satellite to a wide
regional audience in the Southeast.
13

Baxter was the recipient of ASHRAE's 1982 Willis H. Carrier Award. Fairchild, who helped establish
ORNL's research program on CFC alternative refrigerants, is an adviser to ARI's Research and
Technology Committee; in 1987 he gave testimony at U.S. Senate Joint Subcommittee Hearings on
Stratospheric Ozone Protection and Substitutes for Ozone-Depleting Chemicals. These and other
ORNL researchers have also helped steer the refrigeration industry in a new direction through their
work as influential members of ASHRAE's Refrigeration Technical Advisory Committee.
Advanced Refrigerator Model and Compressor
In 1977, ORNL engineers led by Virgil Haynes in the Energy Division were asked by DOE's
predecessor agency to work with subcontractor firms to develop a more efficient refrigerator. Funds
received by ORNL paid for the work of subcontractors selected by the Laboratory.
In one project, ORNL engineers worked with engineers from Amana, a refrigerator manufacturer, to
develop a more efficient refrigerator-freezer. To help them, they used a computer model of a
refrigerator developed in 1977 by Arthur D. Little, Inc., under an ORNL subcontract. Amana
performed field tests of different models of refrigerators to determine which ones were most efficient.
ORNL provided technical guidance and expertise for all this work.
The engineers focused on vapor-compression refrigeration. In this device, a refrigerant under low
pressure is evaporated in a coiled pipe called an evaporator. To get energy to evaporate, the refrigerant
pulls heat away from the refrigerator compartment, chilling it to the desired temperature. A compressor
draws away the evaporated refrigerant, compresses the vapor, and passes it to a condenser, where it
gives off the heat it had absorbed to the kitchen air. The increased pressure and loss of heat forces the
refrigerant to condense into a liquid. The liquid refrigerant is expanded to the lower pressure, reducing
its temperature, and then is returned to the evaporator. Throughout these cycles, a thermostat regulates
the temperature inside the refrigerator by switching the compressor on and off.
To design a more efficient refrigerator, Amana and ORNL engineers decided to increase the insulation
thickness in the refrigerator's walls from 1/2 inch to 2 inches, install an anti-sweat switch, move the fan
to a better location, improve compressor efficiency, and increase heat exchanger areas. They elected to
have two evaporators instead of oneone evaporator for maintaining freezer temperature at 0-5F and
the other for holding the refrigerator at 40F for fresh food. Because electric heaters are used for
defrosting, they decided to save additional energy by setting the refrigerator-freezer for automatic
defrost every 4 days instead of every 18 hours.
The collaborating engineers showed that refrigerator efficiency could be increased by these changes.
Although these changes would raise the cost of the appliance, they argued that the difference could be
made up by reduced long-term operational costs through decreased use of electricity.
Amana built and sold a more efficient refrigerator that incorporated these changes. "Its major features
were a delayed defrost, increased insulation, and a dual evaporator," says Sand. "But it was on the
market for only a few years because it had some moisture problems in the fresh food compartment."
However, the refrigerator model developed under ORNL subcontract and later improved and validated
by ORNL researchers is still in use today. It will be used by Indian manufacturers to develop moreefficient single-door refrigerators for India. ORNL is assisting the effort to develop more-efficient but
affordable appliances in India andChina through a DOE program called Assisting Deployment of
Energy Practices and Technologies (ADEPT). For the Indian project, BTC evaluated the energy
performance of refrigerators made by five different Indian companies and suggested design changes to
improve their efficiency. Improved efficiency is deemed necessary to keep demand for electricity under
control in a country that lacks resources for adding power plants. The demand for power will rise
because the portion of the population that uses refrigerators is expected to increase from 6% now to
nearly 60% by 2010.
14

In a November 17, 1994, letter to DOE officials, Tom Wilbanks, corporate fellow in ORNL's Energy
Division, wrote: "Quite clearly, the ADEPT project is viewed as a major success in Indiaa model of
bilateral cooperation. Besides leading to a new joint venture between Amana and Voltas, it is credited
with encouraging Whirlpool's entry into the Indian market (purchasing Frigidaire's share in KelvinatorIndia). The results of ORNL's tests of five Indian home refrigerators have led directly to a decision by
the Bureau of Indian Standards to [tighten] the voluntary efficiency standard for Indian
refrigerators. . . . In addition, the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) has added an environmental
chamber to its refrigeration R&D lab as a direct result of [an IIT professor's] participation in the April
1994 workshop in Oak Ridge and his observation of ORNL's testing approaches."
A related project in the late 1970s that was an unusually big success was the development of a more
efficient refrigerator compressor by engineers from industry. ORNL was technical monitor for this
project with Columbus Products, which later became White Westinghouse and then Americold
Compressor Company. In 1981, the subcontractor, by incorporating design changes to the motor,
suction muffler, and compressor valve assembly, developed a compressor that uses 44% less energy
than conventional units of the same size. The compressor is part of product lines of Americold
Compressor and Frigidaire. This compressor technology has helped reduce annual refrigerator energy
use from 1500 kilowatt hours (kwh) to 900 kwh per year in 1990. Between 1980 and 1990, according
to DOE, the energy-efficient refrigerator compressors saved U.S. consumers $6 billion in energy costs.
The more efficient compressor is one of three achievements cited as "notable successes" in DOE's
1991 Refrigeration Systems Program Summaryreport, and it was recently awarded a DOE Pioneer
Award. Another ORNL-led project that received a DOE Pioneer Award resulted from a collaboration of
the Laboratory's Energy Division and Foster-Miller Associates (FMA), H. E. Butt Grocery, and
Friedrich Commercial Refrigeration. The project goal was to reduce electricity consumption in
supermarket refrigeration systems, which use nearly 2% of the electricity consumed in the United
States. The research led to improvements in refrigeration systems that cut energy use in U.S.
supermarkets by 30%, reducing energy bills by about $4 billion since the mid-1980s. About 80% of
supermarkets now use the advanced system.An improved microprocessor controller that modulates the
compressor capacity to meet changing refrigeration loads accounted for about half of the efficiency
gain. The remaining improvement came from further refinements developed by manufacturers
sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute. In addition to cost savings, the reduced energy
consumption by supermarkets avoided the emission of almost 10 million metric tons of carbon.

1.1.1 Concern about CFCs

After development of a computer model and a more efficient refrigerator and compressor by 1981,
refrigerator research at ORNL lay dormant for 6 years. Then in 1987-88, the CFC issue emerged
because of concern about the thinning ozone layer. Suddenly, funding became available from DOE to
develop CFC-free insulation and CFC-free refrigerants for refrigerators.
During this time, DOE's Roof Research Facility at ORNL was dedicated as a national user facility to
help industry develop longer-lasting energy-efficient roofs. Soon after, this facility became concerned
with developing and testing CFC-free roof insulations. It added a room with apparatus for evaluating
the energy performance of CFC-free insulations and CFC-free refrigerants for refrigerators, air
conditioners, and heat pumps.

15

Ed Vineyard checks instrument readings during a test of chlorine-free refrigerant mixtures and alternatives to the coolant HCFC22.

