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    ONE FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY 1.1 FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS Real Number Inequalities Intervals Absolute Value Sign, Step Funetion ‘Triangle Inequality Graphing 1.1.1 Definition 1.1.2 Definition Greatest Integer can be expressed as a decimal. A rational number is a repeating or terminating decimal. @<6 (is less than 6) if b—a is positive; a> b (ais greater than b) if a—b is positive @ bifa>bora=b. (a8) ={zlaa} (~00,8] (20, +00) = tal= (2, fez ple bl= {gre —lifz<0 sne=fo ite=0-v@)={? 1 ife>0 la+d| D: (—00, +00) Ds (—00, +00) > D: (—00, +00) R: (00, +00) R: [0,+00) R: (—00,5] Y y 8 5 | Seep tet “4 «| = 12. 14. G(z) = 27 42 1p > D: : (—00, +20) [2,+20) » » 3 5 4 5 “ ee CCAS err 2 4 “| “4 4 “6 4 4 1. 19. ea 21. g(x) = V9-27 > D: 2-120, > 20, > D:9-2730 [1, +00) ( ]U [2, +00) [-3,3] R: [0, +00) R: [0,+00) R: [0,3] y ty y 3 3 3 6 6 6 4 4 2 e Z z z Saaz pe 4 6 SET ES an 4 “| zg + a 4 4 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY 18. F(z) = /9—z 20. o(z) = V4 - 2" 22. f(x) = V2? =1 > D:9-2>0 > D:4-27>0 > Di2?-130 (-20,9] (-2,2] (ee, -1]U[1, +00) R: [0, +00) R: (0,2] R: [0, +00) wy 8 2 6 ‘ ——_4 2] SSS a PT Tes 364 68 “4 “6 4 25. F(z) =|32-+2| > D: (—00,+00) >. D: (00, +00) R: [0, +00) R: [0, +00) 3 sf 5 ‘ 4 2 z : SORES CE Sapa a ee a “4 «i 6 3 4 24. H(z) =|5—2! > D: (co, +00) R: (0,+00) SST Tes Ll FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS 5 ifz<-2 3 z if2<3r<2 mw po={ee? ect ifo ee > D: (~00,+00) > f(2)=3242 2. Diz f#-2,3 R: {-4,-1,3} D: (-00, +00), Rey #5 - | & 4 4 BPh 4 2f. z £ SRE Pere — “4 “ 24 itz #3 its 7 itzs-2 siraa(y) tt on oe ig? rues > D: (~00, 400) > D: (00,400) R: (20,1) U1, +00) R: (09, 3] U (00,6) = (20, +20) =00,8) : | q ; 4 al z E z SER TS SOS s | W E * = fe <0 9-2? ifzZ-3 P-4 if2<3 36. a@={2 ifz=-3 * FE) {e-4 if3 D: (~00,-+00), Ri (~00,9] > Di (~00, +00) ) Note: G(3)=0 R: [-4, +90) U[5, +00) (00, -2]U (1, +00) =[-4,+00) , by s d s 6 4 +f 4| 4 2 2 x 3 Z SSSR ET ECT SSG2 PI es AAARER EES 2 4 4 ~ 4 a 6 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY mth ife<-5 A. Wo= (ew if -z ifi D: (20,408) R: (integers) D: £2, R: [0,400) Note: F(-2) =4 | ol Fi 7 Seas ee “ \ “i 2 ifr<-4 a Visa if 4c 2<4 M4. G(2) = 238 zoo = if4se e+ > D: (—00,-+00) = Sy <2 Rz (~00,-2]U (0,4) U(—00,-2] Di 2 4-3, R: [0, +00) = (00, -2]U (0,4) Note: G(3) = 9 sal ee satbelns 4 | 4 4. Me) wwe (oe)-1 (@ue)—ve-1) ifz<0 > aft fs ={t | =f! =f tess 1 ifz>0 1 if2>1 0 ife>0 i) eet 2 iE Z| x Zi = a z= 4 J 4 3 Zi | 2 3 1.1 FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS 7 48. (2) 2Ufz) (b) (2 +1)U(e+1) (6) @+DU(e+ 1)—2U(z) fe<-t eof) ita<0 (0 ifz<-1 {i Pee | ‘ sf 6 4 ri 4 4 4 5 _ 2 . op ae. eat eee ereprr et “4 4 + * “| “| “ 4 4 49. (a) sgn 2 (b) zsgn 2 (c) 2-2 sgn z (4) 2—2sgn 2 iE ifz<0 (—z ife<0 if (z+2 ifz<0 > =40 ifr=0 =\0 ifz=0 =tt ee -{ itz—0 1 250 itz >0 = ifz>0 =lz! 4 2 PeCe SALE? SCT 4 “| “ 50. (a) sgn(2+1) (>) sgn(z~1) (6) sgn(z+1)—sen(z- 1) 1 ife<-1 1 ifz<1 ife<-lorz>1 wef eta =f ee fT Hecalersct 1 ifz>-1 i ifz>1 2 if-1 Using the point-slope formula for each segment give ‘ 2-242) f-2<2S-1 22-2 if-2<2 Katee) Helces0 yet oles so 91-12 ifo Using the pointslope formula for each segment give J 042(242) -2s2 M44 if -2 fy =e, fg=-tor fH lel fy =e! 54. Define the graph of the letter Z as the union of f,, fa, fy > Use relational operators to get segments, rather than lines. In Exercises 55-58, define the function piecewise and sketch the graph. m1 ifz<-1 -l-fiz if-l1 3] 3 6 2 z z z S64Db 2468 S64Tb 24 ee S442 P IEE “4 4] -4| | “ +6 =| + 5 Exercise 56 Exercise 57 Exercise 58 =43z-27 ifo3 In Exercises 59 and 60, sketch the graph of the function and determine its domain and range. Check by plotting. kL 59. h{z) =2—[s]. D: (—c0,-+00} R: [01) Exercise 59 Exercise 60 60. F(z) =2+ [Zz]. D: (—00, +00); R: [2k, 2k + 1), where & is any f: —8e ifr<0 Jeger. 61, Define two other functions whose graphs resemble two different letters of the alphabet. > U: f(2)=1-V1-24, V: fe) Sle! 1.2 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS 1.2.1 Definition Given the two functions f and g: (j) their sum, denoted by f +g, is the function defined by (F4+.0(2) = (2) + of2) their difference, denoted by f — 9, is the function defined by (f -9)(2) = F(z) - (2) (iii) their product, denoted by fg, is the function defined by (F-9\(z) = F(2)- 92) (iv) their quotient, denoted by f/g, is the function defined by (F/ az) = f(2)/a(2) In each case the domain of the resulting function consists of those values of z common to the domains of f and 9, with the additional requirement in case (iv) that the values of 2 for which g(z) <0 are excluded, 1.2 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS 9 1.2.2 Definition Given two functions f and g, the composite function, denoted by f 99 and read f of gy is defined by (fog)(2) = f(gl2)) and the domain of fog is the set of all nurnbers + in the domain of g each that g(z} is in the domain of f- ‘The composition of functions is associative, that ia (fog) 24 = So(goh). Definition (i) A function is said to be an even function if for every = in the domain of #, F(—=)= f(z), (ii) A funetion is said to be an odd funetion if for every + in the domain of f, f(—*) = —f(x). das both parts (i) and (i) it is understood that —z is it the domain of f whenever 2 is: “Even powers of x are evem functions; odd powers and odd roots of rare odd functions ‘Combinations ¢ven + even = even, odd + odd = odd, even x even = even, odd x odd = even, even x odd = ‘Geenfeven = even, odd/odd = even, even odd = odd, odd even = odd, See Exercise 32. odd ives 1.2 Brercises 1-10, define the following functions and determine their domain D: fa) f+9 (b) F—a fe) 9 (A) S/o Ce) oft ‘> We adopt the common practice of omitting *(2]". Values not in the implicit damain are bolded. f=r-5, 71 (a) ft gaa? +26, D: (—o9,e0) (b) fg = 2? +2—4, D: (—o000) be) f-g= Yet 1) = Fe 2 +5, DF (8) fla = aH, Dew #31) off = Faye Des 2 fa Je pat 41@) foga Vere +1 Di [0,+08) (b) 9 = 22? =1, D: (0,400) ke) fog = ale? +1), Ds [0 408) (€) ffs “4 Ds [0 +00) (2) ot =, 1D: (0, +26) 42e=1 Seay eo biega1@fe=ttpd= tb Dee 01 220,1(09 sith ebecha got Deeg a101 faeg=4-2? (a) ftg= vette D: [0, +22) (b) f—g = E427, D: [0, +09) {e) F- = /@(4—22), D: [0, +20) (d) t= De [0,2)U (2.406) (@) a/f “ Ds (0,400) fave 21 (a) f eg = e422 — 1, Di (0)-+00) (b) fag = WEF? +1, D: [Os +00) fe) f-7 = V2(2" —1), B: (0, +99) (a) Wn B: [0,1) U(L, +09) (6) a6 = 253. b: (0,420) (00,00) fle) g=le—31 (2) fg =l2l+l2—3l Di (20,400) (b) fog =le|—lz— 3), D: (-08, +90) (2 Feamlele— 8h D: (ote) te) fa = p25, FS Le oT = Tae Dao fa st41, p= 32-2 (a) fg = 2743-1, Ds (—00, 400) (b) J—g = 2) — de +8, Dt (00, +00) fe) fg = (22+ Ge 2) = 328-22? + 82-2, De (cert) fin= Eth De 93 oat f= D: (20,460) b fa vera p= 22-4 (a) ft a= yeti te 4, Di [4 +e) (b) f-g= Verd-w 44, = 1: [4,21 (=2,2) U2, toe) 10 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY depo? Leet ol e248 etd 2 ® fagpp sete) ftesgeproate-a esl FH so Diz¢-L2 ala phi =¥ O-e=shp beet bette} orn “erties Dist “415 yes za 2 Det -1,0,2 @oll=siateem eee . 10. f= 2. 9 =n (a) fee (ot oe In Brerives L1-L4y compute (fe g}() by two methods: (0) Pind fe) Set (}) Find (0a) Ke i. fla) = 308 — Az, gle) = 2-5 = 4 & (a) (a) = 26-9 =3, JO) =15 ‘pe 5)? — {22 3) = Alte” — 2x + Bh) — Be +20 = 122" —08r + 95 De (0, 420) (b) f= D:(0,-400) V2, (0, +50) (a) F a 2/2, Di: (0) +00) ‘f= dee 12 f(e) = Ve —6, g(x) = 2" - 32, = b (a) ofS) =5?—-5 = 10, (20) = Vi0" = 36 = 5 () fale) VET, Juen= (errs ies > (ay aQ)= i= a) wa h@=5 8) fale) =z erst aye ua. fiz)= 1 sz) = w f a plea a BETS: Hol-2)) = ap pg HBF HAD) + = SVE = In Baercises 15-24, find (a) Fog (0) gef (©) Fos (A) 909 and give their domains D. Wi fee) ne gle) #47 fb) o( F(z) = (2-247 = (9) a(g(z)) = 16 fiz) = 3-2, oz! (a) fg{2)) = 3— 26-32) = Be | ne, 400) (b} al f(z)) = 6 = 3(3 - 22) = 62 ~ 3, Ds (~29, 420), te) JU (= d— 28 - 22) ae Pee) atgle)) = 6-H6 —2) = Bx — 12, D: (oy -r00) 1. fle) =r—5, g(2)= 27-1 & (@) faz) = (7-5 =? (20, +20) fe) este 5)? 1 = a — 102 4.24, Dr (~00, 420) © He =10, Ds (20) 448) (@) (a(z))=(2?-1) - 2x7, D: (00, boo) 18, f(a) = oF » (e) hie EFI, Ds (28,420) (b) af(2)) = (v2) +2 = 2+ 1, Di [0,+e0) fe) srl) = foe = Y2, Ds (0.400) (a) poly) = (2? +1) + 1 at + 2a? +2, D: (2,490) 19. f(z)=¥F—2%, oleae? -2 P(e) f(a(2)) = ylz*—2)-2 = va" —4, D: (0, #00) (b) of f(z) = (2-27 -2 = 2-2-2 = 2-4, [2,408) (© fle) = fen 2H 2 Di a—224, (6400) @) pale =@P=2 = B= +42? +2, D: (2a 428) 1.2 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS Lt 2, fle) 22-1, oz) =F aiken a) ae=(-1= 2 (6) (Ue) = F-18254, De (00,400) Ud) afl) = =F pe i aq bs eee (h) 9(s(a)) = apap Dee # St L Dine an fley=ha(z)= v2 : © (a) Fale) = de Ds (0,490) tb) ata) = Y= +p Ds (0,425) idea rp=s Db ae0 (0) alot) = Ve = YE 2:0, 420) m2. fe)= VE olt)= & (a) fate) = yf & De: (-00.0) (b) af (=) = (e) Fle) = Va = YE: D: [0.4208 2) ofa(e) = BB. f(z) siah g(z)=l2+2| & (a) figiz)) =||e+2!]