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element in
airline training
April 2003
This Paper represents the views of the Specialist Group of the Society and of the Guild committee that was involved with
its preparation. It has not been discussed outside the Learned Society Board or the Guilds Secretariat. As such, it does not
necessarily represent the views of the Society or the Guild as a whole, or any other Specialist Group or Committee.
The Flight Operations Group has a committee membership of 25 persons from the airline operating and training sectors. Its primary
objective is aviation safety and training.
The FOG is a discussion group which focuses on issues which primarily concern civil aviation, although it touches upon aviation
safety in the armed forces, specifically where the safety issues could be applicable to civilian operations. Its membership is highly
respected within the civil aviation operations areas and brings together countless years of experience in this field.
Flight Operations Group Committee memberrs
Capt R Macdonald (Chairman), Capt R. Kohn (Vice chairman), B.M. Collings (Secretary), P.P. Baker, M. Bell, A.E. Bunn,
L. Foat (YMB), L.J. Ghibaut, M.P. Green, Capt P. Griffiths, Capt R.K.J. Hadlow, M.E.J. Hickmott, Capt J.C. Hutchinson,
A. Lamb, Capt S.P.J. Lyttle, Capt D.A.J. Martin, Capt C. McLaughlan, P. Moxham, P.G. Richards, Capt T. Sindall,
Capt P.H.S. Smith, Capt A. Stokes, A.G. Thorning and Capt P. Wilson.
Participating Consultants: Capt G. Fretz, Capt S. Lawrence (US Air) and R.C. Metcalfe (NATS).
GAPAN EDUCATION AND TRAINING COMMITTEE
The education and Training Committee is made up of past and present instructors and examiners from Civil Aviation and the
Armed Forces. Aircrew licensing and training matters are constantly kept under review and close links are maintained with the
Regulatory Authorities to further general training quality and standards.
Education and Training Committee Members
Captain D.A. Martin (Chairman), Grp Capt R.W. Gault (Vice chairman), G.P. Austin, D.M.S. Simpson, Sqdn Ldr A. Banfield, Capt M.
Butterworth, AVM P. Dodworth, Capt C.E. Elton, Capt R. Felix, Lt Col C. Finnigan, Capt G.L. Fretz, Capt T.R. Fulton, Capt I.W.B. Gibbs,
Capt S.J. Green, Capt N.J. Harris, M.E.J. Hickmott, Mrs D. Hockings, Sqdn Ldr R. Jarvis, Capt R. Kohn, Capt D.A. Lewis, Capt D. Lewry,
Capt J. Mason, Capt A.C. MacLauchlan, Capt L. Watson and Sqdn Ldr N. Wilcock.
CONTENTS
8
8
9
9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
Term
A
Ab Initio
AE
AIC
AME
ATC
ATPL
ATTITB
BALPA
CAA
CAP
CFIT
CFS
CPL
CRE
CRI
CRM
EU
FCL
FI
FL
FRAeS
FTO
GA
GD
GAPAN
GASIL
GID
H
HF
ICAO
Inter alia
I/R
IRE
IRI
JAA
JAR
JAR/FCL1
JAR/FCL2
JAR/FCL3
JAR OPS 1
Definition
Aeroplane(s)
Latin for From the beginning; as in Elementary
Flying Training
Authorised Examiner
Aeronautical Information Circular (UK CAA)
Aviation Medical Examiner
Air Traffic Control
Airline Transport Pilot Licence
Air Transport and Travel Industry Training Board
British Air Line Pilots Association
Civil Aviation Authority, UK National Aviation
Regulator
Civil Aviation Publication, UK
Controlled Flight Into Terrain
Central Flying School; RAF school for Service Flight
Instructors
Commercial Pilot Licence
Class Rating Examiner
Class Rating Instructor
Crew Resources Management
European Union
Flight Crew Licensing
Flying Instructor
Flight Level
Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society
Flying Training Organisation
General Aviation
Guidance Document
Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators, London
General Aviation Safety Information Leaflet (UK CAA)
General Information Document (UK CAA)
Helicopter(s)
Human Factors (ergonomics); the study of the
efficiency of people in their working environment
International Civil Aviation Organization
Latin for Among others
Instrument Rating
Instrument Rating Examiner
Instrument Rating Instructor
Joint Aviation Authorities
Joint Aviation Regulation(s)
JAA Flight Crew Licensing Requirements
(Aeroplane pilots)
JAA Flight Crew Licensing Requirements
(Helicopter pilots)
JAA Flight Crew Licensing Medical Requirements
JAA Commercial Air Transport Requirements
(Aeroplanes)
Term
JAR OPS 3
Definition
JAA Commercial Air Transport Requirements
(Helicopters)
LASORS
Licensing, Administration & Standardisation,
Operating Requirements & Safety manual
(UK CAA Publication)
