Академический Документы
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Module No.
Module Name
Pg. No
1.
Introduction to Research
2-10
2.
11-33
Cases
34-49
3.
Secondary Data
50-62
4.
Primary Data
63-82
Cases
83-88
Measurement Techniques
89-136
Cases
137-156
6.
Qualitative Research
157-186
7.
Sampling
187-206
Cases
207-212
213-223
5.
8.
Analysis
9.
Cases
224-236
237-240
Cases
241-242
MODULE 1
(INTRODUCTION TO
RESEARCH)
Consumers
o Employees
o Shareholders
o Suppliers
Controllable
Marketing
Variables
Uncontrollable
environmental
factors
MARKETING
RESEARCH
1. Product
1. Economy
2. Pricing
2. Technology
3. Promotion
3. Competition
4. Distribution
Assessing
providing
marketing
Information
Information
decision
5. Social and -
Needs
making
cultural factors
6. Political factors
Marketing managers
Market Segmentation
Target market selection
Marketing programs
Performance and control
4
Marketing research
Problem identification
research
Problem solving
research
1. Segmentation Research
2. Product Research
3. Image Research
3. Pricing Research
4. Promotion Research
5. Distribution Research
6. Forecasting Research
7. Business Trends Research
5
Research Suppliers
Internal
External
Full Service
Syndicated
services
Standardized
services
Customized
services
Limited Service
Internet
services
Field
services
Coding
And
data
entry
service
s
Analytical
services
Data
analysis
services
Branded
product
and
services
External suppliers:
Outside marketing research companies hired to supply marketing research services.
Full-service suppliers:
Companies that offer the full range of marketing research activities. Full-service
suppliers offer the entire range of marketing research services, from problem definition,
developing an approach, questionnaire design, sampling, data collection, data analysis, and
interpretation, to report preparation and presentation. The services is provided by these suppliers
can be further broken down in to syndicated services, customized, and internet services.
I.
Syndicated services:
Companies that collect and sell pools of data designed to serve information needs shared
by a number of clients.
II.
Standardized services:
Companies that use standardized procedures to provide marketing research clients.
Limited-service suppliers:
Companies specializing in one or a few phases of the marketing research project.
I.
Field services:
Companies offering their expertise in collecting data for research projects.
II.
V.
10
MODULE 2
(RESEARCH DESIGN &
PROCESS )
11
re
Causal
Research
Descriptive
research
Cross Sectional
Design
Longitudinal
Design
Multiple Cross
Sectional Design
12
Conclusive
To test specific hypothesis and examine
relationships.
Characteristics
structured.
Finding/Result
Tentative
Conclusive
Outcome
conclusive research.
making.
Conclusive research is typically more formal and structured then is exploratory research.
It is based on large, representative sample, and the data obtained are subjected to quantitative
analysis. The findings from this research are considered to be conclusive in nature in that they
are used as input in to managerial decision making. Conclusive research designs may be either
descriptive or causal, and descriptive research designs may be either cross sectional or
longitudinal.
13
14
Characteristics
Methods
Descriptive
Causal
Determine causal
insights.
characteristics or
and effect
function.
relationship.
Flexible, versatile.
Manipulation of one
formulation of specific
or more independent
hypothesis.
variables.
Control of other
design.
mediating variables.
Expert surveys.
Secondary data.
Experiments
Pilot surveys.
Surveys.
Secondary data.
Panels.
Qualitative research.
Observational and
other data.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Descriptive research a type of conclusive research which has as its major objective the
description of something usually market characteristics or functions.
1.
2.
15
4.
To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated. For example, to
what extent is shopping at department store related are eating out?
5.
To make specific predictions. For example, what will be the retrial sales of specific store
for fashion clothing in the specific region?
Descriptive research, in contrast to exploratory research, is marketed by a clear statement
of the problem, specific hypothesis, and detailed information needs. Other examples of descriptive
studies are:
Market studies, which describe the size of the market, buying power of consumers,
availability of distributors, and consumer profiles.
Market share studies, which determine the proportion of total sales received by a
company and its competitors.
Sales analysis studies, which describe sales by geographic region, product line, type and
size of the account.
Image studies, which determine consumer perceptions of the firm and its products.
Distribution studies, which determine traffic flow patterns and the number and location
of distributers.
Pricing studies, which describe the range and frequency of price changes and probable
consumer response to proposed price changes.
16
COHORT ANALYSIS
A multiple cross sectional design consisting of a series of surveys conducted at appropriate
time intervals. The cohort refers to the group of respondents who experience the same event within
the same time interval. For example: a birth (or age) cohort is a group of people who were born
during the same time interval.
Cohort analysis is also used to predict changes in voter opinions during a political
campaign.
17
18
19
Longitudinal design
Detecting change
Accuracy
Representative sampling
Response bias
CAUSAL RESEARCH
Causal research a type of conclusive research in which the major objective is to obtain
evidence regarding cause-and-effect (causal relationship).
Causal research is appropriate for the following purposes:
To understand which variables are the causes (independent variables) and which
variables are the effects (dependent variables) of a phenomenon.
To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to
be predicted.
Causal research requires a planned and structured design. Although descriptive research
can determine the degree of association between variables, it is not appropriate for examining
causal relationship. Such an examination requires a causal design, in which the causal or
independent variables are manipulated in a relatively controlled environment. A relatively
controlled environment is one in which the other variables that may affect the dependent variables
are controlled or checked as much as possible. The affect of this manipulation on one or more
dependent variables is then measured to infer causality. The main method of causal research is
experimentation.
20
In this experiment the causal (independent) variable was advertising, which was
manipulated to have three levels: light, medium, and heavy. The effect (dependent) variable was
sales, and the influence of distribution on sales had to be controlled.
21
Exploratory research is the initial step in the overall research design framework. It
should, in most instances, be followed by descriptive or causal research for example;
hypothesis developed via exploratory research should be statistically tested using
descriptive or causal research.
It is not necessary to being every research design with exploratory research. It depends on
the precision with which the problem has been defined and the researchers degree of
certainty about the approach to the problem. A research design could well begin with
descriptive or causal research. To illustrate, a consumer satisfaction survey conducted
annually need not begin with nor include an exploratory phase.
Although exploratory research is generally the initially step, it need not be. Exploratory
research may follow descriptive or causal research. For example, descriptive or causal
research results in findings that are hard for managers to interpret. Exploratory research
may provide more insights to help understand these findings.
22
23
Situational Analysis
The situational analysis focuses on the variables that have produced the stated
management problem or opportunity. It involves giving careful attention to company records;
appropriate secondary sources such as census data, industry sales figures, economic indicators,
and so on; and interviews with knowledgeable individuals both internal and external to the firm.
The persons interviewed will include the manager(s) involved and may include salespersons,
other researchers, trade association officials, professionals, and consumers.
24
25
26
III. Experimental Research the researcher manipulates one or more variables in such
a way that its effect on one or more other variables can be measured.
Laboratory experiments manipulation of the independent variable(s) in an
artificial situation.
o Basic designs consider the impact of only one independent variable.
o Statistical designs consider the impact of more than one independent
variable.
Field experiments manipulation of the independent variable(s) in a natural
situation.
o Basic designs consider the impact of only one independent variable.
Statistical designs consider the impact of more than one independent variable.
27
Attitude scales a formalized instrument for eliciting self-reports of beliefs and feeling
concerning an object(s).
o Rating scales require the respondent to place the object being rated at some
point along a numerically valued continuum or in one of a numerically ordered
series of categories.
o Composite scales require the respondent to express a degree of belief
concerning various attributes of the object such that the attitude can be inferred
from the pattern of responses.
o Perceptual maps derive the components or characteristics an individual uses in
comparing similar objects and provide a score for each object on each
characteristic.
28
29
30
31
Types of Errors
Surrogate Information Error: Surrogate information Error is caused by a variation
between the information
the researcher.
Measurement Error: Measurement error is caused by a difference between the
information desired by the researcher and the information provided by the measurement
process.
Experimental Error: Experimental error is caused by a difference between the actual
impact of the independent variable(s) and the impact attributed to the independent
variable(s). Experimental error occurs when the effect of the experimental situation itself
is measured than the effect of the independent variable.
Population Specification Error: Population specification error is caused by a difference
between the populations required to provide the needed information and the population
selected by the researcher. Population specification error is caused by selecting an
inappropriate universe or population from which to collect data.
32
Frame Error: Frame error is caused by a difference between the population as defined
by the researcher and the list of population members used by the researcher. Frame error
is caused by using an inaccurate or incomplete sampling frame.
Sampling Error: Sampling error is caused by the generation of a non-representative
sample by means of a probability sampling method.
Selection Error: Selection error occurs when a non-representative sample is obtained by
non-probability sampling methods.
Non-response Error: Non-response error is caused by (1) a failure to contact all
members of a sample, and/or (2) the failure of some contacted members of the sample to
respond to all or specific parts of the measurement instrument.
33
CASES
34
35
QUESTION
You have been approached for the proposed study. How would you proceed with it,
keeping in mind the three major issues as pointed out by Bentlay?
37
1850
Potential Owners
750
Total
2600
A minimum target of 650 was set of those who own a mid-priced or higher priced car.
Other targets were set according to model owned and its age, so as to match the likely profile of
the car population in India.
The distribution of the sample by city as used by the agency is given in Exhibit 2 of this
case. Respondents were located using a combination of household listings, as well as contacts at
public places such as parking lots, petrol pumps and shopping centers. The agency ensured a
geographical spread within each city covered in the survey.