=le +2) De (-29, #20) (b) gf f(2)) = [le 2| = 12142, De (—20, +00) (6) AUCe)) =Well= 124 Ds (98.400) (4) a(ote)) [24 2/42) =]=4 214 2, Ds (20,400) 2, f(r) = VET, af G1 & (0) fate) = Venta = VenTHT = VEE, B40) (by afc) = vet 1-1, V1 A, (28, VM UL V9, 400} © 1G) = feat ave = V8 (@) ofgtz)) = Ve= 1-1, Ds x= 1 > 1 [2 +98) a5. f(a) =e la) He = VE lek D: Hotes) 0) LP = [Zt = 2, Ds [0 +00) SIU v2.40) (9 sla) = V2 = VD: 1,4) (2) HE(-2)) = Y=, De (00,0) 2. fel=z hy) fe) = ph eee At (b) Le) = yop Be A @sve)=— Lezeesl mie yor (@) s(-2) =) pd T-T(t==) e In Erereises 27-98, express the function as f(g(#)) in two ways. p> Bxpress the function using of twice; break at the first or the serandd. mf square coot of the difference of feign st—dor faVa-4§, 8. (9-27)? =2 power of the sum of --- fax g= 94s or f= (0+ vs. (5) bP pomec of the reciprocal ofa faa, phy or f=(E) 9= 22 30. 0 BeOS et de cual 41. ={° Lite cn 2 edd (even Fedd} 42, alel= tteen (odd ) 0 either a(-2) —(e-)+(e42)=4 tc 2 4 evalcietate [leo eoa) ~2r if -2 << 2 is odd (2-2)—(242)=-4 ifa> 2fe ife<-1 =(e4+1)4 (2-1 4, Been fie" ee ite [-1,0)U(0)1] ixeven (2+ 1) —(—1)p. ite>1 le 45, fog gg f. See Exercises 16-24, (a) versus (b). In Hrercises 46-50, show that f and g are inverse functions by showing that /(g(z)) = 2 and g(f(x)) = 2. 4B. f= 22-3, 9 = Mr +3). fog = Kr +3) -3 = (x 4+8)-3=2, of =H(22-3) +2) = }22) 1 ied z - =W(e+l) r+ teeta Hfeg pen es fee a eat Sloe =e ee W. for cz0ig= Vz fog=(ya)=2, gfe 49. fore c0,9=—y% foo=(-\SP =, 90 f = Ve =-(-2)=2 80. f= (2-1), 9=14 9%. fog = [+ Y2)— IP = (8e =s, go fais el) = 140-1 =2 SL. Find formulas for sgn(U(z)) and U(sgn(z}) and sketch their graph. 0 fed if Ulz}< 5 never > vencuy={o ifUG)= = treo betes 1 if Ulr) =1 SI ifz>0 vomtn={ PR TEfa{} 220) ‘ $2. If f and g are odd functions, prove that f+ and f —g are add and f-g and fq are even. aI > f(-r) = =F), o(~2) = a(2). q d(-a) +9{-#, {-2) - of-2) =—S(e) (F 9N-2) = S-as(-2) = [-Fe)-af Gfa)mz) = F(-2)fol—s) = -402)/-a12) 5%. If fio any function and y ix eves, F(G{—H)) = Skala) s0 0 9 is even, WJ and g are both odd, F(al=2)) = J(—(ala)) =—fa(z)) wo fog is odd. If f is even and g is odd, f(a(—=)) = f{—a(2)) = f(a(2)) 20 fog is even SA. Pind formulas for (f o.9)(2). Sketch the graphs of f, 7, and f og. Uf +92) 9-2) a iO rate) SKS fe ase ’ : : asap tt 3 1.2 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS 13 155. Hind formulas for (go f){-2) and sketch its graph. 0 if fi2)=0 0 ifel > 9ff(2)) {ine it0< fla)sl -f iozr0} = (4,420) but dom G = (—20,—1]U (4, +00), 1.3 FUNCTIONS AS MATHEMATICAL MODELS: Variables should be described asing units: 2 feet is the length. vis Proportional to z Directly: y = kx. Inversely: y = kz. Jointly proportional to x and ‘Extremum of ar? + be + occurs when * = —b/2e; this can be obtained by completing the square. Maximum Product of a set of positive numbers of constant. sam is when factors are equal. See Ex, 28 ‘Minimum Sum ofa set of positive numbers of eoustant product is when terma are equal. See Ex. 22. Exercises 1.3 In each exercise, obtain a function as a mathematical model of the situation. Be sure to write a conclusion, ‘L.A payroll of p dollars is directly proportional to the number w of workers, and a crew of 12 workers enms $810. (a) Find p(w). (b} What is the payroll for a crew of 15 workers? b p= kw. 810 =K(12), £ = 67.5 (a) pw) = 67.54 (b) p15} = GT-5- 15 = 1012.50 2. A person's brain weight 6 Ib is directly proportional to his body weight w Ib, and a person weighing 160 Ib has a 4 Ib broin (a) b(w). (b} Pind tke brain. weight of » 176 Ib person be b= kus d= A{L50), b= oe (a) (te) = Sw (b) 6176) = e176 = 4.69 3. The period p se of a pendulum i directly proportional to the square root of the mumber 2 of feet in ils length, and au 8 ft pendulum has a 2 see period. (a) Find p(s). (b) Find the period of a ft pendulum. p pakye 2=kV8, V2 (8) plz} = /2F2 (b) nl2) = V1 = 1. The period is 1 sec, 4. The frequency {per see of @ vibration is directly proportional to the square root of the tension ¢ hig, and is 64 /sce. when the tension is 24 kg. (a) Find {(1). (b) Find the frequency under e Lensian of 6 ky, p fa kyi, 864 = by 24 = ine, = Tab (a) f(t) = 12/61 (b) F(6) = 72-6 = 182 te Oe £50 Ir £50 <2 < 200. (50) =2.2%50 052 if > 200 ($1) = 2.1 x51 = 107.10, C52) = 2.1 w 52 = 109.20, C(68) = 21 x53 = 111.90, C(200) = 2.1 x 200 = 420 (202) = 2.05% 202 = 414.10), C204) = 2.05 x 204 = 418.20, C(208) = 2.05 x 206 = 422.90 5. C(2) dollars ie the cost of shipping 2 tb. Cla 110, y(z) cents is the cost of mailing ounces. y = 9— 23-2]. y(1.6) 9 —23(—2) = 55 yl) =9 9 23(—3) = 78 yao = 28(-11) = 262 1030 30 40 50 60 10 3 100 1 tO TT aa 4a es poll Exercise 5 Exercise 6 Exercise 7 Exercise 8 7. x(a) cents is the cost of an = minute call. vz) = 10—30[—z]. w(0.5) = 10 — 30[—0.5] = 10 —30(—1) = 40 1 30[-2] = 10 — 30-2) wW25) = 10 — 30[-2.5] = 10 — $0(—3) = 100 10— 30[-3] = 10 ~ 30-2) (35) = 10 — 80f-8.5] = 10 —80(—4) = 10— 30-5] = 10 — 30-3) 8, The adult admission price is $7, while the price for cildeen under 12 years is $4 and the price for seniore at least 60 yers ie $5. (a) Find « model of price as a function of age. (b) Sketch the graph of your function in (a). 4 if0 0, S=60/r 4 60/r + xr? (product = 3600n) is minimum when 60/r = x72, r? =60/x, 7 22.67 in 23. A. page with margins of 1.5 in. at the top asd Dottons sod 1 in. a the sides is to contain 24 in? of print. (a) Find the total area of the page, A(z} in?, when the width of the printed region is = in. (b) What is the domain D af A? (e) Approximaue to thy pesrest hundredth of gr inch the size ofthe smallest page. > (a) The length of the printed region is £8 in, A(z) =(z +2y(24+ 3) =30 + (32 +25) (preduct = 144) (b) De 5-0 (C) Aji = 54 when Bz = 48, 2 a4, 2 +25 442=5, 249024) 30, The smallest page is 6 in, wide and 9 in. Tong. AL A lot with walkways 22 fe ide at the frowt and hack and 15 ft nt the sides is to contain a 13,200 7 building. {2) Find the total area of the lot, A(z) 2, when the width of the front és = ft. (b) What is the domain D of ‘Af (c) Approximate to the nearest hundredth of a foot Uhe size ofthe smallest lot » do) The length of the building is “2° n, A(z) = (2 + 90y(49200 + 44) — 14520 + (442 + 996000/) (0) Di = >0 (e) Because the product ofthe variable term Ie 742,00, te smalls ot has area 2,868.4 62 sehen 442 = 396,000/2, 2 = /9000 = 94.57. The field is 124.87 ft by 189.24 fL 25, A box of tength 2 Gn. with square croc wetion has 100 in. as the um of its length and girth, (a) Find the ‘Yolume ¥ in® as a function of 2. (b) What is the domain D of V7 (c) Approximate to the nearest inch the dimensions of the largest box. (a) The width of the box is (100 — 2) in. V= (b) D: 20 < 2 < 100 (length > width) (¢) V, "The largest box is about 33 by 17 by 17 in. YA. The growth cae J bctri/in of m colony in jointly proportions! 40 the narber = af bacteria ged the number 1,000,000 —2 of capacity. f(z) = (1,000,000 — 2), f(1000) = 60 = 10008 999,000, & = za Saas satan: J= #(1.000,000—2)/16,650,000, 0-< x < 1,000,000. (£00,000) = 108,000 -90,000/16,658,000 5405 bacteria/min. f(z)= 540,000, 21. The growth rate f infected/day of an epidemic number 5,000—z of capacity. f(z) = ha(,000 ~ 2), $(100) ‘92(5,000 — 2)/490,000, 0 < 2 < 5,000. f(200) = 9 200 »4800/190,000 r 17.6 = 18 people/day. (m2? +5,0002) is maximum when 50 /—2 = 2500. 26. ‘The base of a pyramidal tent is 22 m square and a triangular side has height 2.5—z m. The height h of the tent satisfies A? +2? = (2.5—2)%, & via 25— 55. The volume is ¥ = 3 6.25 —S2, 0< 2 < 1.35. Vv(0.8) = 12-08) (2a BOB =} 16/208 = 1.28 m®, v8 = Bell — de) = Je yhe (elle yl — Je) Because the eum of the variable factors is 1, V is maximum whe nf, 2=1 100 — 2)? = -210100 ~ 2}(100 ~ 2) (sum = 200) GP)? 0250 when 100—2 = 22, 2 = MO. (2? +1,000,000x) is maximum when x = —1,000,000/— jelntly proportional to the number z of infected and the ‘INoke- 4900, # = 9/190,000. 16 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY 14 GRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS “Phe formal definition of limit is given in the next sect 1.4.1 Definition Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval containing a, ‘exept possibly at the number a itself. The dimit of ffs} ex x approaches o is L, written as fin He) = if the following statement is trxe: Given any ¢ > 0, however small, there exists a > 0 such that iO From the figure, 6 =.1 ; 2. f(z) =2=82, 05-1, L=5, = 08. > From the figure, 5 TS oh 3 and 25. f(z) i Bercise 1 e 2, -1=3-0.03, 2, =4 = 0.03. &,—1= 8 40.03, 22-4 = 0.03, Choose § = 0.03, |P(2)—1|=|(2—1) —3|=12— 41-26 when [2a] <1 = 0.03 = 5. 4 and 26. f(z) =242,0=3,L=5,¢=0.02 Bo 2y$2=5-002, 2-35 0.02. r.+2=5 +002, x; — $= 0.02. Choose 6 = 0.02. [f@)-1 pepe tele-ise 9.02 =¢ 5. fe)= & Intde Tand 27. f(z) = 52-3, 0 Sz, )~1= 001 5a = |(2—8)—2]=lde—S]=ae— 1) ce whenle-1/5 ke = Band 28. f(x) = 42 ~5, 0 =2, b= 3, ¢= 0.001 sé > da 5 = 3.001, 42 001, 2 —2 = =00028. 