In 1993, the user facility was renamed the Buildings Technology Center. Researchers from industry
used this center not only for roof research but also for development of more-efficient appliances. Just
as ORNL's early refrigeration researchers had collaborated with industrial firms through subcontracts,
the Laboratory's current researchers became involved with the refrigeration industry through
collaborative agreements and CRADAs. The focus of these agreements has been energy-efficient,
environmentally acceptable refrigerators and other refrigeration equipment.
Concern about Global Warming
In June 1992, the international Earth Summit meeting was held in Brazil. Concerns about global
warming were strongly expressed, and the United States was urged to reduce its emissions of carbon
dioxide. The U.S. pledge to restrict carbon dioxide emissions through increased energy efficiency and
other measures was formulated in President Clinton's Climate Change Action Plan of 1993. This plan
exerts additional pressure on the refrigeration industry to design, manufacture, and market energyefficient appliances that use environmentally acceptable refrigerants and insulations. In addition, the
Energy Policy Act of 1992legislation passed by Congress that was based on information gathered for
DOE's National Energy Strategygives DOE the authority and responsibility to pursue energy
efficiency actively.
The problem is that CFCs contribute not only to ozone depletion but also to global warming. In fact,
their contribution to global warming is second only to that of carbon dioxide, which accounts for 80%
of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States. However, replacing CFCs with ozone-friendly
compounds such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) would still
affect global warming. HCFCs and HFCs are also greenhouse gases, but their direct impact on global
warming is much smaller than that of CFCs. However, widespread use of some CFC alternatives in
refrigeration systems would result in larger consumption of electricity from fossil fuel plants. Thus,
emissions of carbon dioxide would increase, speeding up global warming. Clearly, the substitute
refrigerants would have an indirect impact (energy-related) as well as a direct impact (emission-related)
on global warming. The combined effect is called the total equivalent warming impact (TEWI). The
concept of TEWI and of indirect and direct effects of greenhouse gases on global warming was
developed by Steve Fischer, Patrick Hughes, and Phil Fairchild, all of ORNL's Energy Division, and
analysts from Arthur D. Little, Inc., for the first CRADA at the Laboratory. The agreement involved
ORNL and the Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study, a consortium of 12 of the
world's largest producers of fluorocarbons. The work was started in December 1990 and completed in
16

December 1991 with the publication of Energy and Global Warming Impacts of CFC Alternative
Technologies.
Under the CRADA, ORNL evaluated the relative performance, subsequent carbon dioxide emissions,
and net global climate change potential of CFC alternatives in building energy-related applications.
ORNL investigated alternative refrigerants; insulation materials and systems; and advanced
refrigeration, air-conditioning, and heating technologies. Consortium members contributed technical
expertise on refrigerant alternatives. The CRADA was extended and a second report was issued in
December 1994. The extension focused on investigating several alternative technologies to
fluorocarbon-based vapor-compression refrigeration."The direct effect on global warming of a
refrigerant leaking from refrigerators is less than the indirect effect on global warming of carbon
dioxide from their energy use," Sand says. "For leaking automobile air conditioners, the direct effect of
the leaks on global warming is larger than the indirect effect of burning gasoline. But for refrigerators
the indirect effect of consuming electricity inefficiently from fossil fuel plants is much larger than the
direct effect of refrigerant leaks. So, for environmental reasons, emphasis should be placed on
improving energy efficiency of refrigerators to reduce carbon dioxide releases."
Environmentally Acceptable Refrigerants Identified
In 1990, ORNL researchers tested DuPont refrigerant blends proposed as substitutes for R-12, the
commonly used refrigerant that contains CFCs. They identified an HCFC blend of R-22/R-152a/R-124
as an ozone-friendly chemical that could be even more energy efficient than the common refrigerant R12 if the refrigerator were properly redesigned to increase heat transfer and improve the refrigerant
circuit arrangement.
"We helped DuPont make its refrigerant blend more efficient," Ed Vineyard says. "DuPont made the
blend using the results of our computer model. We tested this blend and many other HCFC blends. We
suggested changes in the blend's composition to improve its efficiency. DuPont made the changes, and
we wrote scientific papers on the new blend."The ORNL researchers had tested numerous alternative
refrigerants supplied by DuPont and Pennwalt using the Laboratory's Alternative Refrigerants
Calorimeter Facility. In examining each refrigerant, they measured its energy performance (the
electrical energy required to operate the appliance using the refrigerant) and its refrigeration capacity
(the ability of the fluid to absorb heata measure of the cooling output). The ratio of the refrigeration
capacity to the electrical energy input is the coefficient of performance (COP). The alternative
refrigerants that have the highest COPs were considered the best candidates for future refrigerators.

Charlie Hardin (now retired) sets up a breadboard refrigeration loop to test heat transfer
performance of zeotropic mixture alternatives to HCFC-22
17

Vineyard, Sand, and others have used a computer model of a detailed refrigerator system to evaluate
the energy savings for several design modifications of a refrigerator using an alternative refrigerant
such as HFC R-134a. The design options included use of a more efficient compressor, increased
evaporator and condenser size, door gaskets to reduce energy losses, improved cabinet and door
insulation, and high-efficiency fan motors. Laboratory refrigerator prototypes were built and tested to
verify the model's analytical results experimentally. The modeled and experimental results were
generally in agreement. The differences observed guided the researchers in improving the model.
Partly as a result of the influence of ORNL researchers Sand and Vineyard on AHAM's Refrigeration
Technical Advisory Committee, the refrigeration industry adopted R-134a as the refrigerant of the
future.
"Just as you must switch from an internal combustion engine to a diesel engine if you want to use
diesel fuel instead of gasoline," Sand says, "we found that the refrigerator design had to be changed to
use R-134a as a refrigerant."
"It is not easy to change from a refrigerant used for 40 years," Vineyard says. "To use 134a, the
refrigerator had to be redesigned in a short time because after 1995 it will be illegal to build a
refrigerator that uses only R-12 because this refrigerant will be phased out."
"We faced several complications in the rush to redesign the refrigerator for the new refrigerant," Sand
says. "For example, we learned that the conventionally used lubricating oil is not compatible with 134a.
So we tried a different oil. But we found out that this oil dissolves insulation for the compressor motor,
causing it to burn out. So we tried a different oil, but it plugged up the expansion valve. As you can see,
the ripple effect of one change necessitates a cascade of changes that jacks up the cost of the
refrigerator."
Because of these problems, DOE and the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute are
jointly funding research to determine the compatibility of structural materials and lubricants with
refrigerants being considered as replacements for restricted CFC compounds.
"Some environmentalists complain that the refrigeration industry is slow to manufacture
environmentally sound refrigerators," Sand says, "but the reason for the delay is that it takes time to
develop and test a system that accommodates a change in refrigerants. If enough time is not taken to
conduct tests, a financial disaster could occur. Recently, a leading manufacturer of refrigerators lost
almost a billion dollars replacing damaged refrigerators. For these new models, the company had
decided to use a new compressor design. But the new compressors failed in consumers' homes after a
few weeks of operation, so the company lost a considerable amount of money."
HFCs such as R-134a have been favored over CFCs because they are less of a threat to the ozone layer.
However, HFCs have since fallen into disfavor in some quarters because they are greenhouse gases that
have long atmospheric lifetimes. R-134a absorbs infrared radiation emitted by the earth's surface in the
spectrum not absorbed by other gases.
"The ultimate refrigerant of the future," Sand says, "could be hydrocarbons like isobutane or propane if
HFCs fall victim to global warming concerns. Hydrocarbons are 4 to 5% more efficient than R-12, they
don't destroy the ozone layer, and they don't contribute to global warming. Isobutane is a propellant
used to replace CFCs in spray cans, and propane is found in crude petroleum and natural gas. European
refrigerator manufacturers are now switching to hydrocarbons."
"Hydrocarbon refrigerants have one problem," Vineyard says. "They are flammable. That's why
hydrocarbons, which are natural refrigerants, were not originally selected for electric refrigerators.
Vendors will have to deal with lawsuits that may arise from expected increases in refrigerator-related
house fires. They will have to worry about the risk of fire in factories that store hydrocarbon
18