38
Exhibit 1
List of cities covered in the survey
City
State/State Group
Delhi
Delhi
Ludhiana
Chandigarh
Kanpur
Uttar Pradesh
Calcutta
West Bengal
Patna
Bihar
Bombay
Maharashtra
Pune
Maharashtra
Ahmedabad
Gujarat
Madras
Tamil Nadu
Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu
Bangalore
Karnataka
Hyderabad
Andhra Pradesh
39
Exhibit 2
The Distribution of Sample
North
East
West
South
Delhi
400
Ludhiana
150
Chandigarh
150
Kanpur
200
Calcutta
250
Patna
100
Bombay
350
Pune
150
Ahmedabad
200
Madras
200
Bangalore
200
Hyderabad
150
Coimbatore
100
Total
2600
40
41
42
44
and perfumes
accounted for 81.3 per cent, of the turnover. This was followed by producers in pharma 17 per
cent, dermatology 1.1 per cent and others (0.6 per cent).
45
46
47
48
49
MODULE 3
(SECONDARY
DATA)
50
Primary Data: Data originated by the researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the
research problem.
Secondary Data: Data collected for some purpose other than the problem at hand.
Secondary Data
Collection purpose
Collection process
Very involved
Collection cost
High
Relatively low
Collection time
Long
Short
51
Issues
Remarks
Specifications and
Methodology
Response rates
Quantity of data
problem at hand.
Sampling Techniques
Sample size
Questionnaire design
Field work
Data analysis
Error and accuracy
publication
Frequency of updates
Objective
Nature
Units of measurement
Categories used
possible.
Relationships examined
Dependability
52
54
secured from an original rather than an acquired source. There are at least two reasons for
this rule: First, an original source is the one that specifies the details of data collection
methodology. Second, an original source is likely to be more accurate and complete then
secondary source.
Secondary Data
Internal
Ready to use
External
Requires
further
processing
Published
Materials
Computerised
Databases
Syndicated
Services
55
Database Marketing
Database marketing involves the use of computers to capture and track customer profiles
purchase detail. This secondary information serves as the foundation for marketing programs or
as an internal source of information related to customer behaviour.
To remain competitive, companies have come to realize the importance of providing
customized services and product solutions. To operate at the individual customer level (some
times called micromarketing level) requires an understanding of the significant differences in
various customer groups. Direct mail is the promotional tool that relies most heavily on internal
secondary databases for program design and evaluation. Segmenting a customer base to offer and
measure response to customized promotional messages, product offerings or payment and
pricing packages is the foundation of direct marketing techniques used today in business.
56
PULISHED
SECNDARY DATA
General business
sources
Guides
Directories
Indexes
Government
sources
Statistical
data
Census Data
Other
Government
publications
General Business Data: Businesses publish a lot of information in the form of books,
periodicals, journals, news papers, magazines, reports and trade literature. This information can
be located by using guides, directories and indexes. Sources are also available for identifying
statistical data.
Guides: guides are an excellent source of standard or recurring information. A guide may help
identify other important sources of directories, trade associations and trade publications. Guides
are one of the first sources a researcher should consult.
57
Non government statistical data: published statistical data of great interest to researchers.
Graphic and statistical analysis can be performed on these data to draw important insights.
COMPUTERIZED DATABASES:
Online Databases: Databases, stored in computers that require a telecommunications network to
access.
Internet Database: Internet database can be accessed, searched and analyzed on the internet. It is
also possible to download data from the internet and store it in the computer or an auxiliary
storage device.
Off-line databases: Databases that is available on diskette or CD-ROM.
58
Units of
Measurement
Institutions
Households/
Consumer
Mail Diary
Panels
Retailers
Wholesalers
Industrial Firms
Audits
Purchas
e
Electronic
Scanner Services
Surveys
Psychographic
and Lifestyles
Media
General
Advertising
Evaluation
Volume
Tracking Data
Direct
Inquiries
Secondary
Diary Panels
Clipping
Services
Corporate
Reports
Scanner
Secondary
Diary Panels
Diary
with Cable
PanelsTV
Type
Uses
Surveys
Surveys conducted at
regular intervals
Interviewer error;
respondent errors
Market segmentation,
advertising theme
selection and advertising
effectiveness
Diary
Purchase Panel
Households provide
specific information
regularly over an
extended period of
time; respondents
asked to record
specific behaviors as
they occur.
Recorded purchase
behavior can be
linked to the
demographic/
psychographic
characteristics.
Lack of
representativeness;
response bias;
maturation.
Diary Media
Panels
Electronic device
automatically
recording behavior,
supplemented by a
diary.
Same as dairy
purchase panel.
Same as diary
purchase panel.
Establishing advertising
rates; selecting media
program or air time;
establishing viewer
profiles.
Scanner
volume
tracking data
Household purchases
are recorded through
electronic scanners in
supermarkets.
Scanner diary
panels with
Cable TV
Scanner panels of
households that
subscribe to cable
TV.
Audit Service
Verification of
product movement
by examining
physical records or
performing inventory
analysis.
Coverage may be
incomplete; matching
of data on competitive
activity may be
difficult.
Measurement of
consumer sales and
market share, competitive
activity, analyzing
distribution patterns:
tracking of new products.
Promotional mix
analyses, copy testing,
new-product testing,
positioning.
60
Data banks on
industrial
establishments
created through
direct inquiries of
companies, clipping
services and
corporate reports.
Important source of
information on
industrial firms,
particularly useful
in initial phase of
the projects.
Data is lacking in
terms of content,
quantity and quality.
Determining market
potential y geographic
area, defining sales
territories, allocating
advertising budget.
Diary Panels
Diary Purchase Panels: A data gathering technique in which respondents record their purchases
in a diary.
Diary panels are samples of respondents who provide specified information at regular
intervals over an extended period of time. These respondents may be organizations, households
or individuals, although household diary panels are most common. The distinguishing feature of
diary panes is that the respondents record specific behavior as they occur in a diary. Panel
members are compensated for their participation with gifts, coupons, information or cash.
Diary media Panels: A data gathering technique comprising samples of respondents whose
television viewing behavior is automatically recorded by electronic devices, supplementing the
purchase information recorded in diary.
Scanner data: Data obtained by passing merchandise over a laser scanner, which reads the UPC
code from the packages.
Volume Tracking Data: Scanner data that provides information on purchases by brand, size,
price and flavor or formulation.
61
Scanner Diary Panels with Cable TV: The combination of a scanner diary panel with
manipulations of the advertising that is being broadcast by cable television companies.
Audit: A data collection process derived from physical records or performing inventory analysis.
Data are collected personally by the researchers or by representatives of the researchers and the
data are based on counts usually of physical objects other than people.
62
MODULE 4
(PRIMARY
DATA)
63
64
consciously aware of their motives for choosing specific brands or shopping specific
department stores.
Telephone
Interviewing
Traditional
Telephone
In-Home
Computer Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Electronic
Interviewing
Mail
Interviewing
Personal
Interviewing
Computer-Assisted
Personal
Interviewing
Mall-Intercept
Internet
Mail Panel
65
The personal
questions that should be asked. Changing or adding questions on the fly would be nearly
impossible with a mail questionnaire and difficult with personal or telephone questionnaires, but
can be achieved in a matter of minutes with some Internet Survey system.
66
example, a taste test involves tasting the product. In other cases photographs, maps or other
audio-video cues are helpful. In these cases, personal interviews conducted at central locations
(mall-intercept) are preferable to in-home interviews. Mail surveys and mail panels are moderate
on this dimension, because sometimes it is possible to mail the facilitating aids or even product
samples.
questionnaires can include multimedia elements such as prototype web pages and
advertisements. The use of physical stimuli is limited in traditional telephone interviews and as
well as in e-mail surveys.
67
It is difficult to find
respondents at home during the day as most people work outside the home. Also, for safety
reasons, interviewers are reluctant to venture into certain neighborhoods and people have
become cautious of responding to stranger at the door.
Mall-intercept interviews allow only a moderate degree of sample control. While the
interviewer has control over which respondents to intercept, the choice is limited to mall
shoppers and frequent shoppers have a great probability of being included. Also, potential
respondents can intentionally avoid or initiate contact with the interviewer.
Moderate to high sampling control can be achieved with traditional telephone interviews
and telephones offer access to geographically dispersed respondents and hard-to-reach areas.
These procedures depend on sampling frame-a list of population units with their telephone
numbers.
The sampling frames normally used are telephone directories, but telephone
68
Personal
demonstrating the product. In-home personal interviews offer moderate to high control because
the interviewer is present. Traditional telephone offer moderate control. The interviewer cannot
see the environment in which the interview is being conducted, but he or she can sense the
background conditions and encourage the respondent to be attentive and involved. In mail
surveys, panels, e-mail and internet surveys, the researcher has little control over the
environment.
Since many interviewers work in many different locations, continual supervision is impractical.
Quantity of Data
In-home personal interviews allow the researcher to collect a large amount of data. The
social relationship between the interviewer and respondents, as well as the home environment,
motivates the respondent to spend more time in the interview. Less effort is required of the
respondent in a personal interview than in telephone or mail interview. The interviewer records
answers to open-ended questions and provides visual aids to help with lengthy and complex
69
Response Rate
Response Rate: the percentage of the total attempted interviews that are completed.
Survey response rate is broadly defined as percentage of the total interviews that are
completed. Personal in-home, mall-intercept, and computer-assisted interviews yield the highest
response rate (typically more than 80 percent). Problems caused not-at-homes can often be
resolved by calling back at different times. Telephone interviews, traditional yield response rates
between 60 and 80 percent. These modes also suffer from no-at-homes or no-answers. Higher
response rates are obtained by call backs. Many telephone surveys attempt to call back at least
three times.