42,5 = 34.001, dz = 8=.001, 2) =2 = 0007: |@=—5)-3|=]4a—8]= 4x21 << when |z-21< = 0.00025 =F 9% f(z) =9—4,a=-1, L=7, += 0.02. f is decreasing, Bade = 74.02, 4 42, = 02, 2, 41 = 005. 9-4, = T= 02, —4 Ae, = —09, 2541 =.005. 6 = 005 10. s(2)=2452, a= 2, Lb =-8, > 2482,=-8— 00252, +10= 002.2; +2 = —0004. 2+ S2y=—8 +.002,52y +10 = 002.2, +2=.00t =é 14 GRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 17 2, b=—4e= 001, & fe)=2-2ife #2 =Olony P= 84.01, 2-2 = 44.01, 2) +42 = 01 nL. He)= 24 a= & 2,-2=-4-01, 2,-2= 4-01, 4,42 12 soya 42} a=} L=2,e=0m > f(e)= S241 ite x} 32,41 = 2-01, 32, — 01) zy p= gpg Bg +1 2401, 3zy—-1= 01, yeah 6 1B and 29. f(z) =A MES gL a4 20080 fe) =2e—3ife et 22-3 = 94.03, 2x, 41 = =.08, 2p t= O15. 2s, 3S = A+ 03, Ae, 41 = 08, 2 $= 05. 6 = 15 +g | From the figure, # = min(2— /7/2, 972-2) = min(0.126,0.121) = 0.121 Bote Fok noalineat J, the Values of-d obtained Geom tnetualilies are tually’ sinaller ‘than those obtained directly. The factoring is really done first to determine what ‘bounds we need, Aand 31. f(z) =s7, o=3,L=9.¢=0.5 & OF 0 hay, ty > 0 27 = 9-05 = 8.5, a = 85 = 2915, 2-2, = 085, 2,° = 9-405 = 0.5, 25 = y/0 = 1.082, 2, 3 = 082. 8 = 082 Gl. Choose 6< 180 -1¢4-3-<¢1, S243 <7. Then le? —9l=[e43lle-3l 2 a) 44a, $4 = 1-08, (2) + To4.08, (2, +2)? = 1.08, 0) 42 = 108. |*44r4aiale4aliatiicaie+il Fits Ch fle decreasing 3z,2Ta, 2,5 (7— VP 4-3-3776 = 809, 1-2, = 191. Because Fa) 2 #Q)> (74+ W748 8.7)/6 = 1.524, a1 5.5%. 8 ‘36. Choose 6 <1 s0 -1<2-1<1 —8<32-3<3,-4<3r-4<2, [(a=?-72 +2) - 23] |e? = 7r44|=|32—4l2—il@. Substitution Li ‘Theorems 1-10 imply that the limit as z approaches a of any formula (that is, excluding functions defined in pieces) can be found by substitution, if substitution is ‘meaningful Fractions Note that we cannot use Limit Theorem 9 to find the limit of a fraction if the limit of the denomiaxtor is xer0. However, when the limit of both the numerator and denominator i aero at =a we may be able to apply one of the following methods: (i) If the oumerator and deneminater are both polynomials, we apply the factor theorem which states that if x =a is a zero of « polynomial, then #—a is & faster. ‘The commen factor z—a may then be canceled, This is illustrated im Exercise 32. (ii) If the denominator is polynomial and a term of the uuimerator is a radical, we may multiply by its conjugate, which is noi zero al a, and apply method {i} to the product, This is shown in Exercises 20 and 32. Ino doing, we use the following theorem, a consequence of Definition 1.6.1. ‘Thoorem A if im yz) =E and f(x) = g(x) for all = #0, then lim f(z) ‘We cannot use Limit Theorems 1-10 to find the limit, of.a fraction for which the limit of the denominator is zero and for which the limit of the numerator is not zeta, In Section 1.7 we have-a theorem for finding the limit of such a fraction. Buorcises 1.5, 3 ‘We wich to determine a § > 0 such that ifd 0, any choice of 6 > 0 will suffice; in particular take ¢ ‘Wee wish to determine a 6 > 0 such that i€0 0, any ekoiee of 6 > 0 will suffice; in particular take & = ¢. We wish to determine a 6 > 0 such. that O<|e—4| de—4l< athe) = |2r41)-9] <0 ‘We wish te deterr aé>0 such that iO<|x—L|<& then |(42+3}-7|<¢ e@0<|z-1l<6 then de-il lz—11< 4(de) = |(42 +3) -7[ <6. 20. FUNCTIONS, LIMIES, AND CONTINUITY b We wish to determine a 6> 0 such that if 0 Fr44|c2(p) > |(2r+7)-1] cn T. We wish to determing 4 4 > 0 such thi Oe |e 42/8 then [(1+32)- e@itdcle+2/<6 then drt2icc @itO<|e+2|<é then |rt2}che Heuce, take $= fe; then O-<|2+2|< 6+ Slz-+2| < ae) = |(1+32)—(-8)|<6 Ve wish vo determine a4 > 0 such that ifo 242] < 80 >| +82)-(-3)| 0 such that jet—1 ce ito<|etifes then ES P—-2) Si 0<]e41/<8 then |e t1l0<[rtll 10. We wish to determine a é> 0 such that 2 W0 there is a 8 > 0 such that | f(z) —L| 0 there is a > 0 such that |[f(z) —L]—O|<¢ when 0 0 there isa 6 > 0 such that | f(z) —Ti|0 there is a 6> 0 such that | f(t-+a)—L]and m is a positive integer, or a< Qand m is an odd positive integer, lim YE = lima 9 15.16 Theorem If lim f(z) =, and kim f(z) = by then Ly = bye =f ein oo Supplementory Beercises £5 & ‘The key to ashort solution is to factor in the second line before completing the first fine. 1. lime" Jim & Choose é<¢lso-l Choose << leo-lery3el —Te2-ge-t Then |2?-9|=|2-3| 243) <]2+3) Choose 65 1x0 <1 cr=2cl > ~6< 62-12 <6 5 < 62-117. ‘Then [6z?~ 132+ 5~3|=[6r—1 [2-2] < 1'x—2[ <¢ when |2—2| < he. #= min(, he), & lim(42*— 1324 12) =3 b Choose §< Leo -l¢r-l eb —tede—4 ed 9 cdr) ‘Phen | 42? —192+12— 4] |4e— 9-1) <2 1] ce whew [2-1] < fe. F = min( Life). We wish to prove by mathematical induction that if im fylez) = Ly) lim fy(2) =Ly...and then Jin [f,(2) + Ja(2) £0004 Jq(2)] = by £1g teeth ® Proof: By LT.4, lim [f,(2)+42(2)] =14 Lp Therefore, Equation (1) holds when n= 2. Assume Equation (1) holds when m= ky that is Jim [f() # L@) 2-0 fal] = by th Salt) = ely 2 26 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND COMEMSUTEY, 12. 13, Ma 15. We wish to prove that Equation (1) tlds when n=l, From. be Jim {fa (#) Fafa) +--+ Su Fegal bt From Equation (2) and because by hypothesis lim /,.4,(2) = ly, the right-hand side of the above equation is (Ly Bly +e 1) £1 yg. Therefore, Equation (1) holds fora =k + |, and henee for overy integer n. + We are given lim f(s) = Land Jimo(s) = 0. Tn onder to prove thar lim [/(z}-9(2)] =0 we must show that, for any © 0 there exists a 6 > 0 such that if 0 <|z—al<é then |f(z)-9(z)|<° (a) Because Jim f(z) = L it follows trom Definition 2.1.1 that there is 6, > such that if0 0 such that if 0 <1 —al <4 then | f(z) |-<1 +1] Because Jim g(x) =0 it follows from Definition 2.1.1 that there is a 4, > 0 such that 0 Jim{ f(z) -L}= Oand dim [atz) ~M]= 0. Hence iF) =e) = Hn (Le) ~ Dla) fae) — MY + a “Elim (L7t2)— Late) + fim {ate} — MI} + 5 We are given Ii MPS o20+LM We wish to prove by mathematical induction that if Him f(x) = Ly, lim f(x) = bey When irr, £4462) - fal) eg E)) = llega a Proof: By £.T.6, lim [f,(2)- #{2]] = Ly» Ly- Therefore, Bquation (1) holds when n Assume Equation (1) holds when ‘bat is Him (fy (2)- fale)---> Fete) = by bao ty @ ‘We wish to prove that Equation (1) holds when u=k-+1. Fe ‘Mi (UF Ce) Fyfe dev Lg) Sygate) = Bem Ute) falz) ): diem, Fega (2)P From Equation (2) and because by hypothesis lim f,.,9(2) = bg.) the right-hand side of the above equation is (Ly “Lop Ly) “iggy. Therefore, Equation (1) holds for n= +1, and hence for every integer o. ga = for any ¢ > O there is a 6 > 0 such that :, We get the equivalent conclusion Suppose a <0 and so —a>0, By what was proved, lg Suppose @< 0 so ~a > 0, By what was proved, lin ye = Ye => for any ¢ > O there is ad > O such that | $= Wa] () and oneysided limits, discussed in the next. seeti ewan Oc fy—(-a) [ea Replacing g by ce 1] 0, however small, there exists a é > @ such that if0 0, however small, there exists a é > @ such that if0 (@) lim, fie)= im, (-3) =-3 (6) tim (2) ® (©) lim F{e) does not exist because Tim ffx) # tim, fz). = a a0 ase={z? BTS) > (a) lim fle)= lim 2=2 (b) im (2) = ie (6) lig fe) dows not exist because Tim f(e) # lim, £12). 2 t+4 tts 3 no={itt if—4 —2 then li (b) Because gfs) = 643 if ¢<=2, then (e) Because lim, s(s) # Him ale), by Theorem 1.6.9 lim, 2(8) does not exis eae ee ee i 8—2r fe <2 PEST { tee © (a) im, P(e) = tim, (8-2) =4 () lm Fle} = lim a? =4 (2) Him, P(e) = 4 by Theveem 168. Qe 4d =z 6. we=[ ist > (a) lim, A(z) = lim, (10-2)=10-3=7 aa eat (b) ling. A(z) = Ning (28 + 1)—2(8) +1 = 7 (6) fim Fla) = 7 by Theorem 1.6.3. arte ifr 0 1 ite S(z] wensi=[o ifz=0 1 ite>0 (6) Because agn x =1 if x >0, then Jaga 2|= 1 if'2>0, and lim 82) =e, jogo |= Him aot root (oy Boe sgn aS (e) Because lim, S{x) = lim S(z 1 se) , > O) | () — © Ji (a) dose nat ta becouse lim _ fr) # tim , #(2) af Nee (2) i Je) = tim VE =e =o te) 1 lim, 2) = “i, 2) a © i 1 J (=) docs nok exist because is Ree ie Fiz). ~ etl ife<-l We fe)={2?— if-1ce<1 <2 ifz>1 y * (a) (e+ I=-1+1=0 * oo nats (-iPa2 (©) “tim " £(2) does not exit because tim _ f(a) | lim, fle). = S(2)= lime? = 1 = 1 (e) iim, He) = clit Set) =2- i (0 Lim fhe) = 1 by Tiki a 1. F(t) {3 Hee vt ifose > fa) is, 10) = ji, vi=o (6) Him J(2)= 0 by Theotem 1.6.3 4 Yor itso male voce : » (ite =lim Ye=0 4 2 (b) tim o(2) = tim {/—e =0 Sea teas —S tim_g(2) =, them by Theorem 1.6.3 ln, oe) =O. a (e) Because fm, 92 16 ONE-SIDED LIMITS 31 © (8) lim Ple)= tim ) “im Pes “im, vo (©) tim, ie) = 009 Teocem 1.63 = VFI weg G)=\Vi—F t-ia ifez0 “1-O=-1 ifr0 (@) Ma) = 0 > 0, ana lim, Ma) = 0. (6) Me) = 1 if 2< 0, and lim Ae) te) peaee xi n dz) # lim" Ke), ‘then ling: h(a) dows not exist, fim, [=1=2 () tim, [T= gia does not est cause Lim ble! la, [el lim fa} = [14] =1 (®) Jim [2-3] =[1-]=0 Ie fa ss tsi ata tims fe] # tien, [eh mt =f aaah lnk ife4—(n s0 G(e) =n +(3—n) =3. (2) Jip, Glo) = tims (ch Because tn, (2) = fim Gla) = 8, by Theorem 1.6.5 lim, (=) Sr+k ifise Jim f(x) exists E{z) exists 10) va ftt fred od only free) lim, eh im Ne) = Nim (82-42) = ~ ‘Therefore im (exist if and only if 20-4 = 14; bent Kaj= wens ifze-t Pek ifr>-1 lim, £2) exists Wand only if lim fle)= lim, #(=). li fe) = tim _ fe-9Sc3 Therefore lim Fe) existe Hf and only if #3 = 14 oe) = Jim, (62 +H) = 20+ tim , (@? +h) = 14k at itr<-2 He)shor+b W-2 such that |f(2)-L| << whea 0 <12—al<é 4 For every ¢ 20 there ir a 6, > 0 such the |He)—L) ce when Oc r—a<5 and there isn 6:50 such that | f(z) —L| 200 > (8) lim fe) = tim 2.27 = 2.2-21 (b) ae 21-50 = 108 fe), Bin fla) =, lim 2-1 (“iim s | 208= = 205.200 = 10 ret) 924-2). 