refrigerants and in hydrocarbon tanks in trucks used by refrigerator service people. To reduce the fire
risk to homeowners, we will have to engineer around such refrigerants and keep them hermetically
sealed. But there will always be a small risk that they could leak out into defroster heaters or catch
electrical sparks and ignite. We hope to study these problems for the Environmental Protection
Agency."

Friendly Insulation
R-11, an insulation blowing agent that contains CFCs, was once used to blow polyurethane foam into
refrigerators. Now HCFC-141b, which contains chlorine, is used as the common blowing agent; the
problem with it is that chlorine can attack the ozone layer. Today the goal is to insulate new
refrigerators with a combination of vacuum insulation and foam blown with a non-ozone-depleting
chemical. "This combination," says Ken Wilkes, "is expected to be very efficient but more expensive
and with uncertain reliability."
Two types of vacuum insulation being developed and tested at ORNL are powder evacuated panels
(PEPs) and an insulation that contains fibrous glass. Because the insulating value of these materials is
several times greater than current refrigerator insulation, they could save $10 to $20 a year in electricity
per unit. But vacuum insulations are more costly than foam insulation.
In vacuum insulations, powder or fiber is sealed in evacuated envelopes. "Vacuum insulations," says
Wilkes, "are like boxes of coffee grounds packed in vacuum except the grounds are insulating powders
or fibers and the packages are made of plastic or steel sheets."
In 1981 Arthur D. Little, Inc., and ORNL looked into developing vacuum insulations for refrigerators,
ovens, and mobile homes to improve energy efficiency. At ORNL, David McElroy made laboratory
measurements of properties and performance of materials in vacuum insulations. He determined the
insulating value of the fine powders and the ability of evacuated envelopes of different materials to
support the load of the atmosphere without collapsing.
For vacuum insulations, durability is a key issue. If they are not durable, they develop holes and air
leaks in, destroying the vacuum. In addition, air molecules can diffuse through plastic envelopes, even
if they have no holes. In some Japanese refrigerators, vacuum insulations have been known to lose their
vacuum in a year. They must be made durable for 15 to 20 years, the expected lifetime of refrigerators.
At ORNL, Tom Kollie (now retired from the Metals and Ceramics Division) developed a procedure for
measuring the lifetime of various vacuum insulations. ORNL researchers are now measuring the
lifetime and thermal resistance of vacuum insulation samples. They are developing computer models to
account for heat flow around the panel edges. In general, they have found that the thermal resistivity of
vacuum insulations exceeds that of conventional insulation by 3 to 7 times, or more.
Evacuated panels contain fibrous glass or ceramic or metallic powders. Vacuum insulation jackets are
made of plastic sheets or steel foils. They will be embedded in foam in the refrigerator door and wall.
From the outside in, the refrigerator of the future may consist of a steel skin, vacuum insulation panels
about 1 inch thick, about 1 to 2 inches of insulating foam blown with a non-ozone-depleting chemical
instead of a chlorine-containing agent, and a plastic inner wall. The foam will give the steel wall
structural rigidity.
Currently, ORNL researchers are evaluating vacuum insulations under CRADAs with PPG, Aladdin
Industries, DuPont, VacuPanel, and the AHAM, which represents all major refrigerator manufacturers
ranging from Amana to General Electric to Whirlpool. The goal of the research is to develop fillers and
vacuum envelopes that offer increased thermal resistivity and longer lifetimes while decreasing cost.

19

Fridge of the Future

ORNL researchers are now working under a CRADA with the Appliance IndustryGovernment CFC
Replacement Consortium, a subsidiary of AHAM. The goal of the CRADA is to design a new
refrigerator-freezer of conventional size by 1998 that is 50% more efficient than the 1993 federal
standard. This "next-generation" refrigerator must use environmentally acceptable materials.
Some of the innovative concepts being investigated by engineers from ORNL and the refrigeration
industry include highly efficient adjustable-speed compressors, dual-evaporator refrigerators, compact
heat exchangers, advanced insulations, and refrigerant blends. The "fridge of the future" is expected to
have PEPs and foam insulation, extended surface heat exchangers for the condenser and dual
evaporator, an environmentally friendly refrigerant, direct-current electrically commutated motors for
the two fans that blow air past the condenser and dual evaporator, and an expansion valve.
The refrigerator firms have proposed changes and sent their best components and improved versions to
ORNL for testing. ORNL tests units containing the best components from the different companies.
ORNL then gives participants test results and suggests changes to further improve component and
refrigerator design

Refrigerator of the future.

A new CRADA is being negotiated between ORNL and an undisclosed large refrigerator manufacturer.
The goal is to develop the most energy-efficient unit using advanced door gaskets (with better seals to
reduce energy losses), improved defrost, advanced insulation, and a different evaporator-compressorcondenser cycle.

Helping Designers of Heat Pumps

ORNL research has had an impact on the development of more-efficient heating and cooling equipment
as well as refrigerators. This equipment includes gas-fired and electric-driven heat pumps.
In the 1980s, C. Keith Rice together with Steve Fischer and other staff in ORNL's Energy Division
developed a computer model that has become a valuable tool for heat pump designers. The model
allows designers to determine the effects of newly designed individual system components on
performance of new heat pump and air-conditioner designs. The ORNL computer code has been widely
used by U.S. manufacturers to design highly efficient air-to-air heat pumps and air conditioners. The
Trane Company uses the model together with its own expert system to cut component design time by
75%. According to DOE, application of this model has contributed to the development of heat pump
systems that use 20% less energy than conventional systems. This development is another of the three
20

achievements cited as "notable successes" in DOE's 1991Refrigeration Systems Program Summary report.

ORNL also manages a program for DOE that has guided industry in producing more-efficient heating
and cooling equipment. A new technology that doubles the efficiency of gas heatinga gas-fired heat
pump called the GAX systemhas been developed. ORNL engineers are working with a leading
company and gas utilities to market this technology (see the following article).