Mail surveys have poor response rates.
respondents, without any pre or post mailing contact, the response rate is typically less than 15
percent. Such low response rate can lead to serious bias (non-response bias) because whether a
person responds to a mail survey is related to his/her interests in a topic. Response rates in mail
panels are typically in the 70-80 percent range, because of assured respondent co-operation.
70
Perceived anonymity
Perceived anonymity refers to respondents perceptions that their identities will
not be discerned by the interviewer or the researcher. Perceived anonymity of the respondent is
high in mail surveys, mail panels and internet surveys because there is no contract with an
interviewer while responding. It is low in a personal interviews (in-home, mall-intercept) due to
face-to-face contact with the interviewer. Traditional telephone interviews fall in the middle. It
is also moderate with e-mail while there is no contact with the interviewer, respondents know
that their names can be located on the return e-mail.
avoiding socially desirable responses. They are good for obtaining sensitive information, as the
respondents have the perception that they are not committing to anything in writing over the
telephone. E-mail is only moderately good for controlling social desirability and obtaining
sensitive information given the respondents awareness that their names can be located on the
return e-mail. Personal interviews, whether in-home, mall-intercepts or computer-assisted, are
limited in this respect, although the problem is somewhat mitigated in the case of computerassisted interviews.
71
Speed
First, there is the speed with which a questionnaire can be created, distributed to
respondents, and the data returned.
eliminated; data can be in hand within hours of writing an internet questionnaire. Data are
obtained in electronic form, so statistical analysis software can be programmed to process
standard questionnaires and return statistical summaries and charts automatically. Thus, the
internet is by far the fastest method of obtaining data from a large number of respondents. The
e-mail survey is also fast; although slower than internet since greater time is needed to compile
an e-mail list and data entry is also required.
Traditional telephone interviews are also fast ways of obtaining information. When a
central telephone facility is used, several hundred telephone interviews can be done per day.
Data for even large national surveys can be collected in two weeks or less. Next in speed are
mall-intercept, which reach potential respondents in central locations.
In-home personal
interviews are slower, because there is dead time between interviews while the interviewer
travels to the next respondent. To expedite data collection, interviews can be conducted in
72
Cost
For large samples, the cost of internet surveys is the slowest. Printing, mailing, keying
and interviewer costs are eliminated, and the incremental costs per respondent are typically low,
so studies with large number of respondents can be done at substantial savings compared to mail,
telephone or personal surveys. Personal interviews tend to be the most expensive mode of data
collection per completed response.
traditional telephone, mall-intercept and personal in-home interviews require progressively larger
field staff and greater supervision and control. Hence, the cost increases in this order. However,
relatively costs depend on the subject of inquiry and the procedures adopted.
73
Telephone
Flexibility
Moderate
of data
to high
In-home
High
Mall-
intercept
surveys
High
Low
Internet/web
Low
Moderate to
high
collection
Diversity of
Low
High
High
moderate
Moderate
questions
Use of
Moderate to
high
Low
Moderate
High
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Low
Low to
to high
physical
stimuli
Sample
Moderate
Potentially
control
to high
high
Control of
Moderate
Moderate
moderate
High
Low
Low
Low
to high
data
collection
environment
Control of
Moderate
Low
Moderate
High
High
High
Low
High
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
High
High
Low
Low
Very low
field force
Quantity of
data
Response
rate
74
Perceived
Telephone
In-home
Mall-
intercept
surveys
Internet/web
Moderate
Low
Low
High
Moderate
High
Moderate
High
High
Low
Moderate
Low
High
Low
Low
High
Moderate
High
Moderate
High
High
None
None
None
High
Moderate
Moderate
Low
High
Very high
Low
Low
Low
anonymity
of the
respondent
Social
desirability
Obtaining
sensitive
information
Potential for
interviewer
bias
Speed
to high
Cost
Moderate
High
Moderate
to high
75
artificiality end are termed laboratory experiments and those nearer the realism end are termed
field experiments.
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
Laboratory experiments tend to cost substantially less in terms of resources and time than
field experiments. Further, they enable a company to minimize the chance that competitors will
learn of its new ideas. This has led many researchers to utilize laboratory experiments in the
early stages of their research projects when they are concerned with developing one or a limited
number of advertisements or products. Then, if the costs and risks warrant it, these versions are
subjected to further tests in field experiments. Appropriately designed laboratory experiments
are also sometimes used as the final step before market introduction.
76
77
obtaining this realism in marketing studies is to vary the independent variable in the market
place. Unfortunately, field experiments are also characterized by a relative lack of control.
For example, many field experiments require co-operation from wholesalers and/or
retailers. However, this co-operation is often difficult to secure. Retailers who have a policy of
price cutting may refuse to carry a product at the specified price, or they may be reluctant to
assign prime shelf-facings to an untried product.
Control of extraneous variables is even more difficult. Such factors as bad weather,
strikes in pertinent industries and campaigns by competitors are beyond the control of the
researcher. In fact, such events may occur without the researcher becoming aware of them.
This lack of control reduces the replicability or internal validity of field experiments.
However, their real world setting tends to increase their generalizability or external validity.
TEST MARKETING
Test Marketing represents a particular type of field experiment that is often conducted in
conjunction with the development of the new consumer product. Test marketing involved the
duplication of the planned national marketing program for a product in one or more geographical
areas (usually cities). Often, differing levels of marketing mix variable are used in the test
markets to help management isolate the best combination for the national introduction.
The two primary goals of most test market programs are the determination of the market
acceptance of the product and the testing alternative marketing mixes. A major additional value
comes from altering management to unsuspected problems and opportunities associated with the
new product.
There are four basic types of market tests: standard, controlled, electronic, and
simulated.
78
80
81
Advantages
STMs are fast, economical, confidential, easily controllable and capable of substantial
geographic spread.
Disadvantages
They do not measure trade, response, competitors reactions or implementation difficulties.
82
CASES
83
A few excerpts from the discussions held in that meeting are given below:
MD: I feel certain that out new Soyabean snack is going to be very successful in the market.
The project is unique in the sense that no soya bean based snack is presently available in the
market. In view of this, test marketing of this product seems rather unnecessary to me. We can
do without it. Moreover, it will save a good deal of time as the new product can be introduced in
the market almost immediately.
PM:
I fully support the views expressed by our MD. Let me emphasize that our R and D
Department has taken considerable pains in developing this new product. It has come through a
long succession of concept and product tests. Test marketing would obviously delay the process
of marketing the product.
MM: Since our new product is going to be our major achievement, it is desirable to have
detailed information about it. It will be to our advantage if we know our consumer target and
their major characteristics.
84
QUESTIONS
What data would you collect in the test market?
How would you collect the required data?
How would you analyze the test market data? Be specific.
85
Card 1
Dear Patient
It is advisable to have a six-monthly check-up. May 1 remained you that it is time for you
to have a preventive dental examination?
Please ring up the clinic for an early appointment.
Card 2
Dear Patient
As you know, it is advisable for everyone to have a six-monthly dental check-up as a
preventive measure. Dont forget that your teeth are a part of your looks. It is our endeavor not
only to see your smiling face but to ensure that your teeth add grace to your looks. You are
requested to ring up the clinic for an early appointment.
86
QUESTIONS
Specify the type of experimental design in this case.
Evaluate this experimental design.
An you improve this design? If so, suggest improvements.
87
88
MODULE 5
(MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES)
89
Scaling
Definition: The generation of a continuum on which measured objects are located.
To illustrate, consider a scale for locating consumers according to the characteristic
attitude toward department stores. Each respondent is assigned a number indicating an
unfavorable attitude, (measured as 1), a neutral attitude (measured as 2), or a favorable attitude
(measured as 3).
90
Nominal
Basic
Common
Marketing
Permissible
Statistics
Characteristics
Examples
Examples
Descriptive
inferential
Numbers identify
Social security
Brand numbers
Percentages
Chi-square
and classify
numbers,
mode
binomial
objects
numbering of
classification
test
Football
players.
Ordinal
Numbers indicate
Quality
Preference
Percentile,
Rank-order
the relative
rankings,
rankings,
median
correlation
positions of the
ranking of
market position
teams
social class
the magnitude
in a
of differences
tournament
between them.
Interval
Difference between
Temperature
Attitudes,
Range,
Product-
objects
(Fahrenheit,
opinions,
mean,
moment
can be compared;
centigrade)
index numbers
standard
correlations
deviation
tests,
zero point is
arbitrary.
regression,
Factor
analysis
Ratio
Length
Age, Income
Geometric
Coefficient
Ratios of scale
Weight
costs, sales,
mean,
of
market shares
Harmonic
variation
Values can be
computed
mean
91
Ordinal scale
A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to
which some characteristic is possessed. Thus it is possible to determine whether an object has
more or less of a characteristic than some other object.
Thus an ordinal scale indicates relative position, not the magnitude of the differences
between the objects. The object ranked first has more of the characteristic as compared to the
object ranked second, but whether the object ranked second is a close second or a poor second is
not known. Common examples of ordinal scales include quality rankings, rankings of teams in a
tournament, socioeconomic class, and occupational status. In marketing research, ordinal scales
are used to measure relative attitudes, opinions, perceptions and preferences. Measurements of
this type include greater than or less than judgments from the respondents.
92
Ratio Scale
The highest scale. It allows the researcher to identify or classify objects, rank order the
objects, and compare intervals or differences. It is also meaningful to compute ratios of scale
values.