40. F(z} cents is the cost of mailing + ounces. 1 32 sad so lim £(2) = lim,32 = 92 and im P(x) = 92 at sot © {aandb) If 0 <2 <1 then P(e) = 9-23 {cand d) If (6) tio gfe) = 10 - s0f-(1- fe) 7 42. G(z) dollats is the admission for age x years. G(x) = tH © (0) lim Gla) = Tig 4 =4 (e) “hig 34 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY fle)= a243 ite! at ite et 48. fhe) = 5° and o(2)= 5 Oe Gres OT ee © (a) tm fle) = Yip (2449) = 1849 <4 ond ti, f=) = him, (e-+ 1) Ltt =? salt (b) Jim ote) = ficeae? west tc) F(z) +942) = (24292) #50 (@) Jim | [(e)-ofe)] = (1 + 3)09) =4 and tim [f(2}-o(2) = + 12) = 4 ‘Therefor, Lim n (12) gC] exits and in 4 rhl ife 0 there exists a 6 > 0 such that if0N L172 Definition Let f be o function that is defined at every number in some open interval containing; except possibly at the number a itself. As z approuches a, fe) decreases without bound, which is weitten lim, fe) = if for any number N < 0 there exists a 6 > 0 such that if0 0 and Sf Je) 0 theough positive values of f(z). lim 2 = +c0 (i) ite > and if /(e) +0 tueounh negative values of F(2), lim oe ole) (il) he <0 and if {(+) +0 theough positive values of f(z), fing i iv) if'e <0 and if f(z) +0 through negative values of ff, lim 22! = joe Tie} ‘The theocert is also valid if “r + a” is cepleced by “2— at” or “r+ a7” We can now usually find the limit of a fraction if ether the numerator or the denominator has limit zero. If the numerator has limit zero and the denominator has a limit thet is not cero, then by Limit Theorem 9 the limit of the fraction ix zera. If the denominator hhas limit zero and the numerator has a limit that is not aero, then one of Une cases of Limit ‘Theorem 12 is uoually satisfied and the limit of the fraction is -toc or —o0, depending on which case. If both the numerator and denominator have limit zere, then one af the methods of Section 1.5 often marks: (i) Fector the numerator and denominator and cancel the common factors (i) Rationalize either the numerator or denominator and proceed as it (i). We will learn additional methods as we proceed through the book, but it is important to realize that some limits simply don’t exist 12.8 Definition The line z= a is said to be a vertical eeymptote of the graph of the function f if at least one of the following statements is true, Eack statement is illustrated by the graph below it, (iim, Hz) = 00 (Ui, fle) =e iim F(@)= +00 tin) lim fa) = - T/\ Ba fons +0 im fos)= 7 Exercises 1.7 ‘is Exercises: 1-12, do the following: (a) Use a calculator to tabulate values of f{2) for the specified valuet of 2, ‘and from thece values make a statement regarding the apparent behavior of f(). (b] Support. your answer in part G2) by plotting the graph of f. {c) Confirm your anawer in part (a) analytically by computing the indicated limit. > Let. 0+ and 0" denote quantities that approach @ through positive and negative walues, respectively, Wf p and ¢ are positive and negative numbers, then Limit Theo-ers 12 can be restated ax below. Sec Solutions 9 and 10. @ p/o* = (iil) 4/04 = (a) The able “Gives the values of f(z) for the specified values of =, From the table, f(x) appears to be decreasing without bound as approaches 3 from the right. = 4 Ba a1 $01 3.001 3.0001 7 fte)= 45, 914-151 63.0 603 6003 — 60003 o-# ) sie 1, (4?) = 86 aad ia, (9—2") = 0, Purthermore, since 2+ 3*, shears Sant = 2? <0. Thus, 9-2? Ferran 0 through ‘eehltee vale. By Lint beeen 126), Sin A aato—* | Exercises 13-82, find the limit and support your answer by plotting the graph af the function, 42 £42 Sere Omens Mater ie -t-)_ x ang a Shay i. 242 es et stan Meeeg— ere ‘tin VE vet ot 3 lim, /F-Pe? = VF and lim, x = 0. Moreover, since x= 0*, x approaches 0 through positive values, Thus by sot ant = to =? jn Vitae! = V3 and lin =O through negative values, Therefore vie—3 = 0 through Positive values, ‘Therefore, lim, z tim ¥16= = Because both the numerator and denominator have limit 0, we cannot use Limit Theorem 12. We must factor. Because 2 + 47, then + <4 or, equivalently, 4-2 > 0. Thus, r=4=-(1-z)= -Va-2F ‘Therefor Jawa) cae == tim WEEE "tl fiae Ji-e Htin V a) aaa Because lim 142 = vB and | lim —y4 z= 0 and —y4—= approaches 0 through negative values, by a= ‘Limit Theorem 12{Hi) and Eq, (1) we have lim - 38 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY 2 a el -)= im, 2 0 itive walues. 2 lim A)= tn, 2h lim, (2-1) = and lim, #'= 6 shroagh positive valu zal Therefore, tim, ae 22, im, 4 = im in Sgae aye 28. lim (249) = 2 and len (524-4324) =0 through poiive values. Hence, tim =o sail 24. Jim (by) > iG = te0. BAL ee2 3 siege oie Toe Moreover, ln (¢~1) = 1 and lim (a~2)(6-+2) = 0. Heeasne #27, then 6 2-< 05 thus (6 —2}(6 +2) approaches 0 through negative S Taluea; Therefore; by Limit Thearecn 2248), ten m (aby -gy)=- _at=1)_} 5 3t Js Gea aaa) oe += 1) _(¢+4)(= 1) = 0 through positive values. Therefore, (32) =0 through positive valnes, lim_(2)—3=—1 and Ii = cay gat aT b Sinee 2 17, then <1. 1f0-< 2 1, then [27] lim [e7]-1=—1 Because 2 Because the numerator and denominator both have limit }, Limit ‘Theorem 12 does not. apply. We rationalize ‘the denosninator zm ete BYES =a Ohya mes “abe tim 2224 ve =) er ae Gee tim 2a 2+ Vea) tin A Vt =P (r= 3 =tim 2 + ve =F o Now tm (2+ y/4=—73) = 4 ond lrg (2-2) 0. Furthermore, 2~2 appronches 0 through negative vals ‘Thus, by Limit Theorem 12Gi) and Eg. (1) we eonelude that tk 5 _attr—6 _ (e-2We+3) _ S48 i Be) a er eae he ae—4) aa aim Ae) = him 1, fle) = =f. lim, fz) = ge = -20. Jim fel = yea 40 si c+ Sr — 2 wis 3. f(2)= ee ae Tim _f(z)= tim feat a lima fle)= j= 20. lim f(z) = arte ad eat at In Exercises 35-44, find the vertical asymptote(s) of the graph of the function, and sktetch the graph, 35. (2) Because tim. 2 ce or became fim, b= too, = Oe veel anymptte (b) Because lim Jy= +00, ¢= is a vertical asymptove (©) Because im y= 20 8 because ies, a pate is a vertical asymptote. ee shoo, = 0 is a vertical asymptote aaa pes 6 a “| “| Exercise 36(2) Exercise 85(¢) Exercise 85(d) (4) Because fim, 4 Exercise 85(b) 49 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY 36. (a) Because lim —l= +00 by Limit Theorem 12{i¥) or because lim, —L= oo by Limit ‘Theorem 12(ii7), a0" eat = is a vertical asymptote. (00) Because lim, 4) = 20 hy Limit Theorem 12(iii), = 0 isa vertical asymptote, fe) Because tim = too by Limit ‘Theorem 12{iv) or because im Woh= oo by Limit Theorem 12(iii), #20 is w:vertbeal eopraptote, Bxercise 36/3) Exercise 36(b) ‘Bxercine 36(c) Exercise 86(d) 37. Because tim 25 =—oo or because lim, 27 = poo, x = 4 is n vertical asymptote, eat ee : ear a3 deg 2-1 38, Beraure lim 35 se or because tim $7 = 8 = 400, 2 = —1 is 9 vertical asymptote. 89. Beceuse lim =A ao. (=) oi 5, then 2-5 Ties, fle) = ave (Ot because « —5 < Vif r <5, by Limit Theorem 12{iv) ied a Syste | ‘Thus, 2 = Exercise 37 Exercise 38 Exercise 39 . i = is a vertical asymptote, 4, Bocouse im, 579 Sis yp = Sis a vertical asyinplote. _ fa) = 420 oF becanse lim, f(e) = ~c0, == 5 i vertical asymptote ccacieeaipe lor, St) trace m3 3 is a vertical asymptote: L7 INFINITE LIMITS 41 Bt -aih > ie)= ee lm (2+ 6) =O and lim (2-1) = 7, Because 2 — 6°, then +6 < 0s thus (x 4 6)(2—1) approaches 0 rough aeyative values, Therafoe, by Limit ‘Theorem 1260) lim yt vertical asymptote, Nin (@-+6)= 7 andl lim (2—1)=0, Becanse 2 — 1%, then 2—1 > 0; thus (=-+6)'2—1) approaches @ shew sare Jottive valuse Hanes! BP Limit Theorem 126) lin, = too, Thus # = 1 isa vertical asymptote, 0. Thus 2 = —6is a Exercise 4, Brereise 4 Exercive 43 Exercige 4 “Hs Bherciocs 45 and 46, evaluate the limits from the graph of funetion f sketched in the ccocpssying Bese, (a) him fle) =0(b) lim f(z) =~ (@) ten, fle) = +00 (dling F(x) = 0 (0) Him f(2) = 4450 (lim fle) = 20 (8) ita =10 Bm, f(e) =—o0.G) ap Ae) tim too tb) ty) = 2 (6) tim , fea) = +25 (8) lim 2) 0 @) tm fla) = (0) Fim, (2) = 0 (a) tim_F(2) = —00 (h) im, 8) 20 (tin, Fle) = 0 Be ccied a7 aid a8) aheazh toe graph of « Atilon,jttetvlng jho-piven pope “AT. The domain of f is [—5,5]. f(-5) = 0: f(-3)=% f(-1 =O; f= lim f=) = Fou set! Tin, init = =O; Top f(s) = [24 Pile4 Sie + 1) PS czcmt > te oe er ffi =) W-ice The figure shows the graph af 49. lis fc, oe = shoo because r and n are positive. dati ia) = + i 8. fle) = ty and a= 95 (a) i gas = =e s0 lim f(z) does not exist. tim 2 20 Umo{=) does not exist. (b) f(z) + g{z) = 0 if x #2. {e) i yl fx) + 9(z)h = 0 42 PUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY (4) Because lim f(z) and lima(z) do not exist, the hypotheses of Limit Theorem 4 are not satisfied. 