LOFT
Line Oriented Flight Training
MCC
Multi Crew Co-operation
ME
Multi-engine
MPA
Multi-Pilot Aeroplane
MRAeS
RAeS membership grade; Member of the Royal
Aeronautical Society
NAA
National Aviation (Regulatory) Authority
NPPL
National Private Pilot Licence
PIC
Pilot In Command
PLD
Personnel Licensing Department (UK CAA)
PPL
Private Pilot Licence
RA
Radio Altimeter
RAF
Royal Air Force
RAeS
Royal Aeronautical Society
Raison dtre Reason for being; French term
RVSM
Reduced Vertical Separation Minima
(above FL 290)
SE
Single-engine
SET
Single engine turbo-propeller aircraft
SFE
Synthetic Flight Examiner
SFI
Synthetic Flight Instructor
SPA
Single Pilot Aeroplanes
TMG
Touring Motor Glider
TO/GA
Take-off/Go-around; power setting selected via
throttle mounted switches
TRE
Type Rating Examiner
TRI
Type Rating Instructor
TRTO
Type Rating Training Organisation
UK
United Kingdom
Vade-mecum Latin for Go with me; a useful handbook carried
for constant reference (pocket companion)
VAT
Velocity at Threshold (1?3 Vs)
VMCG
Minimum Control Speed to keep aircraft straight
using rudder while on the runway, after engine
failure during take-off
VR
Rotation Speed; speed at which the aircraft is lifted
off the ground and into the air during take-off
Vs
Stalling speed for a given weight and
configuration
V1
Speed up to which take-off can be safely
discontinued on a particular runway
V2
Minimum Safety speed after becoming airborne,
for a given aircraft weight
April 2003
INTRODUCTION
of human factors guidance has been made available. Yet there is
still some way to go in providing instructors and examiners with
all the suitable material that could be of help when dealing with
their charges, in the new JAA environment where there seems to
be a resurgence of the regrettable check-to-chop mentality that
was part of the scene in by-gone days. This negative attitude may
be the result of the way Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR) are
presented and interpreted. Some failings of the present system
are identified in this document without offering a solution in
detail, because in-depth answers are considered to be outside its
scope. However, a number of possible avenues to follow are
occasionally suggested but any present system faults noted were
thought best left for others to correct, once mentioned.
HUMAN FEELINGS
2.0 AWARENESS OF HUMAN FEELINGS IN FLYING TRAINING
2.1 Sources of information
19. A trainee instructor in the UK can find a certain amount of
information about the practicalities of how to become an
instructor. Generally speaking, in the world of ab initio training
within the aero-club and flying school environments, little is
covered other than the basic rudiments of flying instruction
patter; that is, the standard words to be used when a flight
manoeuvre or procedure is taught. A new instructor will find
some guidance that will prepare him for the problems that he
may, indeed WILL encounter when dealing with students and
other people around him with respect to the basic personal
emotions involved. These human factors can be best described as
the ability, some might say the art, of relating to others and
understanding behaviour.
HUMAN FEELINGS
flight simulators allow errors that could otherwise be fatal to be
made in total safety on the ground, from which lessons are learnt.
In addition, the simulators ability for frequent resets permits the
repeat of an exercise with the least amount of wasted time, to
reinforce a message or procedural point. Simulators are also used
in real time to familiarise crews with normal, abnormal and
emergency procedures during Line Oriented Flight Training
(LOFT) sessions and practice circuit work, making them such
versatile and useful training tools. The most important word is
Training within a regular recurrent crew-testing programme, to
legally satisfy Regulations while achieving practically, the
essential best possible and operationally-safe result.
2.2 Where does one learn of human factors and related issues?
27. Like most of the authors colleagues and contemporaries, his
little knowledge of human beings was gleaned at a person-toperson level and by day-to-day contact with working associates in
aviation. Much was learned over the years by observing and
talking to other more experienced instructors, both good and
bad. Regretfully, learning also came by making mistakes.