Thus, in ratio scales we can identify or classify objects, rank the objects, and compare
intervals or differences. It is also meaningful to compute ratios of scale values. Not only is the
difference between 2 and 5 the same as the difference between 14 and 17 , but also 14 is seven
times as large as 2 in an absolute sense. Common examples of ratio scales include height,
weight, age and money. In marketing, sales, costs, market share, and number of customers are
variables measured on a ratio scale.
93
Non-comparative Scales
Comparative Scales
Paired
Comparison
Rank
Order
Constant
Sum
Verbal
Protocol
Continuous
Rating
Scales
Likert
Semantic
Differential
Itemized
Rating
Scales
Stapel
94
Non-comparative scales
One of two types of scaling techniques in which each stimulus object is scaled
independently of the other objects in the stimulus set.
For example, respondents may be asked to evaluate Coke on a 1 to 6 preference scale
(1= not at all preferred; 6= greatly preferred). Similarly evaluations would be obtained for Pepsi
and Thums-Up.
95
96
Verbal Protocol
Definition: A technique used to understand respondents cognitive responses or thought
processes by having them think aloud while completing a task or making a decision.
Protocols have been used to measure consumers cognitive responses in actual shopping
trips as well as in stimulated shopping environment. An interviewer accompanies the respondent
and holds a microphone into which the respondent talks. Protocols, thus collected, have been
used to determine the attributes and cues used in making purchase decisions, product usage
behavior, and the impact of the shopping environment on consumer decisions. Protocol analysis
has also been employed to measure consumer response to advertising. Immediately after seeing
an ad, the respondent is asked to list all the thoughts that came to mind while he or she watched
the ad. The respondent is given a limited amount of time to list the thoughts so as to minimize
the probability of collecting thoughts generated after, rather than during, the message.
97
Basic
Examples
Advantages
Disadvantages
Characteristics
Continuous
place a mark on a
Reaction to
Easy to
Scoring can be
Rating scale
continuous line
TV
construct
commercials
Likert scale
computerized
Degree of
Measurement
Easy to
More time
Agreement on a
of attitudes
construct,
consuming
1(strongly disagree)
administer,
to 5(strongly
and
agree) scale
Understand
Semantic
Seven-point scale
Controversy as to whether
Differential
and company
Images
Stapel scale
Unipolar-10 point
Measurement
Easy to
Confusing and
Scale, -5 to +5,
of
construct
difficult to apply
Without a neutral
attitudes and
administered
Point (Zero)
images
over
Telephone
98
Version 1
Probably the worst ---------- -I--------------------------------------- Probably the best
Version 2
Probably the worst-------------I------------------------------------- Probably the best
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Version 3
Very bad
neither good
Very good
Nor bad
Probably the worst-----------I----------------------------------------- Probably the best
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
99
Likert Scale
A measurement scale with five response categories ranging from strongly disagree to
strongly agree, which requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or
disagreement with each of a series of statements related to the stimulus objects.
The Likert scale has several advantages. It is easy to construct and administer.
Respondents readily understand how to use the scale, making it suitable for mail, telephone, or
personal interviews.
The major disadvantage of the Likert scale is that it takes longer to complete than other
itemized rating scales, because respondents have to read each statement.
Example:
Likert Scale
Instructions
Listed below are different options about Sears. Please indicate how strongly you agree or
disagree with each by using the following scale:
1= strongly disagree
2= Disagree
3= neither agree nor disagree
4= Agree
5= strongly agree
100
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
2x
2x
3x
4x
4x
1x
4x
4x
2x
Merchandise
Sears has poor in-store
Service
Semantic Differential
Definition: A seven- point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels.
A Semantic Differential Scale for measuring Self Concepts, Person Concepts, and
Product Concepts
101
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
2. Excitable :-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Delicate
Calm
----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Submissive
5. Thrifty
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Indulgent
6. Pleasant
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Unpleasant
7. Contemporary:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Noncontemporary
8. Organized
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Unorganized
9. Rational
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Emotional
10. Youthful
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Mature
11. Formal
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Informal
12. Orthodox
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Liberal
13. Complex
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Simple
14. Colorless
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Colorful
15. Modest
:-----:-----:-----:------:------:------:------:------:------:
Vain
102
Stapel Scale
A scale for measuring attitudes that consists of a single adjective in the middle of an
even-numbered range of values.
DEPARTMENT STORE PATRONAGE PROJECT
Stapel Scale
Instructions
Please evaluate how accurately each word or phrase describes each of the department
stores. Select a plus number for the phrases you think describe the store accurately. The more
accurately you think the phrase describes the store, the lager the plus number you should choose.
You should select a minus number for phrases you think do not describe it accurately. The less
accurately you think the phrase describes the store, the larger the minus number you should
choose. You can select any number, from +5 for phrases you think are very accurate, to -5 for
phrases you think you are very inaccurate.
103
+5
+4
+4
+3
+3
+2
+2X
+1
+1
High
Poor
Quality
Quality
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4x
-4
-5
-5
The Stapel scales advantages are that it does not require a pretest of the adjectives or
phrases to ensure true bipolarity, and it can be administered over the telephone. However, some
researchers believe the Stapel scale is confusing and difficult to apply. Of the three itemized
rating scales considered, the stapel scale is used least.
104
105
Unbalanced Scale
Extremely good
extremely good
Very good
Very good
Good
Good
Bad
Somewhat good
Very bad
Bad
Extremely bad.
Very bad
106
107
7 Very gentle
3.
Very harsh
4.
Very gentle
--------
--------
Very
Harsh
Harsh
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
Very
harsh
gentle
harsh
gentle
Nor
Gentle
5.
-3
-2
-1
Very
Neither
Very
Harsh
harsh
gentle
Nor
gentle
gentle
108
OBJECTIVES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
It has three specific objectives:
It must translate the information into a set of specific questions that the respondents can
and will answer.
A questionnaire must uplift, motivate and encourage the respondent to become involved
in the interview, to co-operate and complete the interview.
A questionnaire must minimize response error.
109
110
respondent group, the more difficult it is to design a single questionnaire that is appropriate for
the entire group,
In telephone
interviews, the respondents interact with the interviewer, but they do not see the questionnaire.
This limits the type of questions that can be asked to short and simple ones (see the department
store patronage project). Mail questionnaires are self-administered, so the questions must be
simple and detailed instructions must be provided. In computer-assisted interviewing, complex
skip patterns and randomization of questions to eliminate order bias can be easily
accommodated.
111
Continue this
procedure until you have ranked all the stores in order of preference. The least preferred store
should be assigned a rank of 10. No two stores should receive the same rank number.
The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong answer. Just
try to be consistent.
Store
Rank Order
__________
2. Macys
__________
3. Kmart
__________
4. Richs
__________
5. J. C. Penney
__________
6. Neiman-Marcus
__________
7. Target
__________
__________
9. Sears
__________
10. Wal-Mart
__________
112
Store
Not so Preferred
Greatly Preferred
10
2. Macys
10
3. Kmart
10
4. Richs
10
5. J. C. Penney
10
6. Neiman-Marcus
10
7. Target
10
10
9. Sears
10
10. Wal-Mart
10
113
__________
2.
__________
3.
__________
4.
__________
5.
__________
6.
__________
7.
__________
8.
__________
9.
__________
10
__________
10.
This question for e-mail and Internet questionnaires will be very similar to that for the
mail questionnaire in all these methods, the questionnaire is self-administered by the
respondent.
114
For
example, a survey on personal computers sponsored by IBM may also include filler questions
related to Dell, Compaq and Apple.
sometimes be included to generate client support for the project. At times, certain questions may
be duplicated for the purpose of assessing reliability or validity.
Are Several Questions Needed Instead of One?
Once we have ascertained that a question is necessary, we must make sure that it is
sufficient to get the desired information. Sometimes, several questions are needed to obtain the
required information in an unambiguous manner. Consider the question,
Do you think Coca-Cola is a very tasty and refreshing soft drink?
(Incorrect)
A yes answer will presumably be clear, but what if the answer is no? Does this
means that the respondent thinks that Coca-Cola is not tasty, that it is not refreshing, or that it is
neither tasty nor refreshing? Such a question is called a double-barreled question, because two
or more questions are combined into one.
115
(Correct)
(Incorrect)
The possible answers may include it is more conveniently located than other stores, and
it was recommended by my best friend. Each of these answers relates to a different question
embedded in the why question. The first answer tells that the respondent likes about Nike
Town as compared to other stores and the second answer reveals how the respondent learned
about the Nike Town. The two answers are not comparable and any one answer may not be
sufficient. Complete information may be obtained by asking two separate questions:
What do you like about Nike Town as compared to other stores? and
How did you first happen to shop in Nike Town?
(Correct)
116
117
118
determine how the consumption of cereal and preferences for cereal brands vary among people
of different ages, incomes and occupations, we need information on can make the request for
information seem legitimate.
Sensitive Information
Respondents are unwilling to disclose, at least accurately, sensitive information because
this may cause embarrassment or threaten the respondents prestige or self-image. If pressed for
the answer, respondents may give biased responses, especially during personal interviews.
Sensitive topics include money, family life, personal habits, political and religious beliefs and
involvement in accidents or crime.
Increasing the Willingness of Respondents
Respondents may be encouraged to provide information that they are unwilling to give by
the following techniques:
Place sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire. By then, initial mistrust has been
overcome, rapport has been created, legitimacy of the project has been established and
respondents are more willing to give information.
Preface the question with a statement that the behavior of interest is common. For
example, before requesting information on credit card debt, say Recent studies show that
most Americans are in debt.
statements.
119
Structured Questions: specify the set of response alternatives and the response format. A
structured question may be multiple-choice, dichotomous, or a scale.