Marketing Efficient Appliances

Developing highly efficient appliances is not the only way to reduce appliances' use of energy. Another
way is to increase sales of appliances already on the market that are "energy savers." These include
$1200 refrigerators that will save buyers $1200 over 10 years in electricity costs.
"DOE is focusing more on helping vendors sell their efficient appliances than on developing new
ones," Sand says. "This is the softer side of DOE. It is selling the sizzle rather than the steak."
"The DOE sticker will be on future appliances to lend credibility to vendors' claims that energy savings
from a product will eventually pay for its initial cost," Vineyard says. "Because DOE has name
recognition and a reputation for energy expertise, appliance vendors want DOE's name on their
efficient products to help them sell. DOE wants to help the vendors because it knows that convincing
consumers to replace yesterday's inefficient appliances with today's more efficient ones will save
energy."
The DOE sticker will also be useful to salesmen and customers. It will help them identify the highefficiency appliances for which some electric utilities give rebates.
The refrigerator of the future will likely also bear a DOE sticker because it will use half as much
energy as today's refrigerator. Saving energy benefits many groups. Consumers enjoy lower electricity
bills and may use their savings to buy other products, stimulating the economy. Commercial and
industrial firms using more-efficient refrigeration equipment may use their savings to hire more
workers. Electric utilities may be able to avoid building new power plants. The nation has less of a
need to rely on imported oil for electricity production. And, environmentalists and policymakers have
less concern that refrigerators will contribute to thinning of the ozone layer and to global warming. In
short, the refrigerator of the future will be environmentally acceptable. It is hoped that it will keep our
food cold without making the globe too warm.
21

22

OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the project is to build a refrigerator which works solely on the solar energy. This
project also eliminates the use of compressors in refrigerators which by their noise and energy usage,
makes refrigerator a disturbance. We are also avoiding conversion of solar energy in to electricity thus
the efficiency can be increased compared to conventional solar refrigerator.

Experimental Setup and Test Procedure

Design Requirements
The following section outlines the required specifications of the project as described in the Design
Requirements Memo submitted on October 3, 2005.

Requirement
Design requirements for the thermoelectric cooler are:

Utilize Peltier effect to refrigerate and maintain a specified temperature

Perform temperature control in the range 5 to 25 degrees Celsius.
Maintain temperature accuracy within 0.2 C
Interior cooled volume of 0.016m3 (25cm x 25cm x 25cm)
Greenfield Research will sponsor project to a maximum of $2000 in exchange for the
device upon completion of the project.
Low Noise and Vibration Levels
Weight Less than 50 kg

The finished product is to meet or exceed these requirements housed in an aesthetically pleasing
structure.

Theory
PROPOSED SYSTEM
Solar panels are comprised of several individual solar cells. These solar cells function similarly to large
semiconductors and utilize a large-area p-n junction diode. When the solar cells are exposed to
sunlight, the p-n junction diodes convert the energy from sunlight into usable electrical energy. The
energy generated from photons striking the surface of the solar panel allows electrons to be knocked
out of their orbits and released, and electric fields in the solar cells pull these free electrons in a
directional current, from which metal contacts in the solar cell can generate electricity. The more solar
cells in a solar panel and the higher the quality of the solar cells, the more total electrical output the
solar panel can produce. The conversion of sunlight to usable electrical energy has been the
Photovoltaic Effect.
From the panel it is given to the rechargeable battery to store the current. The role of the battery stores
energy when the solar cell converted and to keep the power supply at any time to load. The battery used
in solar power generation system has some basic requirements, such as low self-discharge rates, long
life, deep discharge ability, charging efficiency, less maintenance or maintenance-free, wide working
temperature range
and low prices. Battery used in this paper can achieve with the discharge depth of about 80% of the
deep discharge maintenance-free battery. It should consider the output voltage and capacity. Its output
voltage should match with the controller in the system and its capacity should insure the refrigerator
23

working normally for some time when the system at no sunlight circumstances. The battery most
commonly used is the lead acid type, long life, deep cycle batteries are preferred. A capacity to run the
refrigerator for five days without sun is recommended. In embedded unit (Figure 2) the microcontroller
pic 16F887 is used.The supply is given from the battery to run the entire unit. The PIC is a family of
Harvard architecture microcontrollers made by Microchip Technology, derived from the PIC1640
originally developed by General Instrument's Microelectronics Division. The name PIC initially
referred to "PeripheralInterfaceController".Embedded system consists of five ports[port a, port b, port
c, port d, port e]. With this system in port-a temperature sensor, in port-b LCD display, in port-c keypad
and in port-d relay driver is connected. ADC was inbuilt in the controller. Figure 2 shows the embedded
unit. The change in the temperature values is simultaneously displayed on the 16*2 line LCD
panel.LCD Display is used for displaying the status of the processing.The LCD doesnt generate light
and so light is needed to read the display. Driver circuit is an electrical circuit used to power the
LCD.The LCD is connected to the port b to display the temperature readings.A keypad consists of three
buttons. The first and second buttons are used to set the hot and cold condition. The last button is used
to set off the condition.The relay driver circuit is enabled certain time duration only, such enable pulse
is depended by delay programming of microcontroller, here Darlington circuit has been two transistors
made connection of cascade network, if input is set to the base of the first transistor, then that turns on
and emitter current of that turn the other one. Hereby the circuit is closed through the coil and second
transistors, now the energized coil is controlled the contractors that are changing the normally open to
close and normally closed to open connection. The enabled signal is not essential after energizing that
coil because the transistor collector current maintains the transistors in the saturated state continuously.
The induction effect may affect the indication components and another thing, so the diode is connected
across the coil which can prevent the chopping effect the inverse magnitude of magnetic field shorted
across from the coil.
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is linearly
proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear
temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant
voltage from its output to obtain the convenient Centigrade scaling. The LM35 does not require any
external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of 14C at room temperature and
34C over a full 55 to +150C temperature range. Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration
at the wafer level. The LM35s low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration
make interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. It can be used with single power
supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. The temperature sensor LM35 senses the temperature and
convert it into an electrical signal which is applied to the microcontroller through the ADC. The
temperature range of the sensor is 1 to 255. A Peltier cooler is used as a thermo-electric generator.
When operated as a cooler, a voltage is applied across the device, and as a result, a difference in
temperature will build up between the two sides. When operated as a generator, one side of the device
is heated to a temperature greater than the other side, and as a result, a difference in voltage will build
up between the two sides.

24

Embedded Units
The temperature control chamber provides the user with an accurate range of ambient temperature. The
chamber is shown in the figure. 3. The user can build this simple circuit and protect any issues with
temperature. Moreover, it is easy to develop depends on the environment or requirement that is needed
for different types of testing.

25

Temperature Controlled Chamber

Also, using the variable resistors allows user to be flexible to the ambient temperature when the
temperature is one of the variables in the testing.The chamber consists of hot and cold chamber for
both the purposes. Table 1 shows the specifications of the temperature controlled chamber
Passive Heat Load
The passive heat load for the unit was first calculated based upon a 25cm x 25cm x 25cm
interior volume. Two inches of polystyrene insulated was assumed (k=0.027w/mK). Also
included were a rubber seal on the door which was 50 cm2 in area.
qtot k ins

T
T
k rubber
x
x

(3)

where: qtot is the heat transfer in watts, kins is the resistance to heat transfer, and k rubber is
0.014w/mK
T is assumed to be 20 C and x is 0.50m.
This gives a qtot of 10 W.
Active Heat Load
The active heat load is the equivalent of the cooling power that the unit will need to provide
when the sample at room temperature is placed in the container. It was decided that one liter of
water at room temperature would be the test sample for which all calibration and calculations
would be made. The time to cool this load from 25 C to 5 C was determined to be 1 hour, or
3600 seconds. Based on these values:
Q c p mT

(4)

If the Cp of water is 4.14 KJ/kg*K, then Q = 82800J and dividing by 3600s to get power (W),
Qdot = 23 W for the active heat load. Therefore, the total load is 23 + 11 W = 34 W of power
required. This assumes that there is no thermal resistance between the sample and the air in the
unit. This may be an incorrect assumption but it does overestimate the cooling load.
Heat Load Required to be Dissipated by Heat Sink
The Peltier module is running at 12V and 5.2 amps of current. The following Vin vs. I graph1
shows a normal operating range of the TEM.