10
Pre-flight checks.
11
12
IMMEDIATE REACTION
IMMEDIATE REACTION
IMMEDIATE REACTION
NO REACTION
DELAYED REACTION
58. Now consider the factors that affect HOW an instructor should
deal with a mistake when it is appropriate to do so. Looking at A,
B, C and D above:
A. Where safety is concerned, an error must be corrected
immediately; so DO INTERVENE IMMEDIATELY to stop the
trainee in his tracks before a disaster actually occurs. Inevitably
the word or action will be sharp and will give the learning
trainee a shock. Split seconds do not allow for gentle soothing
warnings. The short sharp shock can be a powerful modifier of
behaviour. Once danger is avoided, then the message can be
reinforced calmly by questioning. It may seem easier to tell a
trainee what he has done and why it is dangerous but he is
more likely to remember if he has thought it out alone. The
answer to WHY these questions should be asked is twofold.
They should be asked to:
a. See if the trainee knows what he has done wrong. If he
does not, lead him to understand by further questions,
what he has or has not done; and
b. Establish if the trainee understands the implication of what
he did or did not do.
B. When errors in manual skill or memorising a fact of procedure
occur, they should be dealt with IMMEDIATELY, but care must
be taken not to disrupt flow as flying is a dynamic exercise.
The phase should be completed and THEN analysed. Within this
constraint, first ask yourself WHY? Then, AS SOON AS POSSIBLE
(or PRACTICABLE), try to establish if the trainee knows:
a. He is at fault.
b. What the fault is.
c. Why it has occurred.
d. How to overcome it.
59. By doing this the risk of trainees becoming too dependent can
be avoided. It also encourages them to take responsibility for
diagnosing their own errors and deciding how they need to
change their behaviour. Sometimes they do not know what
change of behaviour is required or how to achieve it and this is
when the instructor can help and advise.
C. When first attempts fall short of correct standards because of
lack of practice it is best to take NO ACTION, so long as the
trainee knows what is wanted. Too much comment may
overload and be construed as nit picking.
13
c.
d.
e.
14
f.
A340-600.
c.
15
* Find reasons
* Find reason by tactful
questioning
8. The Yes I understand, who
* May feel insecure, and
unable to admit he did not really * Could need the layered
understand
cake principle to
demonstrate each point
well
7. Preoccupied
5.5.2 Group 2
Student Type
9. The jokes artist
Or is he the ROGUE one
who knowingly disguises that
he is mischievous, troublesome,
unruly and falls short of the
required standard?
16
How to handle
* Useful to have around as
a safety valve
* Rein-in so that he does
not take-over using his
entertainers mantle,
instead of allowing the
lesson to continue
* Be aware that he may be
hiding a sense of
insecurity or some
inadequacy under a bluff
exterior. Treat
accordingly
* HE is one of the
MAJORITY of people
around
* Accept gratefully
* Enjoy training him !
* Merely an extension of
Mr Average
* Encourage, but provide
object lessons to deter
overconfidence
5.5.3 Group 3
Student Type
12. The Questions man. (Dissects
a pump instead of learning how
to use it)
How to handle
* Try object lesson to bring
home the need for
application of relevant
knowledge. (Line
Oriented Flight Training
principles may be useful)
PHASES OF CONVERSION
13. He who answers all the questions * Will allow little or no
input from other
students if not slowed
down
* Encourage but provide
object lessons to deter
overconfidence
* Restrain, and make sure
others are given equal
chances to reply
* Treat gently as this may
hide a possible state of
UNDERCONFIDENCE
14. The impatient student (Thinks
* Only present the
of what is yet to come instead
necessary training one
of listening)
step at a time, with
clearly set goals for each
stage
* Explain how every stage
underpins each that
follows
* Accelerate through a
particular stage if it is
clearly understood and
well flown
* If necessary, separate the
slow learner from a
quick partner if the
slower pace appears to
cause impatience on the
one hand, and inevitable
frustration for the slower
colleague on the other
15. Bombastic (Pompous with a
* Needs to be educated in
grandiose attitude and an
person-to-person
inflated ego?)
relationships
* Avoid confrontations
* Must be taught to
control over-confidence
16. Aggressive
* May have chip on his
shoulder; or in other
words, having a bitter
and defiant manner,
ready to take offence
usually about a
perceived unfairness to
him.May possibly have
an openly un-admitted
weakness in personality
and/or background.