120
_____
_____
Undecided
_____
_____
The response alternatives should include the set of all possible choices. The general
guideline is to list all alternatives that may be of importance and include an alternative labelled
other (please specify), the response alternatives should be mutually exclusive. Respondents
should also be able to identify one and only one, alternative, unless the researcher specifically
allows two or more choice (for example, please indicate all the brands of soft drinks that you
have consumed in the fast weak). If the response alternatives are numerous, consider using
more than one question to reduce the information processing demands on the respondents.
Order or position biasing is the respondents tendency to check an alternative merely
because it occupies a certain position or is listed in a certain order. Respondents tend to check the
first or last statement in a list, particularly the first. For the list of numbers (quantities or prices)
there is a bias toward the central value of the list. To control for order bias, several forms of the
questionnaire should be prepared with the order in which the alternatives are listed varied from
form to form. Each alternative should appear once in each of the extreme position, once in the
middle, and once somewhere in between.
Multiple-choice questions overcome many of the disadvantages of open-ended questions,
because interviewer bias is reduced and these questions are administered quickly. Also, coding
and processing of data are much less costly and time consuming. In self-administered
questionnaires, respondent cooperation is improved if the majority of the questions are
structured.
121
Definitely
Probably
will not
Undecided
Probably
Definitely
will buy
will buy
buy
1
(Incorrect)
123
(Correct)
(Incorrect)
Ask,
Do you think soft drinks are readily available when you want to buy them?
(Correct)
(incorrect)
The answers to this question are fraught with response bias, because the words used to
describe category labels have different meanings for different respondents. Three respondents
whose shop once a month may check three different categories: occasionally sometimes and
often. A much better wording for this question would be the following:
In typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?
______ Less than once
______ 1or 2 times
______ 3 or 4 times
______ More than 4 times
(correct)
(Incorrect)
125
(Correct)
Bias may also arise when respondents are given clues about the sponsor of the project.
Respondents tend to respond favourably toward the sponsor. The question Is Colgate your
favourite toothpaste? is likely to bias the responses in favour of Colgate. A more unbiased way
of obtaining this information would be to ask, What is your favourite toothpaste brand?
Likewise, the mention of prestigious or non-prestigious name can bias the response, as in, Do
you agree with American dental association that Colgate is effective in preventing cavities? An
unbiased question would be to ask, Is Colgate effective in preventing cavities?
(Incorrect)
Do you like to fly when travelling short distances, or would rather drive (Correct)
In this first question, the alternative of driving is only implicit, but in the second question
it is explicit. The first question is likely to yield a greater preference for flying than the second
question.
126
(Correct)
127
Type of Information
The type of information obtained in a questionnaire may be classified as:
1. Basic information
2. Classification information
3. Identification information
Basic information relates directly to the research problem. Classification Information,
consisting of socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, is used to classify the respondents
and understand the results. Identification Information includes name, address and telephone
number. Identification information may be obtained for a verity of purpose, including verifying
that the respondents listed were actually interviewed, remitting promised incentives and so on.
As a general guideline, basic information should be of obtained first, followed by classification
and finally, identification information. The basic information is of greatest importance to the
research project and should be obtained first, before we risk alienating the respondents by asking
a series of personal questions.
128
Legal Order
Questions should be asked in a local order. All of the questions that deal with a particular
should be asked before beginning a new topic. Branching questions direct respondents to
different places in the questionnaire based on how they respond to the question at hand. These
questions ensure that all possible contingencies are curved. They also help reduce interviewer
and respondent errors and encourage complete responses.
129
130
131
133
134
Step 10 Pretesting
1. Always pretest
2. All aspects of the questionnaire should be tested, including question content, wording,
sequence, form and layout, question difficulty and instructions.
3. The respondents in the pretest should be similar to those who will be included in the
actual survey.
4.
136
CASES
137
No .
If yes,
2. Is the juice consumed during a meal or between the meals or both?
At meal ..
Between meals ..
Both
Fresh ..
4. What advantages, if any, do you believe has fresh juice over frozen juice?
.
.
.
5. What advantages, if any, do you believe has frozen juice over fresh juice?
.
.
.
138
7. A list of fresh juices is given below. Indicate which are your families first , second and
third choices:
Orange
Mango
Tomato
Grape
Lime
Carrot
Pineapple
Apple
139
140
141
Questionnaire
Name
Profession .. Designation ..
Income .
Age City ..
__________
__________
__________
Financial Express
__________
__________
__________
Business Standard
__________
__________
__________
Business World
__________
__________
__________
Fortune India
__________
__________
__________
Update
__________
__________
__________
Others (Specify)
__________
__________
__________
Political affairs
Art/Literature
Investments
3. Rank the following magazines on a 1 to 5 scale (5 for very good, 1 for poor) for the
following attributes:
Business Business Up-date Fortune
World
India
India
(1) Timeliness of Information
(2) Depth of Information
(3) Range of information
142
QUESTIONS
How would you identify parameters which can effectively measure consumer
satisfaction?
Construct a suitable scale using the parameters identified in Question 1.
143
QUESTIONS
What type of attitude scale is used in each of these questions?
Would you like to change any of these attitudes scales? If so, indicate the changes that
you would like to make.
144
Exhibit
Selected questions which were contained in a questionnaire on C. M. A.
1. Given below are some characteristics that people look for in a doctor of their
choice. You should rate each characteristic on a scale of 1 to 5 in order of
importance. The characteristic most important to you, should be rated 1, and
the least important should be rated 5.
i. The doctors clinic is close to your residence.
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
145
4. Some statements are given below. Please indicate whether you agree with
these statements. If you strongly agree with a statement, rate it 1; if you agree,
rate it 2; if you are neutral, rate it 3; if you somewhat disagree rate it 4; and if
you strongly disagree, rate it 5.
1. I have full confidence in my doctor.
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
146
{} No
{} Big Size
{} Colored
147
Cheap
Costly
Very Cheap {}
{}
{}
10. Did you buy this TV under some special scheme? Give details. { }
{} No
12. How would you rank the quality of the services provided?
Very efficient
{}
Moderately inefficient {}
Efficient
{}
Inefficient
{}
Moderately efficient
{}
Very inefficient
{}
148
Bad
Many
Few
Numbers
High
Low
Full
Small
Low
Channels
Brand
Sound effect
Picture
Woofer system
High
Locking system
Present {}
Absent {}
Present {}
Absent {}
Automatic stabilizer
149
4.
2.
5.
3.
6.
16. Would you like to go in for a new TV under the special scheme as offered by some
companies?
Yes {}
No {}
17. State your preference from amongst the following six TV brands with respect to their
features: BPL, Weston, Samsung, Sony, Philips and Akai.
BPL
Weston
Samsung
Sony
Philips
Akai
BPL
Weston
Samsung
Sony
Philips
Akai
150
No {}
151
__________________________________________________
Membership Number
__________________________________________________
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
Extremely Dissatisfied
(b) If Dissatisfied:
I am dissatisfied with the membership registering process because ____________
(Tick more than one if applicable).
The application form was difficult to understand and complete.
The processing of an application took a very long time.
There is a communication gap between the members and the membership
department.
152
Q.3
High
2
Indian Management
Evening Lectures
Education Programs
Management
Development
Services
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
153
AIMA News
Selection of contents
Selection of contents
Good
Good
Satisfactory
Satisfactory
Not so good
Not so good
Quality of print
Quality of print
Good
Good
Satisfactory
Satisfactory
Not so good
Not so good
Deteriorated
Q.5 (a) In my opinion the Management Development and Training Programme are
_________________________________________________________________
Excellent
Good
Satisfactory
Not so good
154
Deteriorated
Q.6 (a) I feel that most of the evening lectures are _______________________________
Very Interesting
Quite Interesting
Okay
Deteriorated
Good
Satisfactory
Not so good
Deteriorated
155
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
Extremely Dissatisfied
No
(b) If yes, what extra services do they provide other than those provided by AIMA.
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
156
MODULE 6
(QUALITATIVE RESEARCH)
157
Primary
data
Secondary
Data
Quantitative
data
Qualitative
data
Descriptive
Causal
Experimental
Data
Survey
Data
Observational
and other data
158
the
underlying
reasons
motivations.
Sample
Quantitative Research
number
of
representative
cases.
cases.
Data collection
Unstructured
Structured
Data analysis
Non-statistical
Statistical
Outcome
159
Direct (Non-disguised)
Indirect (disguised)
Association Techniques
Completion Techniques
Focus
Groups
Dept
Interviews
Projective
Techniques
Construction Techniques
Expressive Techniques
160
respondents or is otherwise obvious to them from the questions asked. Focus interviews and
Depth interviews are the major techniques.
Indirect Approach: a type of qualitative research in which the purposes of the project are
disguised from the respondents.
Projective techniques, the commonly used indirect techniques, consist of association,
completion, construction and expressive techniques.
161
8-12
Group composition
Physical setting
Time duration
1-3 hours
Recording
Moderator
A focus group generally includes 8 to 12 members. Groups of fewer than 8 are unlikely
to generate the momentum and group dynamics necessary for a successful session. Likewise,
groups of more than 12 may be too crowded and may not be conductive to a cohesive and natural
discussion.
A focus group should be homogenous in terms of demographic and socio-economic
characteristics. Commonalty among group members avoids interactions and conflicts among
group members on side issues.
The participants must have had adequate experience with the object or issue being
discussed.
People who have already participated in numerous focus groups should not be
included. These so called professional respondents are atypical, and their participation leads to
serious validity problems.
The physical setting for the focus group is also important.