51. tim a. P= +00. lin, 72 does not exist because 1 (w/e)? <0 if 5. The limit as wae ‘afey? or ett (ole)? v= @ does not exist because neither I-sided limit exists, ‘17 SUPPLEMENT “Theorem B lim f(s)= +6 ond only if lim —/(2) Proof Let M lim fey = +50 44 for every N 0 there is a > 0 such that f(z) > N when 0 0 such that —f(z) 0 and N>o Wo 0 such that HO 0 and N O such that if-8<2<0then ben if0 —n + 0 -N (because rie an ode integer) 0 <2 <6 then (-2)"<-}, (because —2 > and —N > 0) @ if 0<-2< 6 then -2 <(a" (because x is positive) ‘The last statement holds if § = ay. fz i an even positive ipteger we must show that for any N'> 0 there is a > 0 ouch Uhad Ssaien oa ie eit < —2-<6 then Ly > N (becouse ris an even ingen) HO 5 2< 8 then (—2y" Op 9 if0<—2<6 then -=<(h)"" {because r is positive} ‘The last statemens holds if 6 = (L)* & Prove Theorem 1.7.4 ® We want to prove that if im fz) = 0 with f(z} — 1.7 SUPPLEMENT 43 0 throngh negative values of f(2), and Jim (2) = with =>, then lim i, 2. Now lim-—j(z)= 0 with =f(x) — 0 through postive values, and so, by ease () fnt2) oo. Hence by Theorem lim 06, OF livatently, lim=— = —co, Peeper Hove by There 8 as covalent ng} & Prove Theorem 1.7.4(iii). “ Wewant to prove that i lim, f(z) = 0 with fz) —0 throwgh positive walues of f=), mnd Jim a(x) =e with <0, then tim, a. 00, Now lim —a(e)=—e with ~2 0, end 20, by ease (), in 5 = 400. ‘Hence by Theorem B, in $5) & Prove Theorem 1.7.4(iv). y We want to prove that iflim f(z) =0-with f(z) — © 04 thea Bag $2) = ce, Now Lge f(2) = ith Because lin 9( if 0 0 there is a 6 > 0 such that H0N Because lim (} = +00, then for N+2je+1>0 there is a & > 0 such that if0-<1z—al <6 then fla) > N+2Bel+1 15 = min(S,,4,), by statement (1) we get if0N-+Rej+1—2e/—1 er if0 6 Hence part (1) is proved. then for any © > 0 there ix. d fin o(2) =, where e is any GQ) ife> 0, lam f(a) -9(z) = +00 By Theorem By fist f(2) =—0e, By Theotesn 17.7 ife> 0, Jim=f(c)-9(2) =—o0 Applying Theorem B again to the limit of the produ —29, or equivalently, lim ate) BEA) through negative values of f(z), end lim g(x) =< with =f(2] 0 through positive values, and tis 92) =e with -2> 0, and ao, by case (), “int. = 40, or equivalently, fim 82 = 2 Prove Theorem 1.7.6: If cis any constant and f) if lim f(x) = +00 and lim f(x) = « then lim [f(z) + g(#)] = 430 (9) Jim, (2) = 20 and Jim g(a) =e then lim [f(2) +af=)] = =o > 0 such that, eis ad, such that (Dy ‘To prove part (ii) we must show Gal for any N <0 there is a8 >0 such that i O<|2—a/< 5 then f(2)+9(z)<2N Because lim, f(z) = —o0, then for N—®el-1 <0 there is.a 6, 30 such that if 0, lim f(z) p(2) = —o0 (ii) ife< 0, = fiz) -s(z) = +00 » To prove part (f) we must show that for any N 0 such that iO 0 then for €=Je> 0 there ie a 6, > 0 such that HO if 0 — fe PTO cie—al be > 0 (2) Because lim f(x) =—o0 then for Neg there is a 4, > 0 such that #0 —2% > 043) Let 4 = min(é,,4,). It fellows from statements (2) and (3) that if 0.<12—a1<4 then —fl2)-9(z) > —28. ‘This is statemont (1) proving part (i) 10, Use Definition 1.7-1 10 prove that eke > Choose é< Leo that |z+3|<6= -1<248 <1 —Sd> N whenever 6 < ff Choose 6 = min(1,7/}. 1.8 CONTINUFLY OF A FUNCTION AT A NUMBER. ‘There are many theorems having a hypothesis that inchudes the condition that « funetion continuous at & number 4. Hence we must be able to determine if a function is continuous is a break in the graph of f at the paint where 2 =a, then F a discontinuous at a. This situation is included in the following analytic defiuition, discontinuous at a. If ther 1.8.1 Definition The function f is said to be condinuous at the number if and only if the following thy conditions are satisfied. () Fla) exists (2) Jim. f() exists (iti) Jim 42) = 41a) If one or more of these three conditions fails to hold at a, the function f is said to discomtinuows at a. We note that we may have to comider onesided limits and use Theorem 1.6.3 te determine whether or not condition (ii) in Definition 1.8.1 is satisfied. ‘This is iMlustrated Se Exereise 7. If f is a funetion that. is discontinuous at the number a, but for which lie, fle fexivts and is the real number L, then elther f(a) #L or else f(a) does not exigt. Such 2 discon tinuity is called a removaile discontinuity because if we define f(a) = the new function i eontinuaus at a A removable discontinuity will not skow as a break when the graph is plotted on @ graphics caleulator unless the 4 ‘To prove part {ii) we must show that for any N > there is a § > 0 such that iO N (4) Because jim g(z) =< and ¢ <0 then for = te > 0 there is ad > 0 Sueh that i D = Je> 08) aN. Because lim /(z)=—e then for 2° <9 there is a & > 0 such that 0 2X0 (6) Let in(bs84). Tt follows from statements (5) and (6) that if 0<|2—s1< 6 then f(x)-g{z) > — ek N ‘This is statement (4) proving part (i) age is carefully chosen. If lim, _ f(z) ie nets real number, then f has an essential discontinuity at a, and the discontinuity cannot. be rexnowed. The following theorems concerning the continuity of a function follaw from Definities 1.8.1. Often they can be used to determine if e function is continuous at a number. 1.8 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION AT A NUMBER. 45. 13:2 Theorem If f and g are two funetions that are continuous at the number a, then Gi) £+97 continuous at a (ii) f—g is continuous at a (iii) f-9 is-continuons at a Gv) ff is continuous at a, provided that g(a) #0 183 Theorem A polynomial function i contintions at every number 18.4 Theorem A rational function is continuous at every number in its domain. 1.8.5 Theorem If n is a positive imteger and f(x) =", thea (@) if nis odd, f is continuous at every number Gi) ifn iseven, J is continuous at every positive number ‘Theorem ‘The absolute-value funetion is continuous at every number. eB Exercises 1-14, sketch the graph of the function. By observing where there is a bron jn the graph, determine fsumber at which the function is diteantinuous; and show why Defsition 1.8.1 is Hot aatisfed al this mumber, eette—6_ (e+ 5)e—2)_ Hea) = oo = Ea -2ite ge 3. ‘There is a break in the graph at ~3, F(=3) does not exist. Hence condition (i) of Definition 18.1 fails ax —3. fey = tegen d OEY rapa ‘There is a break in the graph at 4 F(4) does nat exist, Hence condition (i) of Definition 1.8.1 fails at 4. Pte , F Steet tet-1 foie ep a =) ee af sx : toot ife=-3 “> There is a break in the graph at = 6 (8) = 35) tim, gz) = Gli) tien, gfx) 4 a —3). "Thus condition (iii) of Definition 1.8.1 fails at ~ 3, Hence, gis dlocontinuous at 3. Pose 4 Moi. f e-2 | feet 2 fend > Because z aye +8) _ i sits SA eer) deg then ana! tots ‘There ix a “hole” in the line at. the point (4,5) because G(x) # 2-411 if thus G is discontinuous at 4. We show how Definition 1.8.1 is not satisfied. Beesuse G(2)=lim (2 +1)=8 and G{4) =2 zea Aim, G(2) # Gl) and thus condition (iii) of Definition £.8.1 is not satisfied then 10. Ma} = 8 soy (fee 1 =fF FUNCTION ) LIMITS, AND Ct a ‘There ig a break in the graph at 4 (A) does not exist. Thus, condition (i) of Definition 1.8.1 fails at 4. ‘Therefore, f is discontinuous at 4. H@ej=-1y ‘There is a break in the graph at ~: ‘A(—2) does not exist, ‘Thus, condition (3) of Definition 1.8.1 fails at 2. Therefore, f is discontinuous at ~ Wena ‘There is break in the ‘Therefore, Ff is discontinuons at 4. way= o =-2 ‘These is a hieak in the graph at s0 We use Definition 1.8.1 at a =—2 to show there is a discontinuity. Because o(—2) = 0, condition (i) is satisfied. However lim ,e(z) = #00 and_lim_g{z) = —o0 fe tex -2 s coudition (i) is not satisfied. Therefore, gis discontinuous at —2 1 fed fa) = fe itz=0 VE fcr ‘There is a break in the graph at 0. liza 2) mip —Dand tim, fe) = tm, Ys iterator tim Fe) does not exist. THIS conction GS) Definition 1.8.1 fails at 0. Hence f is diseontinuous at 0. rol ifsel f(z)=51 ife=1 <2 iferd ‘There is a break in the graph at 1 () $0) = 45 Gi) lim. fle) = Tim (2 =1) = 0 and Jim, 1 (a) = Sa 0. Thus Lim (=) =0. (ii) lim f(2) # £2) ee ‘condition {iii falls at 1, Henee f is discontinuous ut 1. 