* Find reasons
* Deal as you would the
bombastic.
83. In conclusion, no two students will react in the same manner
in any given situation. It is therefore up to the instructor to get to
know his material and how best to sell it. The audience is captive
and very willing to buy... but the sale is never a foregone
conclusion. The salesman must WORK for it!
6.0 PHASES OF CONVERSION TRAINING TO A NEW AIRCRAFT
TYPE (With apologies for the alliterative treatment used to
help the recall of key points)
6.1 Phase One Technical instruction
Ground school
The student
CONSTRUCTION period
* LEARNS the technicalities
of a new aeroplane
Student behaviour
The instructor
Student behaviour
The instructor
CONFIRMATION period
* ESTABLISHES that ground
school information is
correct
* EXPLORES drills
co-incidentally
* EXPERIMENTS with new
procedures
* EYEBALLS new equipment
* Still wishes to please
* Is still prepared to learn
* Still wants something
from the instructor
* Wishes to show that he
IS learning
* May show signs of
impatience with himself
should he make mistakes
during systems trainer
sessions or if he forgets
drills
* Will get tense and
nervous prior to the
FIRST HURDLE (The
technical examination)
* Needs patience and an
understanding manner
* Will still have a lot of
talking to do
* Must let student make
mistakes without
becoming irritated
* Should try to eliminate
such mistakes from the
students repertoire
before the simulator
stage
* Must never talk DOWN
TO or talk AT the student
April 2003
17
PHASES OF CONVERSION
* Needs to give time and
attention to weak areas
of knowledge or drills
* Should stay friendly,
attentive to the students
questions and always
remember the
encouraging smile
The instructor
The student
(Amplifying)
Student behaviour
18
CONFIRMATION period
extension leading to
COMPETENCY (It is also
an ADJUSTMENT and
ADAPTATION period)
* COMPARES with known
procedures
* CONFORMS to new drills
* COMBINES new flight
procedures with new
technical knowledge to
achieve: a. Required
manual dexterity b.
Necessary handling
COMPETENCY
Modifies known
handling skills to
achieve the necessary
change of inputs and
responses so as to
obtain the desired effect.
Adapts responses & after
practice made these
perfect, adopts them
* Still needs something
from the instructor. This
will be the COMPETENCY
accolade
* Accepts what the
instructor says without
arguing
* Will start to compare
with similar drills known
from other aircraft flown
* Will now look for
reasons when
differences are met
* Tries to show that he has
ABILITY
* May be anxious and not
relaxed
* Probably reflects tension
in some form or other
* Is beginning to resent
the need to be
subservient. Yet he
knows that he is still on
the receiving end
* Knows that he therefore
needs to keep on the
right side of his
instructors for a while
longer
* May show traces of
irritation, but will try to
control any outbursts
* In contrast, may be
apologetic in his
approach to handling, or
while he is flying,
however good (or bad) it
may be
* Must continue to brief
IN FULL prior to every
exercise period
* Initially may need to
refresh the student on
aircraft systems
geography
* Will interfere less and
less with performance of
the student
* Should let the pilot make
mistakes to learn from
* Will remember to:
keep sessions friendly
and relaxed
debrief fully after each
period
encourage discussionremain calm and
unhurried (even if repeat
exercises take more
time than planned)
be clear in the spoken
word at all times
* Should maintain an
interest in his students as
persons
* Will never abandon the
pleasant manner
PHASES OF CONVERSION
86. If more than the minimum number of circuits is required, then
so be it. Think of it as short sighted to release a pilot for route
flying under supervision without having satisfactorily completed
take-offs, approaches and landings to the demanded standard, to
save tyres or flying hours. Then again, when on a zero flight time
conversion course that is wholly carried out on a suitably
Approved flight simulator before a first supervised landing onthe-route during a normal public transport flight, may he make
you feel proud of how well he was taught.
6.5 Phase Five Route (or Line) flying
Route Training
The student
Student behaviour
Described
euphemistically as line
flying under supervision.
This phase is a
CONSOLIDATION period
to develop familiarity,
without ...