26

Figure 1: Thermoelectric Module Performance

The power consumed by the TEM is assumed in the worst case scenario to be added to the heat
on the hot side.
Q passive Qsample Qsafetyfactor
q hot PTEC
2
(5)
Division by two denotes that we have two TEMs, two hot side heat sinks and two cold side
heat sinks to improve system efficiency. Therefore, qtot= 107W. This is the maximum heat load
to the hot side of each TEC and therefore each of the heat sinks.

Maximum Temperature Rise on Hot Side of TEC

Max temp rise = 107W x 0.17 C/W = 18.2 C
The T over the TEC is 25 5 +18.2 (C) = 38.2 C, where 25 is the ambient temperature on
the hot side, 5 is inside desired temperature and 18 is the added heat load. The following table
will show that the operating point for heat removal of 18W (for each TEC) and a T of 38C
only requires a current draw of 4.5 Amps.

Figure 2: Thermoelectric Performance Graph

27

Budget Analysis
As stated in the original December Build Report, the budget for construction of the controller was
broken down as the following.
Table 1: Budget
Item Description
1

Power Supply 320W

RTD accurate to +/0.05% -55 to 50 deg C

Thermoelectric
Modules 120W, Vmax
= 16V

Magnetic Fridge Door

Gasket
LCD display

Quantity

EftsonForced
convection built in
US Sensor.com Ultra
Precision
Interchangeable
thermistor

Melcor - Qmax = 134

deg C, Delta Tmax =
77degC, Imax= 14
amps
Home Depot

Allied Electronics - 5
digit Part no. 7691208
Home Depot - 1
sheet, 2'x4'x2'' Rvalue=10

3/4" 1/8" wall square

tubing (8 foot sections)

Metals-R-Us,
Burnside

Sheet metal
22 Gauge
24"x48"
piece
Wire 20 gauge

Metals-R-Us,
Burnside

Princess
auto
4
different colours
Fibreglast.com
Woven Roving
18 Oz/Sq Yd., 50"
wide
Fibreglast.com

Fibreglast.com

Artic Silver Thermal

adhesive
www.1coolPC.com
Austin Hardware and
Supply - R194-0040

Omega.ca Cni Series

Family
Temperature Stability
0.04C/C RTD and
0.05C/C TC @
25C
Omega.ca CF-000RTD-2-60-1

Canadian Tire

12

Fiberglass
(1square yard)

11

2020 Epoxy Hardener

12

System 2000 Epoxy

Resin
Thermal Glue

13

mat

14

Weld on Stainless Steel

hinges

15

PID
Temperature
Controller

16

RTD
sensor

17

Sheet metal screw #8 x

1/2"

Temperature

Total ($)

191.00

191.00

109.20

109.20

34.95

69.90

32.79

32.79

14.64

14.64

23.00

23.00

21.00

63.00

4.75

18.99

5.00

20.00

14.95

29.90

21.54

21.54

42.00

42.00

16.80

16.80

1.67

3.34

267.00

267.00

91.00

91.00

0.17

2.00

Insulated
foam

10

Cost/
Unit ($)

Polystyrene

Supplier

28

Item

Description

Supplier

Quantity

18

4.5 x 6.6 Circuit board

19

Heat sink Inner (Cold)

Allied Electronics Part no. 7100-0624565

Melcor - EXT-201,
Extruded fin

20

Heat sink Inner (Hot)

Melcor - EXT-301,
Extruded fin

21

Fan, inside

22
23

Fan, outside
Thermal grease, Zinc
Oxide

Melcor
101,
12VDC
Melcor - 301,12VDC
Melcor

Cost/
Unit ($)

Total ($)

7.54

7.54

9.55

9.55

29.95

29.95

7.15
24.95

7.15
24.95

5.40

5.40

1
1
Subtotal

1,105.14
400.00

Estimated technician
and machining time:
8 hrs @ $50/hr
Shipping est. 20% of
net cost
Subtotal
HST (15%)

221.03
1726.17
198.92

Total

$ 1,850.69

Funding
Table 2: Funding

Source
Greenfield Research
Team 12

Amount
$2000.00
Amounts over $2000.00

Budget Results
Table 3: Budget Results

Income
Expenses
Surplus (Shortfall)

$ 2000.00
$ 1850.69
$ 149.31

All values for the above items include conversion from US to Canadian funds where
appropriate. The following Table details the actual expenses incurred during the construction of
the thermoelectric cooling device. As can be seen, the actual costs vary somewhat from the
proposed budget.

Actual Expenses
Table 4: Actual Expenses
Item
1
2
3
4
6
7
8

Description
Fridge Gasket
Thermal Compound
Polish Chrome
Paint
Feet
Unknown
Knife Blades

Supplier
Sears
Computer Supply
Unknown
Canadian Tire
Canadian Tire
The Source
Canadian Tire

Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Cost/
Unit ($)
52.29
11.36
10.56
21.09
6.07
39.03
36.29

Total ($)
52.29
11.36
10.56
21.09
6.0
39.03
36.29

29

Item
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51

Total

Description
Welding Rods
(1/16)
Fuel
Tape
Styrofoam
Brokerage fees (Melcor)
Heat sinks
(4.125 x 4.125)
Heat sinks
(7.34 x 7.34)
Thermeltc mod
(40mm x 40mm)
Heat sink accessories
RTDs
Styrofoam
Brushes for fiberglass
Masks and Disp. Coveralls
Washers
Fans
Fans
Welding Rods 3/32 7018
Square and Punch
Wire and Solder
Glue
Al and sheet metal
square tubing 0.125 wall
Steel Mesh
Fiberglass
Fiberglass
Bolts
IC Sensor
2P24 Module
12-Bit A/D Sampler
IC Microprocessor
DC-DC converter
LCD Module
Capacitor 10Uf
Capacitor 22Uf
24 Pin Solder Tail
Sock Conn 14 Cont Open
Protect Header STRT 14
Thermostat 50 Degree
Red SPST switch
Green SPST switch
Orange SPST switch
40A SSR Relay
IC Regulator

Supplier

Quantity

Cost/
Unit ($)

Total ($)

Canadian Tire
Ultramar
Drug Store
Pierceys
Border

1
1
1
1
1

14.94
46.65
3.78
24.12
85.72

14.94
46.65
3.78
24.12
85.72

Melcor

11.46

22.92

Melcor

34.1

70.2

Melcor
Melcor
Omega
Pierceys
Cdn Tire
Cdn Tire
Cdn Tire
Princess Auto
Princess Auto
Princess Auto
Cdn Tire
The Source
Maritime Hobbies
Metals R Us
Metals R Us
Metals R Us
Opie Fiberglass
Opie Fiberglass
Cdn Tire
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey
Digikey