18 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION AT A NUMBER 47 P44 fe? = sth=14 t=? b-? itace trea in the graph at 2 ie (P-4)=Oand | Thes condition (iii) of Definition 1.8.1 faits at 2. Beace ¢ is discontinuous at 2. +2 ifes-2 aj2—e Wf —2 There is a breok In the graph at 0. (0) does not exist. Henee condition (i) of Definition 1.8.1 fails at 0. “Therefore, f 38 discontinueus at 0. voi Et ‘> ‘There isa break in the graph at 0. (i) (0) = G5) lim o(s) = Nim —zJ2 ==! and Tim, 92) ti x/x = 1. Thus Jimg(z) does not exist. ie Definition 1.8.1 is not satistied at 0, and Tn Exercises 15-28, f is diseontiquous at a (2) Plot the graph of f and look for a break oh z= a. Does the discontinuity appear to he removable? If so, how should f be redefined to remove it? (b) Confirm analytically. NEF _ pine 2 Define f(2)= 2424 Ws. f(a) ae (2 +3)(r41) ar 3 >» fies To make f continuous, we should define /(-3) = -341 = 8 aso Srtlited a. = VE +9 if 2 #9. Define f(9) = 0-45 1-2 > f(z) 19. J(2)= cc ee en ° Ie) era0 77 VET ASM eres) Ses tga | TAS Patino 1(5)- 2, je =0 _VvEth-Vi_ Jenb- V5 2 IL { 7a OS GEO=8 “ETE EAD a a if #0. To make f eontinuais, we should define | “a5 = 1 pas O° Ee BE a ya Mi-vert_ vi- an ee OS GEE=E “EE- iyas te” ifs £0, Define f(0) = Ped Ly? MET GF=4" (YEP I_a\(Vestay) ” verte tte > fe)= 2. 1) EH, pa» : Te its 46, Define £0) = Sota mM. fee HI os =p a > f(a) = ete (et1PFo1 ia “ery ARF (+1? ie +P see = 1 m tos BaP peep AU To male fecenaons, 1 1 wwe should define f(y) = O-GrPP sora 8 %. fle)= PES aa E49 S-4lz|_(e+9G+1el)_34ie) + Nels SS THel™ Gone eae = wee [re BH, it: #8. Define f(—3) = $43 1.8 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION AT A NUMBER 49 e+tl+ 4 dh Jetiles — Ga4sMertlid) sella [erilea (e+)-Meth+a] 2-3 > He) Beg -5. Define /(-5) = EELS PoSpe=s > tim Fl) = tim 543 3-5 6 = 450; Fasontial diseontinuity. 245 “e1-4 2 e-in Sepp tor mat crit Beeauve the denominator is “spproaching 0 and the numerator is nol, Hence the discontinuity is essentialy 5 29-40, determine the numbers at which the function is continuous gl “and etate the roazon. = b fiz) = 27(2 +3} sa polynomial. Hence, f is continuous for all eal number fi) az) A {z—5)?(x? 44) is a polynomial. Hence, f is continuous for all real numbers. $j ie a ational forction. Tence f is continuods on its domain: al real numbers except 3. aes B)= a5 ‘Because fis a rational function, by Theorem LS, fis continuous at every number in its demain. Therefore, Bis continuous at every number for which 2z +570 or equivalently, « #—j. Fs) 2) ap = 82 is rational function, Hence G Is continuoos of its domain: 6@)=523 = ee tional function. Henec G is continneds on ite domain: all real ‘Butabers except 2 and —4, The discontinuity at 2 is removable. He)= (3 oe tx #2 #2) is @ polynomial. Hence f is continuous at numbers other than 2. ell lg a rational fonction. Hence F is continuous on its domain: all real numbers except 2 and = a2? its = Tim Be-1 fim f(z) = fim. ‘Therefore, f is discontinuous at 2. {z+2) if'z0, by Theotem 1.8.5, f is continuous at every «#0. Furthermore, Sand lim, flz)= lim, (4-25) 0 thus Jina 7(=) dose met exist, e}= lim f(2)= Nim (2487 = in, f{z) = Tima (a*+2) = a) ot ae ‘Therefore, lim f=) dose not exist, so J is discontinuous at 0 He (HS DIETS fell # by Pe) ational nein, tenes ime) = im t/(e-+ 1) =f = 70) and tim, f(2) = ea, 1/(3—2) =}. Hence f In continuous at 1 m iinfiy feSbteas fap 12) = lig (1/2) = Sand Sin, fe) = continuous exept at —L and 3. Itz, fle) is a rational function, Hence J is continuous if = #0 oF 9. 249-2) x (8). Mence F is continuous at 3. = ae) (0 HESS Ife# 0, /iscontinuows by Theorem 1.85. lim_ Ae) = lim (2 + 92) = 0 and lim, A(z) = lim, (= = i umbers. ig Me) = liga + YS) = 8 andi, hfs) +) =. Hence fis continuous for all real m 50 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY d2-Yeites aye ite ® The radicals are continuous by Theorem 1.8.5. 22 and 2 are polynomial and so are continuous. Hence if = # 1g is continuous by Theorem 1.8.2 (i) and ce Furthermore, limn_o(z) (az-Jaj)s2- =o(l) and a 1,9(2}= lim, eyE= ls i=1 Therefore g is continuous for all real numbers, — In Exercises 41-4: (a) Find ¢ and & that make f continuous everywhere. (b) Sketch the graph of f we pont? Bet Tim_ f(z) = lim_(e+7) = 19 = f(a); * = fim, f(2) = "lim, (ke—1) =4k—1 ett saat Hence J in enatinuous at 4 if and only if 40. ofz) = ‘Therefore’ is continuous at 1 iteiaealy ted lim_f(z) = fez k) =de+k; fm, Ae aot Solving c+k = 1 and de ft + 2c fre -2 a. re)= fier if9<2<1 jek le > For all values of ¢ and & the function f is continuous at all =, except possibly at x =—2 and 2 If {is continvons at —2, then If f is continuons at 1, then alin fe) = lim, fle) a8 Soba we get ¢= 3 and & lim (Gee + &) = lim, (82 — 28) pelt 3o+k =3—2k Solving these equations sinvultancously, we get e=3 and &= 4. Substituting these values for ¢ and & into Eo. (1), we have Ft ife<—2 +h Fla)=yor$ 2c <1 or, equivalently, fle) = EF so-$ fice Now, f(1)=1+§=§. Forthermore, jefe) = lim (+8) = Fendi, He) im, (82 ~$)=3 Thos lim f(2)= $= f(a). 7 tert, f is continuous at 1. Hence, { is continuous on {—20, +90). 1.8 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION AT A NUMBER 51 Eseries 45-40, i (09-46) sow that ft the gre is discontinuous by showing how Definition 1.8.1 foils, (a) = =O ti, fle) # tim J(eh cental ) 2 1: Bile) = 8 # HOO) removable: define f(1) = ©: ig ste) docs nol exist; essential SB e=0: ‘im fe) = 8 4 f(O};remounble: define (0) =8 (b) += 2 lg Mls) # lim, Fz) event (c) 2=4: lim, f(x) does not esiat; essential Bxercisel S7EGT, sketch » graph of some function f satisfying the given properties. = J is continuous in (4,2), (~22) and (2-4): f ie discontinuous at —2 and 25 f(—2) = Ean (2) = +00, Tim f(a) = 0; sin fe) =% life) = {is continvows on (~00,~1), (1,1), and (1y-+0k tinuous ab —1 and ty F{—1)=0 and f(1) = 05 ‘ey “f(e) and Tina) both exist but neither i 0; neither Tip f(@) noe tm, (2) exis Exercises 49-52, state where the function is discontinuous by showing kow Definition 1.8.1 fi, ite NE S50 ‘Hkz) dollars is the cost of shipping + lb. f(e)=42lz ifs0<=< 200, 052 ite > 200 lig ffs) = 1004 105 = lin f(z). 2= 200: Nig, (2) = 420 #410 = lms f=) 1100" F(z) cents is the cost of mailing = se Fa) =6~ ~23[-2b ® Hn iany positive integer, Tim (2) thn, F(2) condition (i) not slid. (2) cents is the cost ofan & minute cal (= 0-s0l-2) > Ifnis any positive integer, lim o(=) + lit, o(2}; condition (ii) is not satisfied. and f(2) = > = 00: WO<2<12 6) ata nmin a age seu. te) =f WW im v(t) = liu dt? 20) = 4(2)2 + 20 = 30.= (2) and Tis, r(8) = Tim (ABH +4) = 80 (ai? 420)? WOCt? n,m(I6L+ 4 = =(36F HA. At ¢ minutes, A(t) m? is the area, A(t) = ar? = > Him r(t)= im x(a? +20)? = (88)? = (2) and tim, (t) = “SE. [fn isa positive integer, lity f(e) = Jim ==! tennant se) = lime” Ag oP pet 1) = 1414-41 =n. The discontinuity is removed by defining, (1) = 9. $2 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY 2nr 36. Thefanction f i defined by f(2) = lim, — Sketch the graph of f. At what waluss af 2 i ? discontinuous? & Wecdivide the numerator and denominator by 1 to- obtain the li : F 2 feo 4 | t Furthermore; by seplichag:¢ with O'fa the Wefinition of f; sepa $0) =m S=0 —aH == and J(0)=0, J is diecomtinuous at 2 = 0. 5 Because lin (3) = fi srei={it Esp meti={l EsShuene=(" ESE Vim_ f(z) = tim_{-2)=Oand lim, f(2)= lim, 1 = 1; hence tim f(x) does not exist so fel Me Je ae fim a(2)= im 1 = Land lim a(2)-= lim, = 0; thus limg(2) does not exist. zo" a sot ‘Therefore, g i discontinuoas Ji 0. (f+ 9)(2} =|#| 00 fg is continuous everyswhere; 5A. Let f(2)=2 and o[2)= sgn. Then f is continuous at 0, 9 iv discontinuous at O and f(x)gts)=Vel bs continuous at Uh. 59, Let sai={t fe <4 aad ofa} particular, f-g is continuous at 0. 1 ife 0. Br Theorem 1.8.3, g is continuous for all x and g(z) > 0 for 3c 2c 3. pe by Theorem 1.9.2, f o@ is continuows for all x in (-: eh Because Ee, (Fogi(z) =0= (Foah-8) and lim (fo4)l2)=0 = (Fo 9\(8).F9 i continuous on [-3, 4. = (feats) = ve =16 , fog is continuous for 9(z) > 0. Bp Theorem 1.8.3, g is continuous for all and g(z) > 0 for x¢—4or e >A. ce by Theoret 1.9.2, f og is continuous for all 2 in (—s0,—4) U (4, +90}. lim (Fe9)(2) =0=(F 29)(-4) and lim, (Fea)(H) =0=(F oA, fp is continuous on (—20,—4]U[t. 00). ts) f(z) = & (fegi(z)= vib = Bebcorers 1.85(1), 729s continuous for e(2)'> 0. Sy Theorem 1.8.3, gis continuous for all z and g(z) >) for 4c <4. ig ‘Thepeem, 1.9.2, f'o.9 is continuous forall = ia (4,4), Becatc (foall2) =0= (Fog ~d) and im (f9)(z) =0= (Fog) 4}, Fog is continuous on [4,8 ) fle) = JF ox) = 27 +4 & (fags) = Vera Be Theorem 1.8.5(ii), fey is continuous for a2) > 0. Sy Theoret 1.8.3, gis continuous for all z and g(z) > 0 all 2. feece by Theorem 1.9.2, f 0g is continuous for all 2, that is, on HS. (=) f(e)= Y# ale) = 1 > (rea\e)= vig orem 1.8.5(ii), f og is continuaus for 9{z) > 0. orem 1.8.4, g is continuous except at 2 and giz) >0 for z > 2. ge by Theorem 1.9.2, fog is continuous in (2, +00). im, (fog)(z) does not exist, f og is continuous only on (2,400). 90, 00), 54 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY (b) Fle) = bp ale) = YE & (Fenix) = By Theorem 1.8.4, J 2 is continuous for g(z) #2. By Theorem 1.8,5ffi), g is continuow foc 2:>0 and g{z) =2 for x = 4. Hence by Theorem 1.9.2, fey is continuous for all positive numbers except 4. Because im, Ue g)(z) =} =(f 2 9)(0), fog is continuons on (0,4) 1 (4, +00) Aand 20. (a) f(r) = YF g(t) = EFT > (fools) = Yet ‘By Theorem 1.8.5(i), fog is contionons for all g(x). By Theorem 1.4.5(ii), g is continuous for 2 > Hence by Theorem 1.8.2, fo g is continuons in (—1, +50). Because tim | (f9)(2) =0= (/os\=1), fog x continuous on [=1, +00), (0) fle) = VerI; ofe)= YE > (Fog\eh=fYret By Theorem 1.8,0(ii), fog is continuous fur gf) > —1 By Theorem 1.8.5(i), ¢ is continuous for all x and g(z) > =1 for z > =I. Hence by Theorem. 