A relaxed, informal
atmosphere encourages spontaneous comments. Light refreshments should be served before the
session and made available throughout. Although a focus group may last from one to three
hours, duration of one and one-half to two hours is typical. This period of time is needed to
establish rapport with the participants and explore, in depth, their beliefs, feelings, ideas,
attitudes and insights regarding the topics of concern.
162
knowledge of the discussion topic and an understanding of the nature of group dynamics.
164
165
166
167
CHARACTERISTICS
Like focus groups, depth interviews are an unstructured and direct way of obtaining
information; unlike focus groups, depth interviews are conducted one on one. Depth interview
may take from 30 minutes to more than one hour.
Although the interviewer attempts to follow a rough outline, the specific wording of the
questions and the order in which they are asked is influenced by the subjects replies. Probing is
of critical importance in obtaining meaningful responses and uncovering hidden issues. Probing
is done by asking questions such as Why do you say that? Thats interesting can you tell me
more? or Would you like to add anything else?
TECHNIQUES
Laddering: A technique for conducting depth interviews in which a line of questioning proceeds
from product characteristics to user characteristics.
Hidden Issue Questioning: A type of depth interview that attempts to locate personal sore spots
related to deeply felt personal concerns.
Symbolic Analysis: A technique for conducting depth interviews in which the symbolic meaning
of objects is analyzed by comparing them with their opposites.
168
influence, and the quality and completeness of the results depend heavily on the interviewers
skills.
The data obtained are difficult to analyze and interpret and the services of skilled
psychologists are typically required for this purpose. The length of the interview combined with
high costs means that the number of depth interviews in a project will be small.
169
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Projective Technique: an unstructured and indirect form of questioning that encourages the
respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the
issues of concern.
Projective techniques are classified as associations, completion, construction and
expressive.
170
techniques. In word association, respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time and
asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. The words of interests, called
test words, are interspersed throughout the list, which also contains some neutral or filler, words
to disguise the purpose of the study. The subjects response to each word is recorded verbatim
and response are timed so that respondents who hesitate or reason out (defined as taking longer
than 3 seconds to reply) can be identified. The interviewer, not the respondent, records the
responses. This controls further time required for the respondent to write the responses.
The underlying assumptions of this technique are that association allows a respondents to
reveal their inner feelings about the topic of interest. Responses are analyzed by calculating:
The frequency with which any word is given as a response
The amount of time that elapses before a response is given
The number of respondents who do not respond at all to a test word within reasonable
period of time.
Those who do not respond at all are judged to have an emotional involvement so high
that it blocks a response. It is often possible to classify the associations as favorable, unfavorable
or neutral. An individuals pattern of responses and the details of response are used to determine
the persons underlying attitudes or feelings on the topic of interest.
171
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
Construction Techniques: a projective technique in which the respondent is required to
construct a response in the form of a story, dialogue or description.
Construction techniques are closely related completion techniques.
Construction
techniques require the respondent to construct a response in the form of a story, dialogue or
description. In a construction technique, the researcher provides less initial structure to the
respondent than in a completion technique.
172
Picture Response Techniques: a projective technique in which the respondent is shown a picture
and asked to tell a story describing it.
The roots of picture response techniques can be treated to the thematic appreciation test
(TAT), which consists of a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual events. In some of
these pictures, the persons or objects are clearly depicted, whereas in others they are relatively
vague.
The respondents
Cartoon Tests: cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The
respondents are asked to indicate the response that one cartoon character might make to the
comment(s) to another character.
The responses indicate the respondents feelings, beliefs and attitudes towards the
situation. Cartoon tests are simpler to administer and analyze than picture response techniques.
173
Role Playing: respondents are asked to assume the behavior of someone else.
The researcher assumes that the respondents will project their own feeling into the role.
These can then be uncovered by analyzing the responses.
disguising the purpose. This is particularly true when the issue to be addressed are personal,
sensitive or subject to strong social norms.
In such cases the researcher may assume that respondents who agree to
participate are themselves unusual in some way and therefore not representative of the
population of interest. As a result, it is desirable to compare findings generated by projective
techniques with the finding of the other techniques that permit a more representative sample.
175
Focus groups
Depth interviews
Projective
techniques
Degree of structure
Relatively high
Relatively medium
Relatively low
Low
High
Medium
Moderator bias
Relatively
Relatively high
Low to high
medium
Interpretation bias
Relatively low
Relatively medium
Relatively high
Low
Medium to high
High
High
Medium
Low
Low
Medium
High
No
To a limited extent
Yes
Overall usefulness
Highly useful
Useful
Somewhat useful
176
177
OBSERVATION METHODS
Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects and events in a
systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest. The observer does
not question or communicate with the people being observed. Information may be recorded as
the events occurred or from records of past events. Observational methods may be structured or
unstructured, direct or indirect. Furthermore, observations may be conducted in a natural or
contrived environment.
Structured observation: observation technique in which the researcher clearly defines the
behaviors to be observed and the methods by which they will be measured.
178
Observation Methods
Personal
Observation
Mechanical
Observation
Audit
Content
Analysis
Trace
Analysis
Personal observation: an observational research strategy in which human observers record the
phenomenon being observed as it occurs.
In personal observation, a researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs. The observer
does not attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed. The observer merely
records what takes place in an natural (example: a store) or a contrived environment (example: a
research facility). For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows
in a department store. This information could aid in designing store layout and determining
location of individual departments, shelf locations, and merchandising displays.
179
continually record what channel the set is tuned to. Recently, people meters have been
introduced. People meters attempt to measure not only the channels to which a set is tuned but
also who are watching. Other common examples include turnstiles that record the number of
people entering or leaving the building, and traffic counter places across streets to determine the
number of vehicles passing certain locations. On-sight cameras (still, motion picture or video)
are increasingly used by retailers to assess package designs, floor displays and traffic flow
patterns. Technology advances such as the Universal Product Code (UPC) have made a major
impact on mechanical observation. The UPC system together with optical scanners, allow for
mechanized information collection regarding consumer purchases by product category, brand,
store type, price and quantity.
In contrast, many mechanical observation devices do require respondent involvement.
These mechanical devices may be classified into five groups:
Eye-tracking monitors
Pupilometers
Psychogalvanomerers
Voice pitch analyzers
Devices measuring response latency.
180
181
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Content Analysis: the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content
of a communication.
Content analysis is an appropriate method and the phenomenon to be observe is
communication, rather than behavior or physical objects.
182
183
184
Mechanical
observation
observation
Low
Low to high
Medium
Audit
Content
Trace
analysis
analysis
High
High
Medium
Low to high
Low
High
High
High
Low to high
High
Medium
Low
High
Low
Low
Medium
Medium
Analysis bias
High
Low to medium
Low
Low
Medium
General
Most
Can be intrusive
Expensive
Limited to
Method
remarks
flexible
communications
of last
Degree of
Personal
structure
Degree of
disguise
Ability to
observe in
natural setting
Observation
bias
resort
185
186
MODULE 7
(SAMPLING)
187
Census
Budget
Small
Large
Time available
Short
Long
Population size
Large
Small
Small
Large
Low
High
High
Low
Destructive
Non Destructive
Nature of measurement
188
Target Population: The collection of elements or objects that possess the information
sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made.
The target population should be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent and
time. An element is the object about which or from which the information is desired.
In survey research, the element is usually a respondent. A sampling unit is an
element or a unit containing the element, that is available for selection at some stage of
the sampling process. Suppose that Revlon wanted to assess consumer response to a new
line of lipsticks and wanted to sample females over 18 years of age. It may be possible to
sample females over 18 directly, in which case the sampling unit would be the same as an
element. Alternatively, the sampling unit might be households.
In the latter case, households would be sampled and all females over 18 in each
selected household would be interviewed. Here, the sampling unit and the population
element are different. Extent refers to the geographical boundaries, and the time factor is
time period under consideration.
189
In some instances the discrepancy between the population and the sampling frame
is small enough to ignore. However, in most cases, the researcher should recognize and
treat the sampling frame error. This can be done in at least three ways. One approach is to
redefine the population in terms of the sampling frame. If the telephone book is used as a
sampling frame, the population of the households could be redefined as those with a
correct listing in a telephone book in a given area. Although this approach is simplistic, it
does prevent the researcher from being misled about the actual population being
investigated,
Another way is to account for sampling frame error by screening the respondents
in the data collection phase. The respondents could be screened with respect to
demographic characteristics, familiarity, product usage, and other characteristics to
ensure that they satisfy the criteria for the target population. Screening can eliminate
appropriate elements contained in the sampling frame, but it cannot account for elements
that have been omitted.
190
Sampling Techniques
Non-probability Sampling
Techniques
Convenienc
e Sampling
Simple
Random
Sampling
Judgmental
Sampling
Probability Sampling
Techniques
Quota
Sampling
Systematic
sampling
Proportionat
e
Snowball
Sampling
Stratified
Sampling
Cluster
Sampling
Other
Sampling
Techniques
Disproportionat
e
191
Probability Sampling
A sampling procedure in which each element of the population has a fixed probabilistic
chance of being selected for the sample.
Every potential sample need not have the same probability of selection, but it is possible
to specify the probability of selecting any particular sample of a given size. This requires not
only a precise definition of the target population, but also general specification of the sampling
frame. Because sampling elements are selected by chance, it is possible to determine the
precision of the sample estimates of the characteristics of interest.
Convenience Sampling
A non-probability sampling technique that attempts to obtain a sample of convenient
elements. The selection of sampling units is left primarily to the interviewer.
192
Limitations:
Many potential sources of selection bias are present, including respondent self-selection.