COMPLACENCY
* The Student progresses
towards:
Lateral transfer of
background skills
achieved previously
Transposal of routine
operational thinking
into the new
environment
Application of newly
acquired skills, albeit a
little timidly at first
Demonstration of
increased ability and
confidence with time
Achievement of
acceptable level of
proficiency to allow
operation without
supervision
* He is back in the familiar
situation although for
the moment he is in an
environment that may
seem rather strange to
him
* As he slowly gets used to
this new environment his
confidence envelope
slowly broadens
* Wants to achieve the
same COMFORT level in
the new aircraft
operation as he had
achieved when flying on
his previous equipment
* Still needs something
from the instructor:
Clearance to fly as part
of a normal crew
without a supervising
instructor/examiner
observing.
* Shows increased
independence from the
instructor; with the
passage of time, takes
the initiative in
operational decisions
more often
The instructor
19
* Relief
* Antagonism may begin
to develop towards the
instructor(s), now that
nothing more is wanted
from him (them)
Gratitude felt at the
time when all training
has been completed
successfully may be of
short duration.
* Thereafter the instructor
becomes more remote as
a friendly person and
turns into the tester or
checker of airmen. He is
therefore a trapper and
is now a symbolic threat
to the continued
operational life of the
pilot fraternity.
* With all the conversion
to a new aircraft type
training hurdles behind
the trainee and only
recurring annual checks
to tackle from then on,
the threat can best be
dealt with by removing
IT or ONESELF from the
scene. The students
attitude can now be
expected to COOL.
* Notwithstanding the
above, the instructor is
often remembered long
after training is over. He
is usually thought of not
as an enemy but as a
friend who made
possible continued life as
a pilot.
88. From here on, the students behavioural patterns may vary.
Often, the instructor will have become one of those who live on
the other side of the fence in the mind of the persons concerned.
He will have joined the ranks of the supervisory staff and is
therefore no longer one of the boys. This should not
discourage the instructor. It goes with the job though it does at
times make recurrent semi-annual or annual refresher training
and testing periods less pleasant than they could be.
20
89. More often than not this is not a problem and life as an
instructor remains a fulfilling task however tiring it is in reality. Be
it as it may, there really is no glamour attached to being an
instructor and examiner. The responsibilities are heavy and the
reward intangible, other than seeing ones eaglets turning into
soaring (bald?) eagles. Regardless of the threat to income,
HONESTY and CREDIBILITY must remain paramount or there is no
INTEGRITY. If not, the system disintegrates.
6.7 The next six months
90. This is the beginning of the MATURATION period. Eventually
the fully relaxed operation that had been normal in the old
environment is re-achieved, but now in the new. At last the warm
mantle of COMFORT is there once again with the return of
complete CONFIDENCE.
7.0 THE FAILED STUDENT
7.1 Degree of Failure
TOTAL
PARTIAL
MARGINAL PASS
Active (aggressive?)
* Encourage gentle
discussion on the
exercise
* Try to make the trainee
tell you what his fail
points were. Ask
questions to assist recall
* Go over the drills at fault
or the incorrect flight
profile, to establish
whether they were
originally correctly
understood. Get trainees
to describe the required
action(s). There and then
compare with published
procedure, thus making
a point
* Sound caring and
understanding
* Speak words of
encouragement on the
way to a next attempt
* Take additional time on
subsequent pre-flight
briefing
* Stand your ground firmly
* Do not get drawn into
an argument
* Restate the facts as you
have noted them at the
time
* Remain equable
21
22
the time and should not be turned into automatons of action and
word, the same broad party line is an essential prerequisite for all
instructors to follow. Even if they only differed on minor matters,
confusion could easily be fostered in students minds however
inadvertently and unintentionally.
102. It has been known for instructors to say: Although the
manual sets out this procedure in the way it does ... what I
normally do is .... This puts the trainee in a quandary. He wishes
to please, so he flies the procedure exactly as he believes his
teacher prefers it to be flown ... TO PLEASE that instructor. Then
comes the next day. What should that student do when the next
teacher asks him for a demonstration of what he believes was
taught and expects it flown according to the training manual?
Would the student not feel aggrieved if he were to be failed for
doing exactly as he had been told to do the day before?