1.9.2, f og js eantinuous on (—1,-+00). Beemume lim, (fes}(s)=0=(Fo9N(-1) f° 9s continuous on [-0, +00), Sand at. 10) = VEE ofe)='1 > (fogzb= se V4 —2? is continuous for z in (-2,2); fz] — is continuous for x in (—e0,—1) U(1, +00). By Theorem 1.8.2(i¥), fog is continuous for = =1)U (1,3). Because a 4 (Fe aie) =0= (f ogM-2) and ie (2) =0= (Fog) gay Groote eset =u. Band 2. fle) = VES; of) =e » (eae) =e et =1 is continuous for 2 in (06,1) U (1, +00); y4—1=] is continuous for z in (—4,4). By Theorem 1.8.2(iv), f 9 g is continuous for x in (—4,~1) (1,4), Because (f 6 9)(—4) and (fo gif) do not exist, fog is continuous only on [—4,—1) U (1.4). In Exercises 7-16, find the domain of the funetion. Deterrmis % Ala) = Ey; the domain of fis all real numbers except —5. f is continuous on(8,7),(-8, +20}, [=10, =! B alz) = pEy (—00,0), [0,+20}, (0,2), (0,2), (2, +00), (2, 4-00) > The domain is the set of all real numbers, except 2. Because a rational funetion is continuous om ite and g is a rational function, g is continuous om any interval that does not inelude 2. Therefore, g is conti on (6:0 (0,2), a (2-0) And 9 enti on (tc) (0,2 and (2-0) % FQ =ah ifs santas oon (0,1),(=1,1),(—1,0), (2,400); f is discontinuous on (0, 1], (ec,—1]. 10. f(r) = be the domain of f is all real numbers except 2 and —2. F is continuous on (~2,2), (2,00) and discontinuons on (0,4), (co, ~2, [~4,4], (2,2) 1. 92} = VFF=S; the domain of g is {x | 2?—9 > 0} = (20,3) U[3, 400). aig continuous on (—o6,—3), (3,00); g le discontinuous an (—3,3). Recaise Hi se) =, lis WaF=9=0 = g{-2) and tim gle)= li vi=8 =0=4(3), wat a ib hoe contin cu (~00;--3) and (8-400). for each interval if it is-continuous om that int ): f is discontinuous on{—6, 4], (00,0), [=5, #00). real numbers except I and <1 41.9 CONTINUITY OF A COMPOSITE PUNCTION AND CONTINUITY ON AN INTERVAL 55, fk (-3), Gp. 0.2), 0.2), G21 » The greatest integer function is defined for every real number, so the domain ef f is the set of all real Seber. If n is any integer, then Fe]=a-1 if n-1S2 0} =(-2,2). 2 See faba Sonffrnous on (25), (2.7), and [-2,2) on oa Seago ( 13), [-1,3} [-1.8), (=1,3] gered Ssy-~ Gv) ty) domain of F is the sct of all real numbers except 3 and —1. Beeause F is a rational function, F is continu: en its domsin. Thus, F is continuous on (—1,3), and F is diseotitinwous on (—1,2], [—1,3), and (—1,3}. See Ex.1 18. See Ex.2 19. See Ex.3 20. See Bx4 21. See Ex.d 22 See Ex ifz<-2 {ie if -2<2<2 Continuous on (—o0,—2)U[-2,2]U(2, +20), See Ex.1.6.17 for fg. and limits: Bi uaas ‘the largest interval (or union of intervals) on which the funetion is eontinuous: (z+5. ifec=3 flej=,Vo-2? if-3 Because f ie continuous at 4, then f(-4) |, wo the graph contains the point (4,0), 3, atid the raph contains (0,3). Because fis contisuous at 4 and lim f(x) Because Tim_/() # lim_ f(x), there is a break 0 oe Because lim /(z)= 3, from the left the graph approsehes the point (0,3), but this point és not on the graph. the graph at the point where z= 0, Exercise 25 Exercise 26 __ Bxetcise 27 Exercise 28 In Exercises 29-34, prove thet the function obiained in Exerciser 1.5 is continuous om its domain 29. (a) Ex. 13. afr) = (220—2)2 = 1208 —z!,0<¢5< 120, is a polynomial. (b) Bx. 15. ofa) = 1240 - z)z = 1202 —Le?, 0 < z < 240, ie a polynomial, 80. (a) Bx. 14. af) = (0—a)e it —27, 0.5 S50, is a polynomial. (b} Bx. 16. afz) = 100 oe — 44, 0 <2 < 100, is a polynomial, SH. (a) Bx. 17. V(z) = (8—2r)(15—25)2 = 1202-462? +42", 0 <2 < 4, is'a polynomial, (bb) Bx. 19. V(z) = (12 = 2215 —22)r = 42° — 5427+ 1802, 0 <2 <6, isa polynominl. 32. (a) Exercise 18. V(x) = (12-22)Pz = 42*—4827 4 ddr, OS 2 <6. (b) Exercise 20, V(x) = (40 ~ 22)(50 —2r)s = 42°~ 1802? +2002, 0 <2 < 29, Both of these are polynomials, continuous at every sumber by Theorem 18:3, je 33. (a) Ex. 21. fr) = (20/4 4er), r > 0. 16.4 rational function, continuous on its domain by Th, 1.8.4, (b} Bx. 28, Aa) = (e+ 224 43) = 32 EME ABs 5 9, ig atso a retional function, ML (a) Ex. 22. fr) = 2120/2 + 2x74), +> 0, is a tational function, continuous on its domain by Th: 1.8.4 fb) Bx. 24, Az) = (2 + 30)(22200.4 aa), >, ig also g rational function. In Exercises 35-42, dues the intermnediate-valuc theorem hold for the function j, interval (a, ] and constant K? if, solve f(e) =k graphically and analytically to 4 decimals and sketeh the graph shoving the point (c,). 35. f(z) =2+2~ 24 [a,b] = [0,9]: b= & Tis between f(0) =2 and (3) = -3 and f is continuo on (0,4). Therefore, the intermediste-value theorem holds and there exists a number ¢ between 0 and such that fe) Oye = M1 V5); and {1 + 5) = 1.6180 te in (0,2), 2ye-Pa te? 19 CONTINUITY OF A COMPOSITE FUNCTIOL 36. f(z) = —Vi100 =, [a,b] = [0,8] & Because fla) = f(0) = 10 and f(b} = f(8) = ~6, then f(a) & F(0), and bis between f(a) and f(b}. Furthermore, f is continuons on [0,8]. Thus, the hypothesis of the intermediate-value theorem is satisfied, and we eaa find a number c such that ND CONTINUITY ON AN INTERVAL $7 Because —6 is not beiwcen 0 and 8, ihe only suitable choice of ¢ is:6. The figure shows the graph of f and the line 8. 37. f(z) = ¥265— 2"; [a,b] & Bis between f(—4.5) =}/ 19% 2.18 and (3) = and f is continuous on [—4.5,3]. Therefore, ‘the intermediate-value theorem holds and there exists a number ¢ heroes 4.5 and 3 such that f{c) = a sand — is in (45,3). 38. fe) = + 52-6 [8 > Ais between f(-1) = —10 and f(2) =8 and f ie continuous on (—L,2]. Therefore, the intermediate-value theorem holds and there exists a number ¢ between —I and 2 auch that fc) Fbe-6 = 48+ be—10 = 0; ¢= 4-5 and }(—5+ 5/65) 1.5811 is in (—1,2). 38. fle) = hy [ab] = [3,1 & fis between f(—% and f(\)=$ but ¥ is discontinuous at —2, and —2 is in [—3, I] 73 and there may not be a number ¢ between ~3 and 1 3 such that fo-3 \ Z| peeH RBS eH c= 6. Wut Bin not in (-8.1) 3 4 f(2) = 5553 [ond] = [0.1} & > Hecause f is discontinuoue at 1 then f is not continuous on the elosed interval {0,1} ‘Thus the hypothesis of the intermediste-valuc theorem is not satisfied and the theorem dacs not hold. The figure shows the graph of the function on [0,1] and the | __ Tine y.= 2. Because the line does not intersect the curve, there is no number ¢ that satisfies, bie conclusion of the intermediate-value theorem, 5 —4if-2ee0<1 . fle + [ab] =[-2,4); &= Ae He) a ticecs SUH af 2 A & —Lis not beteren f(-2) =0 and f(9) = 8 and f is not ; * ‘continuous on [-2,3], Hence the intermediate-value thearem does not hold and there may not be a number ¢ 4 2 and 3 such that f{c) 7 3; and —/3 isin (-2,3). f-1205-2 . ye = teaeser HS=(41 » fiacontinuous at —2, and —2 is in [—4, 1). ‘Therefore the intermediate-value theorem does wot hold and there may not be a number c between ~# and 1 such that f(c)=4. The graph shows there is no such number. 58 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY Tn Exercises 43-48, (a) apply the intermediate zero theorem to show that f has the indicated number of zerox between a and 6. (b) Approximate thein to 2 decimal places. 43. f(z)= a 6243. f(-3) = 6, f(-2) = 7; J(0)= 3, FA) #(2) £13) = 12. Thus there is a zero In each of the intervals: (—8,—2}, (0,1), (1,2). The teros are —2.609 = ~2.67, 6.524 ~ 0-52, 2.1451 2.13, 44 fe) = 284 Tx? 42-5; two sera = 10 & S(-8) = 486, f{—7) ==15; f(0) = -8, (1) =1 By the imtermediate-zero theorern, there is a zero in each of the intervals (-8,-7), (0,1). To two decimals, the seros ate ~7.04 and 0.96. 40. f(z) = 424 Se" +2" —5. f(-1) =: f(1) = 3, #2) = There is a sero in the interval (1,2). The zero is 1.168% 1.17 46. f(a) = 324— 2127 +362" 4 22-8 F(—1) = 50, M0) = 8, FEL) = 1 $2) SSS vero. There ie one in each interval: (—1,0}, (0,1), (2,3). They are 0.440 -0.4, 0.518 = 0.52 AT. f(a) = a8 As? +243, J(1)=1, £(2)=-9. To 3 decimals the root i 1.239. 48, Show thet the intermediate-value theorem guarantees thal s*4243=0 has a root between —2 and 2 and use your graphics calculator to approximate the toot to two devimad plnecs. & Let f(z) =ser4. A and f(2}= 13. Because 0 is between —7 and 13, there is a number ¢ between 2 and? with f(c) =O, Two 2 decimal places the root is — 1-21 49, m(u) = ie continuous an [Oe fi vfeyt \ 50, Let 2 Tis continuous at ¢ = lim f(x) = f(a) > for every ¢> 0 there isa é>O such that | f(x) —f(a)|ce when Ocjz—aj<8 = for every ¢ > 0 there is a 6 > O auch that |f(a—t)— f(a)]ce when O-< (4/28 > lim fle 0 = fa) a time) 2 i Lyte? 2” [imi 7TF. viewed as « one-sided limit it Jim fz) = 0. 