Convenience samples are not representative of any definable population. Hence, it is not
theoretically meaningful to generalize to any population from a convenience sample, and
convenience samples are not appropriate for marketing research projects involving population
inferences. Convenience samples are not recommended for descriptive or causal research, but
they can be used in exploratory research for generating ideas, insights, or hypotheses.
Convenience samples can be used for focus groups, pretesting questionnaires, or pilot studies.
Judgmental Sampling
A form of convenience sampling in which the population elements are purposively
selected based on the judgment of the researcher.
Common examples include test markets selected to determine the potential of a new
product and department stores selected to test a new merchandising display a system.
Judgmental sampling is low cost, convenient, and quick, yet it does not allow direct
generalizations to a specific population, usually because the population is not explicitly.
Judgmental sampling is subjective and its value depends entirely on the researchers judgment,
expertise, and creativity.
193
Advantages:
Its advantages are the lower costs and greater convenience to the interviewers in selecting
elements for each quota. Under certain conditions, quota sampling obtains results close to those
for conventional probability sampling.
Disadvantages:
If a characteristic that is relevant is overlooked, the quota sample will not be
representative. Relevant control characteristics are often omitted, because there are practical
difficulties associated with including many control characteristics.
The elements within each quota are selected based on convenience or judgment, so many sources
of selection bias are potentially present. The interviewers may go to selected areas where eligible
respondents are more likely to be found. Likewise, they may avoid people who look unfriendly
or are not well-dressed, or those who live in undesirable locations.
194
The major advantage of snowball sampling is that it substantially increases the likelihood
of locating the desired characteristic in the population. It also results in relatively low sampling
variance and costs.
195
To draw a simple random sample, the researcher first compiles a sampling frame in
which each element is assigned a unique identification number. Then random numbers are
generated to determine which elements to include in the sample. The random numbers may be
generated with a computer routine or a table.
Advantages:
It is easily understood. The sample results may be projected to the target population.
Most approaches to statistical inference assume that the data have been collected by simple
random sampling.
Limitations:
First, it is often difficult to construct a sampling frame that will permit a simple random
sample to be drawn. Second, SRS can result in samples that are very n large and spread over
large geographic areas, thus increasing the time and the cost of data collection. SRS may or may
not result in a representative sample.
Although samples drawn will represent the population well on average, a given simple random
sample may grossly misrepresent the target population. This is more likely if the size of the
sample is small. For these reasons, SRS is not widely used in marketing research.
Systematic Sampling
A probability sampling technique in which the sample is chosen by selecting a random
starting and then picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame. For example,
there 1,00,000 elements in the population and a sample of 1000 is desired. I n this case the
sampling interval, i, is 100. A random number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for example,
this number is 23, the sample consists of element 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
196
Advantages:
Systematic sampling is less costly and easier than SRS, because random selection is done
only once. Moreover, the random numbers do not have to be matched with individual elements
as SRS. Since some lists contain millions of elements, considerable time can be saved. This
reduces the costs of sampling. If information related to the characteristic of interest is available
for the population, systematic sampling can be used to obtain a more representative and reliable
(lower sampling error) sample than SRS. Another relative advantage is that systematic sampling
can even be used without knowledge of the composition (elements) of the sampling frame. For
example, every ith leaving a department store or mall can be intercepted. For these reasons,
systematic sampling is often employed in consumer mail, telephone, and, mall-intercept
interviews.
Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a two-step process in which the population is partitioned into subpopulations, or strata. The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive in that
every population element should be assigned to one and only one stratum, and no population
elements should be omitted. Next elements are selected from each stratum by a random
procedure, usually SRS. Technically, only SRS should be employed in selecting the elements
from each stratum. In practice, sometimes systematic sampling and other probability sampling
procedures are employed. Stratified sampling differs from quota sampling in that the sample
elements are selected probabilistically rather than based on convenience or judgment. A major
objective of stratified sampling is to increase precision without increasing cost.
197
The key distinction between cluster sampling and stratified sampling is that in cluster
sampling only a sample of subpopulations (clusters) is chosen, whereas in stratified sampling all
the subpopulations (Strata) are selected for further sampling. The objectives of the two methods
are also different. The objective of cluster sampling is to increase sampling efficiency by
decreasing costs. The objective of stratified sampling is to increase precision. With respect to
homogeneity and heterogeneity, the criteria for forming clusters are just the opposite of that for
strata.
A common form of cluster sampling is area sampling, in which the clusters consist of
geographic areas, such as counties, housing tracts, or blocks. If only one level of sampling takes
place in selecting the basic elements (for example, the researcher samples blocks and all the
households within the selected blocks are included in the sample), the design is called singlestage area sampling. If two (or more) levels of sampling take place before the basic elements are
selected (the researcher samples blocks, and then samples households within selected blocks),
the design is called two-stage (or multistage) area sampling. The distinguishing feature of onestage area sample is that all of the households in the selected blocks (or geographic areas) are
included in the sample.
198
Strengths
Weaknesses
Non-probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
representative; not
recommended for
descriptive or causal
research
Judgmental Sampling
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling
certain characteristic.
of representativeness.
Time-consuming.
Difficult to construct
projectable.
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling(SRS)
lower precision; no
assurance of
representativeness.
Systematic Sampling
Can decrease
representativeness.
Difficult to select
subpopulations; precision.
relevant stratification
variables; not feasible
to stratify on many
variables; expensive.
Cluster Sampling
Easy to implement;
Imprecise; difficult to
cost effective.
199
Systematic Sampling
Select a suitable sampling frame.
Each element is assigned a number from 1 to N (population size).
Determine the sampling interval, i, i=N/n. If i is a fraction, round to the nearest integer.
Select a random number, r, between 1 and i, as explained in simple random sampling.
The elements with the following numbers will comprise the systematic random sample: r,
r+i, r+2i, r+3i, r+4i . r+(n-1)i.
Stratified Sampling
Select a suitable sampling frame.
Select the stratification variable(s) and the number of strata, H.
Divide the entire population into H strata. Based on the classification variable, each
element of the population is assigned to one of the H strata.
In each stratum, number the elements from 1 to Nh, (the population size of stratum h).
Determine the sample size of each stratum, nh, based on proportionate or disproportionate
stratified sampling.
200
Note, nh = n.
h=1
Cluster Sampling
We describe the procedure for selecting a two-stage PPS sample, because this
represents the most commonly used general case.
Assign a number from 1 to N, to each element in the population.
Divide the population into C clusters, of which c will be included in the sample.
Calculate the sampling interval i,i=N/c. If i is a fraction, round to the nearest interger.
Select a random number, r, between 1 and i, as explained in simple random sampling.
Identify elements with the following numbers: r, r+i, r+2i, r+3i, r+4i . r+(c-1)i.
Select the clusters that contain the identified elements.
Select the sampling units within each selected cluster based on SRS or systematic
sampling. the number of sampling units selected from each sample cluster is
approximately the same and equal to the n/c.
201
Non-probability sampling
Probability Sampling
Nature of research
Exploratory
Conclusive
Relative magnitude of
larger.
errors.
Variability in the population.
Homogeneous (low).
Heterogeneous(high).
Statistical
Unfavorable.
Favorable.
Favorable.
Unfavorable.
considerations
Operational considerations.
In general, for more important decisions, more information is necessary and the
information should be obtained more precisely. This calls for larger samples, but as the sample
size increases, each unit of information is obtained at a greater cost. The degree of precision may
be measured in terms of standard deviation of the mean. The standard deviation of the mean is
inversely proportional to the square root of the sample size. The larger the sample, the smaller
the gain in precision by increasing the sample size by one unit.
The nature of the research also has an impact on the sample size. For exploratory research
design, such as those using qualitative research, the sample size typically small. For conclusive
research, such as descriptive surveys, larger samples are required. Likewise, if data are being
collected on a large number of variable, larger samples are required.
202
Sample size is influenced by the average size of samples in similar studies. These sample
sizes have been determined based on experience and can serve as rough guidelines, particularly
when non-probability sampling techniques are used.
Finally, the sample size decision should be guided by a consideration of the resource
constraints. In any marketing research project, money and time are limited. Other constraints
include the availability of qualified personnel for data collection. The sample size required
should be adjusted for the incidence of eligible respondents and the completion rate.
Minimum
Typical Range
Size
Problem identification research (e.g. Market potential)
500
1,000-2,500
200
300-500
Product tests
200
300-500
200
300-500
150
200-300
10 stores
10-20 stores
Focus groups
6 groups
10-15 groups
203
204
205
n = z2
e2
where: z = Level of significance
= Standard Deviation
e = Permissible error
206
CASES
207
208
209
210
211
Assuming that the management has entrusted you with this job, answer the following
questions:
1. If a sample is to be drawn from the guest file, describe the procedure you would adopt in
each of the following sample designs:
Simple random sampling.
Systematic random sampling.
Stratified random sampling.
Cluster sampling.
2. Which one of these sample designs would you select and why?
3. Specify the nature of data that you would collect from the sample respondents.
212
MODULE 8
(DATA REDUCTION & DATA ANALYSIS)
213
FIELD CONTROLS
Field controls are procedures designed to minimize errors during the actual collection of
data. These controls involve ensuring that the sampling, data collection and measurement tasks
are carried out as specified.
Sound field controls require both monitoring and validation procedures. Monitoring is
the observation of field work by supervisors or project directors as it occurs. Monitoring is
common in central location telephone interviewing.
Validation involved checking the accuracy of field work after it has been conducted.
Validation is particularly important in survey research where the temptation for interviewer
cheating may be present.