4
1
1
1
4
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
20
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1

32.42
36.89
104.65
24.12
1.72
20.65
6.85
3.64
5.99
23.43
25.47
39.03
13.79
69.00
25.3
11.5
65.09
68.48
4.30
2.16
93.47
8.27
2.82
19.52
28.86
.31
.30
1.38
2.85
1.87
8.19
4.73
4.73
4.73
87.65
2.26

129.70
36.89
104.65
24.12
20.65
6.85
7.27
11.98
23.43
25.47
39.03
13.79
69.00
25.3
11.5
65.09
68.48
4.30
2.16
93.47
16.54
2.82
19.52
28.86
.62
.60
1.38
8.55
3.74
8.19
4.73
4.73
4.73
87.65
2.26

$1483

The original budgeted amount came to a total of $1850. The actual costs totaled $1483.
The primary reason for the difference of the amounts is that in the budget, we included $400 for
the technicians time. We actually ended up building almost the entire box ourselves with the
exception of some machining which was performed on three of the panels and the two
aluminum heat pipes between the outer and inner heat sinks. After accounting for this $400 the
actual cost is very close to the original estimate. This is despite the use of much different
controller components. Apart from the controller, the amounts and quantities for most of the
other items is relatively close to predicted value.
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All amounts listed in the Expenses section include taxes and conversion from US to
Canadian denominations as appropriate. These expenses can be broken down into 3 main
categories.
Construction materials were the components which formed the bulk of the physical box
itself. square tubing was used for the frame. We decided to use a frame for the device to
increase strength and rigidity. As well the frame served as an excellent mounting point for
components and panels. Fiberglass was used to form the refrigerated container. This material
was chosen because it has a relatively high insulating value. It also forms a closed container that
is waterproof. This is an important characteristic if moisture were to become present in the
chamber as escaping fluids could contaminate the surrounding components of the device. In
fact a significant amount of moisture (approx 20 milliliters) formed as condensation on the heat
sinks and pooled at the bottom of the tub after a 9 hour test was performed. Sheet metal (22
gauge) was used for the panels and exterior of the box. It was cut and bent in the machine shop.
This material proved to be quite versatile as it was used for the exterior panels, the fan shrouds
and the lid of the cooler.
Heat transfer accessories are the next sub category of expenses. The heat sinks were
sized and purchased from Melcor, a leading distributor based out of New Jersey. The
thermoelectric modules were also purchased from Melcor. Four modules were purchased with
the intent that they could be stacked in pairs if necessary to provide additional cooling capacity.
As well, we wanted to have extra modules in the event that the two originals failed while being
tested. Cooling fans were all purchased from Princess Auto. Two small 50 mm fans were used
on the inside to move the chilled air on the internal heat sinks. On the external heat sinks, two
large 80 mm fans were used on each heat sink to move the maximum amount of heated air. This
worked very well and the external heat sinks did not exceed 36 C with the fans running.
The third category of materials was the components for the controller. All components
except the power supply were purchased from Digikey.

Logistic Circuitry
The logistic circuitry is isolated from the high voltage high current circuitry by a solid state relay
(SSR). In Figure 1, the basic logic of the circuitry is depicted.

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Figure 3: Logistic Circuitry Flowchart

The Micro-Controller receives the set-point temperature from the user through a three button interface.
Software in the Micro-Controller then compares the set-point temperature to the temperature feedback
from the temperature sensor. Output of the temperature sensor is analog, which means that it needs to
be converted to a binary number for the micro-controller to be able to understand it. This is done by an
analog to digital converter. The Analog to digital converter uses a five volt precision voltage reference
in order to perform the transformation from analog to digital. In the final step, the software in the micro
controller determines whether or not to turn the thermo electric modules on or off. The temperature
inside the box is then displayed on a liquid crystal display for the user to see.

Device Testing
Max Capacity Testing
The performance of our device was tested using equipment from the Dalhousie Chemistry
department. Three thermocouples were used to record temperature during various experiments.
Each thermocouple was connected to a computer in the laboratory which would collect the data
from the sensor and write it to an Excel spreadsheet. The first step in our testing was to calibrate
the three thermocouples using an accurate thermometer. The thermometer which we used was
filled with mercury and had gradations every tenth of a degree. A magnifying lens aided in
reading the mercury level. The thermocouples and thermometer were immersed in an ice bath
which was then heated from 0 C to 30 C. Readings were taken from the thermometer every 20
seconds for 2000 seconds and recorded. This data was then plotted versus the output from the
computer for each of the thermocouples. Unfortunately some of the data around the freezing
point for all three thermocouples was not exactly on the calibration curve. The result of these
data points being slightly off gave an R2 value of 0.9995.
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Figure 4: Thermocouple Calibration Curve

This was remedied by excluding the data for the first and last five degrees on the curve. We felt
that this was acceptable since the range of our device is only five to 25 C. The R 2 value for this
arrangement was 0.9999 which indicated an almost perfect linear correlation.

Figure 5: Modified Thermocouple Calibration Curve

The first experiment that was performed on our device was cooling of the empty volume from
room temperature to five degrees Celsius. In this test two thermocouples were placed on the
interior heat sinks and one thermocouple was placed in the air of the cooler volume. The device
was then switched on where it proceeded to cool from 20 C to 5 C in approximately 1.4 hours.

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The temperature of the air flowing through the exterior heat sinks during this experiment was
roughly 31 C as measured by an alcohol in glass thermometer.

Figure 6: Interior Temperature for Air Cooling

The second experiment we did to test the maximum capacity of our device was to attempt to
cool one litre of distilled water from its temperature out of the tap to five degrees Celsius. In
this test the temperature of the water dropped from 23.9 C to 5 C in approximately nine hours.
When we potted the data we noticed a change in the slope of both the interior air temperature
and interior heat sink temperature at about 10,000 seconds. We attributed this to the opening of
the laboratory window at this time which lowered the ambient temperature of the room, thus
increasing the heat transfer out of the cooler. When the window was closed at about 16,000
seconds it can be observed that the slopes change again, this time in the opposite direction.

Figure 7: Results from Cooling of Water

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Temperature Control Testing

One liter of water was cooled from room temperature to a set-point temperature of 10 degrees
Celsius. One thermocouple was connected to each internal heat sink and one thermocouple was
submerged into the water together with the temperature sensor of the logistic circuitry.

Figure 8: 1 Liter of Water cooled to a setpoint temperature of 10 degrees Celsius

The graphs in Figure 2 show the controlling characteristics of the device. The pink and yellow
graphs are the temperatures of the internal heat sinks. When the temperature of the internal heat
sinks is seen to be dropping, the thermo electric modules are on. As the temperature of the water
reaches its set-point temperature of 10 degrees Celsius, the temperature of the internal heat
sinks are seen to be rising. This indicates that at this point, the thermo electric modules are
turned off. Once the temperature of the heat sinks reaches that of the water, the thermo electric
modules start cycling on and off in order to maintain steady state temperature. This is more
clearly shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 9: Controller Characteristics

When the temperature of the water dips below its set point temperature, the temperature of the
internal heat sinks is seen to spike. This phenomenon is explained by how the controller works.
The temperature sensor sends back a temperature signal to the micro-controller. Software in the
micro controller then compares the temperature to the set point temperature. It notices that the
temperature is below the set point temperature, so the thermo electric modules are switched on.
The temperature of the heat sinks rise until the temperature of the water returns to its set point
temperature, the thermo electric modules are then turned off and the cycle continuous
throughout steady state conditions.