52. Prove that if lim f(z) = L, then tim) f(s)|=IL © By the triangle inequality, | f(z} — 12 || flx)|-1L|] Therefore Jms@y= = for every <> O there is a> 0 such that | f(z)—L|0 there is a 6.> 0 such that || f(2)|—|LI|<¢ when 6 0 and f()-< 1. Let g be the function defined by s(2)=H(a)—2 Qy ‘Thea 9(0) = f(0) > @ and 9(1)= (1) 150. Because 9 is continuous on [0.1], and 0 ie between 9(0) and | (2), by the intermediate-value theoccm there exists a number « between) and 1 such that limagn # dees not existe Koso By Eg. (1), we have K(e)-c=0 feyee 19 CONTINUITY OF A COMPOSITE FUNCTION AND CONTINUITY ON AN INTERVAL 59 BA, f(z) = [2-2], We seek the largest value of & for which J is continuous on the interval [3,3 +k). 103) 7]. Wr > 3, then f(r) <7 ifand only ifr? +< 8, that is < 10. ‘Thus the largest value of E satisfies 34+4= 10; &= Vi0-3. 55. Not equivalent: f continuous on the closed interval implies the existence of I-vided limits at the endpoints; f ‘eantinuous al every number in the closed interval implies the existence of 2-sided limita at the endpoints, 1.10 CONTINUITY OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THE SQUEEZE THEOREM 1.10.1 Squeeze Theorem Suppose thot the functions J, 9, and hare defined on some opea interval | eontalaing 3, except possibly ab a liself, and that f(z) <9(e} $ A(x) for all # tn I for which = # a. Also suppose that lim, _, f(z) and lim, Az) both exist and ate equal to L. Then Virtyog O{) also exists and is equal te I, ‘The squeeze theorem is used to prove the following results, jim sit Corallany: fig Bo = 1.10.2 Theorem fim = 1 si a eg =e 1.10.5 Thoore tim, =o = 8 ‘To verify Theorem 1.10.2 on a caleulator, you must switeh to radian made, Note alee that, angle measure ig baseel on ate length, which is nol defined until Chapter 6. The above theorems are used to prave: 1.10.6 Theorem The sine and cosine Functions are continuous al every seal number. 1.10.7 Theorem The tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions are continuous on their domains. ‘Therefore, the tangent and secant functions are continuous at every real number, except Jet kx, where & is any integer. The cotangent and cosccant functions are continuous at Every real number except ix, where & ia any integer Ueful Identities 1—eos?s = sine cos 2 Brercises 1.10 oe % Jt) nde ~ 2 alo Gn oe : 13 4. fim The limit appears to be ; oan ‘To apply Theoroxs 1.10.2 we divide the numerator aud denominator by G2. asin 32 jim Se ae a [er ad tiny a Be 2) 2 se iw ak diny Sin or ~ fim “sin 6 EU ade 3 a tin 33 Furthermore, because both Sz and 62 approach 0 when # approaches 0, then by Theorem 1.10.2 jin 30 de Pc tim 2035 —1 and tim 20 82— fim nfs = 1 roa 8 geno Substituting these into Ea. (1) we have lim Made ny HE 8 tim =5-=f—_1_ =}. 4-3 =0 sean Sz 5° sin Sz 5 ae ga 1 7 tng Se (ith tree ae ante = (be) = 60 FUNCTIONS, LIMIT (D CONTINUITY 8 tim sin? The limit to bes. Jim, si he limit appears to be &. pt ‘We apply Theorem 1.10.2. Because 22 0 when 20, we have Lees vine = fy el 20 fv : Dict Ses) =, 7 =i-050 & The limit appears to be 6. 5] ae Baa ae “as 18. lim —3°)__= i = =14(1)"=12 im l= eo sin’r _ I/j,8i0. lava Ms bag ge Seg = Kutt gen? = Hatta = fin —4_foin 22" oe Ba So) oe ‘sin 22" pita oh is, Cass) Because the cosine function is continuous at 0, tn teat sO ens" 22 cost By Theorem 1.10, " in 23 im, (85.22) 3) Substituting from Equations (2) and (3) inte Eq, (1), obtain tim dan®2 rod dt lim 1= 905 22 _ —cos dz | ‘ile do¢os 22.1 de hye Me ag an i ise in, 20 p so 2sin? in ds 2 we plea sat E pag TEP =I go TP PE eiies (e+3)e _ = wm radeon ae wee) gp = =3 20. ty ane > The limit appears t0 be 3 hp ‘Theorem 1.10.2, we have Spe = tim 82 — en 02. ty ty a Foye Saree a ae ete zl aint. 1 ain 1.10 CONTINUITY OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THE SQUEEZE THEOREM 61 ton, tind in a sin 4U/at St = tim, = = tim SRAM = co by Limit ‘Theorem 12 weet Deiat He eat 80 Gain Sefaqpt = 7° PF Limit Theorem 8 mn 280/44 I =o and lim — 75 = =1 aes ae eae Gin WE OE Tasin 23. Leti=fa—z2. Thene=}r-t. lim a - ser Fae m4. lim, (Hint: Let x= 49-1.) » ‘The limit appears to be 1. Ie aye 1. Thus im ft : ; Fae a a oo es a 5. Let t2—m, Then arte. im Stes im Sint + 8) sin. lim, 222 = om, lim, Sat. eae eee 8. Lot (=a—a. Then e tim. lim BEE = an stim =o aisle. 27. Because sin r is continuous for all 2 and 29 is continuous for all @, the composition sin 29 ia continuons for all 9, and so is the product (Vg?/g}sin 22. BB. Let P(0) = pa BY 5 where 0 << 1, Prove that F is continuous on [0, fr). & Because sin 820 and cor # > U1 on [0,5] and both are not seco for the same #, then #sin 9 + e080 > 0/00 [0,34]. Because sin #, and hence kin #, and cos 0 arr continuous for all 9, then by Theorem 1.8.2 (i) sin 8 + cos 0 is continuous for all 8. Heace by ‘Theorem 1.8.X{iv) the quotient F(9) is continuous on [Oi], In Exercisas 20-52, uve the squeeze theorem to find the limit 29. If 2 £0 then -1 0 we must have |sin{1/2)—L]<1 whenever —8<2 <4. Let & be a positive integer > 1/(276) and let 4 = Y/R +H)u and 2, = —1/(2k+ 3}. Then ~8 <2, <8 and dcr, <4, By the Lriangle inequality we get the following contradiction LL >|sintt/2y) =] +stn(a/e,) —1[> |[sin()/,)—b]—Esin(i/29) — b]] a(l/a) ~sin( 1/04) = [sin( 2b +4) x —sinl (2k +4)x]|=|1 (13) =2 ‘Thus there is no sueh number L amd the limit does not exist. Tingcon(1/z) dees uot exist. See Bx td. 46. Yimtan(1/z) doos not exist. Soy Rett, Miscellaneous Erercises far Chapter | 2 g@a)=Vi—e > (a) t)=VI-T= J HV=4—2& (a) Mi)=4at?=3 (6) f(-2)=4-(-2)7 (@) f(e- 1) =4-(2-1)' =-2? +2243 (eo) fa?) = 4-7 Heth) J) _I-(c+ hI : coun, Hexh) 0-2)=yi= i Aid vinz vize-he vine __(l-e-h)-(1-2) ‘Wcsskavice Mviss=ie oles th= I= GFT) = yor gle +h) ~ a4 (eta go, EF se) z xh = “hiV/l-a—-ha Jia) fl-e—kt/l—e 2 Tn Bxeretses 9-6, define the following functions and determine their domain D: a (a) Fea tb) S96) S-3 Lia (oh as (8 Soa te) oF fa Verh g=22-4 (a) tg = ftsd+2"—4, &: [-2, 400} VEHE~ 2244, Ds [-2400) (0) fogs YEP ast 4), De [-2, +20) CF yD (BBY (2 +00} (0) aff = sabe (-2:t00) feet 4142 = v2? —2, D: (00, -VB]U[%, +00) (s) 9(ffe)) = (FF) ~4 = (2 4+2)-4 2, Di [-24e0) fasta 9, 9 = 255 (a) fey = 2-94 VFF5, Di [5 400) {b) F- 2-9 —fetb, “5, +00) (c) f-4 = (2? ~Sjx/e Fo, D: [-8. 400} D: (=5, +00) (e) of F= ech D: [=5,=3)U{-3,3)4 (3,450) ( Flol2)) = (VE F5)-9 =fe4-8)-9 = 24, Di f-8, 400) (a) at ftx)) = ye? 9) 45 = vaF—4, Di (00, —2]U (2, 400) 64 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CO} 5 fado= vi le) F+9 fe) f9= + ear, iy +00) d= iran Bal sole =a “ =z"? D: (0,400) (0 fete) = wth (00) (a) Fel) = yfp= ph, Di a AO 22 _ate3e-1 “(e=e ty Dee#—Bl Ofe=sipah vets t 2 sie EN 2tU Deg Ot Iie +2) te) i LS e=)-H (0 Kote) = eqs (e) 012) = ee type 2a et) In Erercises 7 and &, plot the graph and determine if the function is even, odd, or neither, 7. (a) 22° — 32 is odd (odd — odd) (b} Se*4 227— | ip even (gum of even) (e) —254+2?— 2 is neither (odd +even) (d) (="+1)/(2? —2) is ede (even + ode) 3 (yee 23 is odd (odd + even) is odd (odd + even) = 0 while P{-0.5) = 9. (a) fle) = 4-28 (b) ofa) 228-4 PD: (-oat00), R: (-2e, 400) Dr (20,400), Rr [-4,+00) [0,+e0} @ Fiz} = VI6 (e) fz) =15—-2! ( ofz)=5 -1al Ds [-4,4], ‘D: (28,408), R: [0, +50) B: (-00, +90), Re (20,5) a ey o)SG@)= () Wz) = Vina? Ds (—00, +00), R: (-20, +20) Dr (20,-b00), Be (-00,9) D; [1,1], R: [0,1] (a) Ge) = WF=1 {e) fz) = [244] © fey=lelt4 Ds (-00,—1]U(1,400}, Bs [O,-t00) Dz {=90,-boe}, R: (0, +00} Bs: (~00,-400), Rt [44-400) MISCELLANBOUS EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER 1 65 fin Kxercises 11-14, determine the domain D and range R of the function and sketeh its graph. (en aie +4) _ Ee Q-2 ife D: (00,429) B: (1,422) UL, $00) =[L, +20) tn Exercises 15-20, determine » & > 0 such that] f(x)— 1] <¢ when ) <|z— |< 4 by finding the smallest 2, and largest 235 and by using inequalities. 1B. f(z) = 22-5, a=3, L=1,¢=.05 > 2x, —5 = 1-05, 6-22, Bax, =-025; 22, |(@e=5)=1]=12r=61= Fx—3) <5 when |e 3] <. 16. f(z) =324+2,e=1,b=5,c=02 » Wecause J is increasing, 2, coerespoudls to the smaller value of f. 82, +2=5-02, 8—3r, =0.2, 1-2, 32, 42=5402, 32,-8=02, 2)— |(e42)-5|=182—3] = ale—11< 0.2 when |e —11< 3 +05, 2m, 66 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY 1. zy 45510404, tS =O. 6=01 O<|z-5l< 01.5 = 0.1 » fey OLEH D 2eg+h=1 +08, 2p 44 delede el | | (or-+5)—1[el2e+4|= de 2| <.09 when [2-+2|-<.015. 6 = 010 19. ffa}= 24 4,0=2.L=8¢=03 » Because a> 0, then xy, 2, >0. +03, 274.3, 13, 289.1, 2, = EF = 19M, 9-2, = 076. 284 s 2074, cy —2= AA. F= ATA, Choose £< 1s0 -1ee-2e1dee42<5, [tet +4) -8| ale? —4|=]2+2||2-2/< 5]2—21< 0.9 when [2-2] < 06 = 6 Be 20. f(z) =r? =32,0=3,L=0,¢=.08 Because f is increasing at 3, r, corresponds to the smatler value of f. Because a> 0, 2, and 2, > 0) 3a b08 = 0, 2 Yat y= 4( 08] = 2.973. 4a + (574 4(.08)] = 3.026 22-08 = 0, 2» 2,502, 2,3 = 26. 6 = 026 Choose 6c 1s -1ermdelter |@r+5)—5[ [3243] =e + ll0 such that if <|2—B)-<8 then [(42—11) 9)

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