214
EDITING
The responsibility of the editor is to ensure that the data requested are present, readable
and accurate. Unfortunately, many questionnaires are pre-coded and are entered directly into
computer processing with little or no editorial analysis. Although this approach can save time
and money, it often produces less accurate data. Data entry operators must decide what to do
with unclear responses, missing data or inconsistent responses. If the questionnaire is not precoded, clerical assistants may be assigned the task of transcribing questionnaire responses onto
code sheets. Like data entry operators, the assistants are seldom trained to deal with editorial
tasks.
Missing Data
It is very common for a questionnaire to be returned with one or more specific questions
unanswered. This is known as item non-response. The editor must decide what to do about such
missing data. Often it is possible and desirable to use the data as are. That is, the unanswered
questions are assigned a missing data code, perhaps a blank or a -0 and entered into the computer
along with the other observations.
On occasion, the editor can have respondents re-contacted to collect key bits of missing
information.
Alternatively, plug values, values developed in advance to use for missing data,
can be used.
215
Ambiguous Answers
Many questionnaires contain one or more responses whose meaning is not clear.
However, answers similar to the following will also appear a significant number of times:
I almost never drink carbonated drinks, but when I do I usually have several.
10-15 Cokes and several fruit drinks.
12 if you count mixed drinks.
Other kinds of ambiguities with which editors must deal are illegible responses and
marks between response categories.
Accuracy/Quality
As editors review a series of questionnaires, they should not suspect responses.
Respondents will sometimes rush through questionnaires in an almost random manner. This
tends to produce a number of inconsistent responses such as a high-income category and a lowpaying job category, or unawareness of a brand that is also reported as frequently used.
Questionnaires containing such inconsistencies should be examined carefully and deleted from
the database if it appears that the respondents were haphazard in completing them.
Editors should also be alert for inconsistencies between the responses obtained by
different interviewers. Such inconsistencies may be expected if the interviewers are contacting
different respondent groups, such as in distinct geographic areas.
216
CODING
Establishing Categories
Categories for the answers to multiple-choice or dichotomous questions are established at
the same time the question is formulated.
Open ended questions may also have response categories established at the time they are
formulated. However, it is common to create some or all of the response categories to openended questions after at least some of the questionnaires have been returned.
Since almost all marketing studies are analyzed by computer, each category must be
assigned a numerical value.
It is important that a category be available for every response, which often requires the
use of a catchall category such as other. Likewise, it is important to have a specified
category for non responses or missing data.
Three fairly common category values are assigned for missing data, the most common of
which is the value blank. That is, no value is assigned to missing data. However, this can
cause a problem, as some analytical programs read blanks as zeros. Thus, if the responses to a
question contain both 0 responses and missing data (no response), some analytical programs
will treat the missing data as zeros.
Another common approach to dealing with missing data involves the use of a constant
such as -9 that will not be one of the legitimate response values.
A third approach is to assign the missing data category a value that is one number larger
than the largest response value.
217
That is, appropriate category values and column numbers are listed on the
questionnaires.
Postcoding involves the same procedure as precoding except that it is done after the
questionnaires are received. The advantage of postcoding is that the range of responses to the
open-ended questions are known before category values are assigned and columns reserved.
Coding open-ended responses is difficult and requires sound instructions to ensure
consistency between coders. Because of the complexity involved, a code book, which provides
explicit instructions for coding each variable and indicates the columns o be used for each
response, should be developed.
It is not uncommon to have questionnaires coded independently by two persons to reduce
errors.
Transcription of data
Transcription of data is the process of physically transferring data from the measuring
methods onto magnetic tape or disk, or directly into the computer. Other methods that are
sometimes used include the use of mark-sensed questionnaires and optical scanning. Mark
sensing requires that the answer be recorded by marking it with a special pencil in an area that is
coded for that answer; a machine reads the answer by sensing the area in which it is recorded.
Optical scanning involves direct machine reading of alpha numeric codes and
transcription onto magnetic tape or disk. These methods are usually too expensive and awkward
to use except for very large or repeated studies in which the same collection form is used.
Consumer panels, buyer intention surveys and the Census of Population are examples of
field studies in which automated transcription processes are used.
218
219
BRAND
TREATMENT
Money (1)
Product (2)
Total
Bravo
1 22
4 21
Delight
42 67
41 67
Total
220
Summarizing Statistics
There are two major kinds of summarizing statistics. The first provides measures of the
midpoint of the distribution and is known as measures of central tendency. The second gives an
indication of the amount of variation in the data comprising the distribution and is known as
measures of dispersion.
x=
Measures of Dispersion
The standard deviation, variance and range are common measures of how spread out
the data are. The smaller these three values are, the more compact are the data.
The formula for the standard deviation of a sample calculated from an array of the sample
data is:
S=
222
The variance, the square of the standard deviation, is found by the same formula with the square
root sign removed. The range is equal to the maximum minus minimum value in the data array.
223
CASES
224
500
501 1000
Rs 1001 2000
Over Rs 2000
3. Which of the following battery operated equipment do you have in your family?
Torch
Transistor
Others (Specify)
225
226
: Mr/Mrs/Miss
2. Address:
3. Age
:
18-20 Yrs
20-30 Yrs
30-40 Yrs
40-50 Yrs
50-60 Yrs
60 Yrs or above (
227
( )
13
( )
46
( )
79
( )
10 or above
( )
228
Interested
Indifferent
Not interested
Higher secondary
Graduation
Post-graduation
229
Rs 1000 Rs 2999
Rs 3000 Rs 4999
Rs 5000
QUESTIONS
1. Divide the sample into two groups: (a) those showing interest in the new scheme and (b)
those who are either indifferent or not interested in the new scheme. Cross-tabulate these
two groups along with education
Higher education graduation and above and
Lower education below graduation.
What is your finding? Is the association statistically significant at the 0.05 level?
2. Perform similar exercise to ascertain association between preference for new scheme and
income level of respondents, taking the first income level in the poor class; second and
third levels in the middle class; and the fourth one in the upper class.
3. If a third category with two groups older respondents (40 years and above) and younger
respondents (below 40 years) is added to the cross-tabulation arrived at in Q.1 above,
does the association undergo any change?
230
QUESTIONS
You are asked to analyze the following tables. Based on your analysis, prepare a short
report, highlighting the major findings. Use suitable graphic devices to make your report
easily understandable and interesting.
231
Exhibit 1
Table 1: Sex of the Respondents
Sex
Frequency %
Male
Female
Total
254
84.67
46
15.33
300
100.00
Frequency
Up to Rs 1500
120
40.00
Rs 1500 to Rs 3000
107
35.67
Rs 3000 to Rs 5000
34
11.33
1.33
N.R.
35
11.67
Total
300
100.00
232
Table 3: Occupation
Occupation
Frequency
Private Service
98
32.67
Govt. Service
44
14.67
Business
93
31.00
Professional
2.67
Self Employed
15
5.00
Student
11
3.67
Housewife
1.67
Retired
2.33
Agriculture
12
4.00
N.R.
2.32
Total
300
100.00
Frequency %
36
12.00
Matriculation to graduation/diploma
109
36.33
Up to matriculation
143
47.67
N.R.
12
4.00
Total
300
100.00
233
Frequency
252
84.00
Real Estate/Assets
24
8.00
Gold/Stones/Jewels
27
9.00
Vehicles/Appliances
18
6.00
1.67
32
10.67
0.67
300
100.00
VCP/VCR/A.C./Sound system
Travel
N.R.
Total
Frequency
1.67
17
5.67
17
5.67
57
19.00
198
66.00
27
9.00
0.33
2.00
N.R.
1.67
300
100.00
Total
234
Need
Social Occasions
Festival Days
Money to Buy
N.R
Freq.
Freq.
Freq.
Freq.
Product 1
262
87.33
27
1.00
2.00
1.67
0.00
Product 2
293
97.67
5.00
0.67
0.00
0.33
Product 3
201
67.00
15
1.33
49 16.33
1.66
Product 4
214
71.33
9.00
30 10.00
4
1.33
% Freq.
35 11.67
44 14.67
75
25.00
Rarely
150
50.00
Never
62
20.67
N.R.
1.66
300
100.00
Total
Frequency
1 3 months ago
63
21.00
3 6 months ago
22
7.33
118
39.33
Never
88
28.67
N.R.
11
3.67
Total
300
100.00
235
Frequency
77
25.67
TV
88
29.33
Both
48
16.00
N.R.
87
29.00
Total
300
100.00
104
34.67
No
196
65.33
Total
300 100.00
Frequency %
Ads
41 13.67
Experience
37 12.33
Price
2.67
N.R.
18
6.00
Total
104 34.67
236
MODULE 9
(MARKETING
RESEARCH REPORTS)
237
Title page: should identify the topic, for which the report is prepared, the date of the report and
the researcher / s.
Executive Summary: is the most important part of the research report. The objectives, findings,
conclusions and recommendations must be presented in brief. Most of the executives go through
only this part of the report and if required will go into details.
Table of Contents: should contain page numbers of major sections and sub-divisions within the
sections and a list of all appendixes. If numerous tables or charts are used, they should also be
listed on a separate page immediately following the table of contents.
238
The
methodology used to meet the objectives of the research project, technical details should be
minimized. Where necessary such details should be placed in appendixes. The limitations of the
study should also be pointed out.
Findings: are answers to research objectives. The major portion of the report should be devoted
to the findings which should be organized around the objectives of the study. The findings
should not consist of an endless series of statistical tables.
meaningful terms, what the research found. Summary tables and visual aids (charts, graphs
etc...) should be used to clarify the discussion. Detailed findings are presented in appendixes.
Recommendations: this section should make one or more specific recommendations on each
aspect of the management problem the research was designed to assist in solving.
These
239
240
CASES
241
242