Figure 10: Precision of the Cooler

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Forced versus Natural Convection

When we initially designed our device we anticipated using forced convection on the exterior
heat sinks. To test our design in this regard we placed thermocouples on both exterior heat sinks
and a third inside the box to monitor the interior heat sink temperature. Within ten minutes the
exterior heat sink that was relying solely on natural convection had risen to a temperature of 54
C, while the forced convection heat sink maintained a temperature of only 36 C. The slope of
the graph also indicated that the temperature of the heat sink without the fans would have kept
rising to a significantly higher value had we not switched off the device and allowed it to cool
down. This demonstrates that it is imperative that there be a thermal cut-off switch wired into
the circuitry of our device.

Figure 11: 11Forced Convection vs Natural Convection Test

Time Constants
Using data obtained during both the air and water tests it is possible to compute time constants
for the system. The time constant for the air test was approximately half an hour. The time
constant for the system during the water test was roughly two and three quarters hours. This is
a large difference however the heat capacity of the water sample was far greater than that of
only the air during the first test.

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Figure 12: Time Constant for Cooling Air

Figure 13: Time Constant for Cooling Water

Coefficient of Performance Calculation (COP)

COP is as measure of the performance of a heat pumping device. It is defined as the heat
required removing the heat divided by the actual heat removed. The device was measure to
draw 5.2 Amps of current at 11.2 Volts. This results in a power consumption of 58.5 Watts.
For the calculation of COP, it was assumed that only the air inside the box was cooled together
with the aluminum heat sinks. Heat loss from the inside of the cooler to the outside was
assumed to be zero during the cooling of the box as it is a transient process.
Refering to Figure 6, it took 6000 seconds for the temperature of the air to reach 5 degrees
Celsius from a starting temperature of 20 degrees Celsius. The volume of the inside air is
0.015625m^3 and the volume of the internal heat sinks are 2*0.0001487m^3. Using:
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COP = Pdelivered * time / [ MC(T2-T1)|air + MC(T2-T1)|aluminum]

Where:
Pdelivered = (5.22A)(11.2V)(6000s) = 351 KJ
MC(T2-T1)|air = (0.015625m^3*1.2kg/m^3)*(1000J/KgoC)(25-15)=281.25 J
MC(T2-T1)|aluminum=(2*0.0001487 m^3*2700 kg /m^3)(900 J/KgoC)*(25-15) = 10840J
Then:
COP = 11121.25/351,000
COP = 0.0317
This low COP shows the inefficiency of the device. Thermo electric modules are inherently
inefficient. Commercial products are working on an efficiency that is about 5% of the Carnot
efficiency.

39

Result and Discussion

Safety Issues
Safety is the first priority whenever using any type of industrial equipment. Through the building
process, there were several areas where safety precautions needed to be exercised.

Hot wiring Styrofoam

Styrofoam was used for the insulation and to form a plug for the construction of the inner box. An
electric hot wire kit was used to cut the foam. Care must be taken to work in a well ventilated area
and to wear eye protection and gloves when handling the hot wire device As well, the hot wire
gave off a mild electric shock if contacted Gloves eliminated this problem.

Fiberglass
The inner box was constructed from fiberglass. It was important to work in a well ventilated area to
protect from fumes. Latex gloves provided excellent protection from the wet resin when forming
the fiberglass and were easy to dispose with Face masks were used when sanding hardened
fiberglass to prevent breathing in abrasive particles.

Welding and Grinding

The frame of the cooler was constructed from steel tubing. When welding, an approved welding
mask was utilized to avoid permanent eye damage from exposure to the brilliant light of the
welding arc. The use of gloves and eye protection and flame retardant clothing were also employed
to prevent burn damages. Additionally all welding was done in a well ventilated area to minimize
exposure to welding fumes.

Bending and Crimping

The sheet metal equipment in the machine shop was used extensively to form the panels for the
thermoelectric cooler. When using the metal shear care was exercise to keep fingers out of the
clamp and blade portion of the machine. When using the brake to bend edges for the panel, care
was exercised to keep fingers from being pinched and to stay out of the way of the bending lever if
someone else was using it. When using the band saw, it was important to keep fingers away from
the blade and not to use excessive force. Of course eyewear must be worn at all times in the
machine shop.

Cooling fans
The fans which cool the device spin at speeds up to 3000 RPM. Therefore, it is important that the
fan shrouds and guards be in place prior to operation.
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Soldering
Many of the wire connections needed to be soldered. It was important to wear gloves and eye
protection when using a soldering iron to prevent injury.
Although this device has relatively few moving parts, there are several topics of safety which
should be addressed when using the thermoelectric cooler. The most dangerous component of the
machine is the power supply. The power supply converts a 120V AC current, which is unusable by
the components of the thermoelectric device into 12V DC which is what most components of the
cooler use. The exception to this is the two 50 mm fans on the inside of the box which run on 5V
this problem is solved by wiring these two fans in series so each only gets half of 12V. They then
run close to their recommended voltage. 120V AC is dangerous. 12V DC is not dangerous at the
current load our device runs at. Fortunately, the power supply is sealed off and electrically isolated.
As long as the power supply is not disassembled and a proper 3 prong plug connector is employed,
it should not pose a safety threat. Whenever electrical components are being worked on, ensure that
the power cord is disconnected from the wall plug.
Another safety issue when using the box is its weight. The box weighs about 40 lbs and care
must be taken to put it on a flat level surface when being used. The surface should also be stable.
This will ensure that the box will not fall when being used possibly causing injury to the user and
definitely damaging the box.
Some of the edges on the box are somewhat sharp. As much as possible, we have grinded and
sanded down the edges of the panels. Both the top panel and the sheet metal on the lid have had the
seams TIG welded by Albert so that no sharp edges or corners would be exposed when the box is
assembled. However, if the box is disassembled to change the thermo-electrics or to make changes
to the controller, special care must be exercised. The fit of the panels is quite snug so attention must
be paid when popping panels into place.
This device contains sensitive electrical equipment. It should be operated in an area where static
electricity is not present. The user should ensure that they are well grounded and not statically
charged when handling any of the electrical components of the device. Although there is no danger
posed to the user by static electricity, components could be damaged or ruined, requiring
replacement and or reprogramming.
Finally, the temperature at the thermoelectric modules is a concern. At temperatures above 70 C,
the bismuth telluride material will melt and the modules will subsequently fail. To avoid this
potential problem, a thermostatic switch has been installed in the device. This switch is to be
attached to one of the external heat sinks on the cooler. It is wired inline with the power supply to
the thermo electrics. If the temperature of the heat sinks exceeds 50 C, the power to the
thermoelectric is cut and the unit stops producing heat. This feature is essential to ensure long life
of the thermoelectric modules.

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Conclusion and Future Recommendations

Conclusion
The lessons learned from this project were not unexpected, and yet there was no way we could have
learned them in a classroom. Dealing with team interactions and trying to get four minds to agree on
every design did not work; we had to compromise. Around the midpoint of our project, we did notice
that we were motivated to work at different times, which made it difficult to get anything done
together. It will be interesting when we each go into the work force and have to work with in different
teams even when we may feel unmotivated. Our final design is pictured in Figure 16 and utilizes two
photovoltaic panels that flow electricity through a charge controller in order to charge two, 12V deepcycle batteries. The batteries then power a resistive heater through a control circuit that limits the 41
current to the heater based on heater temperature, inside air temperature, and the state of charge of the
batteries. The cart is lightweight due to its aluminum frame and high-density polyethylene plastic
coverings. Four caster wheels allow the unit to be portable and easily maneuverable, while our
absorption cycle refrigerator offers very low-temperature cooling with no moving parts, no noise, and
easy access. This was also a first generation, proof-of-concept design that can definitely be improved
upon in the future. The first improvement would be to try to make the system smaller overall. Our
initial goal was to create a refrigerator that would be easy to take to the beach, camping, or out into the
field, but our unit is a little bulky for everyday use. Also, increasing this refrigerators capacity would
allow the user to refrigerate more products. Now that we know our refrigerator coils can get down to
such low temperatures, it would be possible to perhaps use both coil systems installed in one, large
cooler and mounted on similar cart system.

Controller
The controller for the device was changed from a PID controller to an ON/OFF controller. The
microcontroller that was purchased by the design group was capable of being programmed with a
variety of control routines. The design team naturally wanted to go with the more complex solution of a
PID controller in order to be assured of getting the best response.
After testing our device and discovering its response characteristics we have learned that the most
complicated solution is not always the best. The ON/OFF control reaches its target temperature at the
heat transfer arrangements maximum capacity and delivers no overshoot due to the inherent damping
of the device. The ability of the ON/OFF controller to maintain a constant temperature was also proven
to be more than sufficient.
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Fan Type
The centrifugal fans that were in the original design were substituted for axial flow fans. It was noted
during mock-up testing that the axial flow fans produced much more air flow than the centrifugal fans
with similar power input. The axial flow fans also avoided the air flow ducts that are required by the
radial flow fans.
The downside to the axial flow fans is that they increase the thickness of the fan and heat-sink
arrangement on both the inside and outside of the cooler. This lead to a small decrease of useful volume
on the inside of the cooler as well as making the cooler larger in its outside dimensions.

Temperature Sensor
The thermistor that was going to be used as the sensing device was changed to a semi resistive
temperature sensor. This was mainly because of its compatibility with the controller circuitry. It was
found in testing that the precision of this sensor was sufficient to meet the requirements of the project.

Exterior Casing
The design of the exterior casing was changed to accommodate for the change in fan type as well as
avoid some of the difficulty associated with creating the complex shape of the original casing design.
The new casing includes separate fan/heat-sink shrouds which are also used to mount the exterior fans
in place over the exterior heat-sinks.

Lid
Originally the lid was designed with hinges. It was later determined that the hinges were not necessary
and so a free lid is now used.

Input
In order for the user to set the temperature of the device three buttons are now used. While using these
buttons is not quite as intuitive as the knob that was initially in the planning, they were much easier
incorporateintothemicro-controllerprogramming.

Additional features and improvements

In this section there are some additional features and improvements that could be added to the device.
Some of these are beyond the scope of the original project, however they could be used as ideas for a
continuation of the project.

Heating Capability
Currently the device does not have the necessary programming and circuitry to allow for heating of the
interior chamber. If this were added it would allow for control over a much larger temperature range.
43

Due to the construction materials used and the limitations of the thermoelectric modules the interior
temperature of the unit would have to be limited. The modules are capable of generating a vast amount
of heat, yet the glue holding them together becomes liquid at less than one hundred degrees Celsius.

Additional Thermoelectric Modules

The current model uses only two thermoelectric modules. It was calculated that this arrangement would
meet the design requirement of bringing the interior temperature down to five degrees Celsius from
room temperature. The two module arrangement met this requirement but just barely. Also there was no
requirement on the cooling time, which was found to be rather long.
If another heat transfer arrangement similar to the two currently in the device was added both
the minimum temperature and the time of cooling would be decreased significantly. This would mean a
total of three thermoelectric modules and six heat sinks.
If another thermoelectric module were to be added to each of the existing heat transfer
arrangements the cold heat sink temperature could be reduced dramatically and freezing of the interior
chamber would be possible. It is predicted that that could cause two problems. Firstly the controller
currently does not register temperatures below zero degrees Celsius making control below freezing
temperatures impossible without reprogramming. Secondly the air bath was not designed with the
possibility of freezing condensation in mind. This could possibly cause damage to the heat transfer
pipes.
The current power supply in the device should be able to power two more thermoelectric
modules according to its specifications.

Recalibration
It has been noted in testing that the device maintains and displays a temperature that is not exactly
representative of the actual temperature inside the chamber. To rectify this problem the device must be
recalibrated using accurate voltage and temperature data measured over the entire operating
temperature range of the device. The new more accurate calibration curve would then have to be put
into the micro-controller programming in place of the existing calibration curve.

Portability
It could be possible to make this device more useful if it were capable of being operated from a battery
pack or a solar collector. This option would allow for the device to be used in areas without electricity
as well as in vehicles. For this to be possible the performance and energy efficiency of the device
would have to be maximized. There are two key ways that the efficiency of the device could be
increased. Firstly the ON/OFF control could be replaced with a PID control in order to use the
thermoelectric modules at a lower power while they are on. This will increase the efficiency since
thermoelectric modules generate excess heat as the power input is increased lowering their
44

performance. Secondly additional thermoelectric modules could be added to decrease the load on each
individual module. The lower the load the more efficiently the modules will run.

45

References
[1] Shun Chen, Jun Zuo and Dan Xie Design of solar power semiconductor refrigerator in the
proceedings of the 8th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation July 6-9 2010, Jinan,
China.
[2] Haidar. S, Isaac. I Thermo-electric Cooling Using Peltier Cells in Cascade, (2004).
[3] Sanjaykumar A Borikar and Uday S Wankhede Experimental analysis of solar refrigeration
system in the proceedings of the International Conference at Purdue, July 14-17, 2008.
[4] Sort Nivas M, Vishnu Vardhan D, Raam Kumar PH, Sai Prasad, Ramya. K Photovoltaic Driven
Dual Purpose Thermo-electric Refrigerator for Rural India in the InternationalJournal of
Advancements in Research & Technology.
[5] WHO. (1999). "Epi Equipment Test Procedures: E3. E3:Refrigerators freezers for storing vaccines
and freezing ice packs, Last Update: Febuary 18, 1999, Retrieved: July 18, 2005.
[6] Raghied Mohammed Atta Solar Water Condensation Using Thermo-electric Coolers in the
International Journal of Water Resources and Arid Environments 1 (2): 142-145, 2011.
[7] http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~ih/doc/lcd/
[8] http://home.iae.nl/users/pouweha/lcd/lcd.shtml

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