103. Use of prepared instructional audio-visual packages helps to
ensure the overall standardisation of content for students, with
the instructor as supervisor, clarifier or demonstrator to help
trainees who are not clear about what it is that they have seen or
heard. Standardisation is encouraged and pre-prepared lesson
material is complemented by a regular continuation training
programme for instructors, when maybe an instructor is recorded
on video tape as he lectures a class of fellow instructors on a
particular subject. Replay of the video tape and self-critique,
together with general group discussion led by the session leader,
then goes a long way towards instructor awareness of points to
watch out for and improved teaching cum lecturing standards. A
strong sense of team spirit and the sure knowledge that the team
is at work to improve the product, are essential ingredients of
such a programme. There must never be any feeling that a witchhunt is in progress.
104. As a corollary, it is clear that Examiners also need a standard
approach to their discipline, exactly like instructors, if fair evenhandedness is to prevail when they test for proficiency.
Standardisation programmes similar to those for instructors
therefore need to address the manner of achieving such
impartiality.
7.2.3 The despondent student
105. Total failure for whatever the reason is difficult to justify. It
may be hard to explain, particularly when dealing with an
otherwise experienced pilot who will have demonstrated his
ability in the past. In such a case, one is not dealing with an ab
initio pilot who has yet to satisfy all his masters with his ability to
fly, let alone operate the aircraft and manage its flight deck. It
may be necessary to look searchingly for a reason when faced
with such a situation.
7.3 The deteriorating performance
106. Poor or deteriorating performances from the part of a pilot
may become particularly evident when he is on a new aircraft
type conversion course, or they may occur over a longish period
during periodic recurrent checks. This negative trend should be
questioned. It may be that lack of handling practice on modern
automated flight decks is the root cause of such deterioration in
manual dexterity. Attention must therefore be given to positive
value training before and during the mandatory semi annual
handling proficiency test sessions, to halt and reverse such
negative trends in a pilot's ability to handle the aircraft accurately
when flying manually. On the other hand, a sudden failure may
bring to light an ongoing situation that should not have been
allowed but which could have developed because of many
reasons. Two in particular, need to be explored in the quest for a
possible explanation.
THOUGHT TO PONDER
7.3.1 Training department responsibility
107. Insufficient positive action on the part of the instructor(s) at
some time, may have permitted continued operation while the
subject was below known acceptable standards. In this context, a
few possibilities come to mind.
a. Little or no criticism of the correct nature and at the right time
may have lulled the trainee into believing that he could
continue to let his operation slip, without fear of being
brought to task by the training team.
b. Outside influences might have been brought to bear on the
instructor and the pilot then cleared to continue on operations
when he was not up to the mark.
c. Misguided loyalty, or the call of friendship, allowing an
otherwise totally unacceptable performance to count as a pass.
108. In all cases the integrity of the training machine and its staff
would be open to question.
7.3.2 Special situations
109. The choice of candidate for training could be at fault. A
number of possible reasons come to mind.
a. The young pilot: Assigning a person who has insufficient
experience or with a low number of flying hours straight from
flying school, might be a reason why he cannot cope at first
with the handling of a large airliner.
b. The older man: A possible scenario is that of an older pilot
moved from, say, a three crew turbo-prop environment to a two
crew state-of-the-art jet operation. The move from an aircraft
he is very familiar with and operates quite acceptably in the
three-crew role on a route network he knows well, could be just
that little bit too much. Though a safe and competent operator
on the aircraft that he knows well, his capacity bucket, that is
his ability to assimilate information, might be such that
converting to the new environment might prove difficult. A jet
aircraft may be too much to handle if never flown before and
adaptation to a glass cockpit two-crew operation not easy
because of more demanding standard operating procedures
and fewer hands to share the required duties. Such a situation
might force discontinuation of training and mean the return to
a previous fleet, if possible. In such circumstances, it might have
been better to avoid fleet transfer from the start, particularly
with a mature pilot of limited ability.
110. The alternative to an aircraft type conversion course in such
a case, would be to find good reason for continued operation on
the pilots current aircraft fleet, to avoid wasting time and money
spent on training and, most importantly, preventing hurt feelings
should the older candidate fail to make the grade.
111. An individual approaching retirement, or indeed (at any other
time), might be considered by training staff as being at the edge of
his comfort envelope and a marginal learner, though a competent
pilot in his present operational circle. If necessary, to make the offer
more palatable and with the pilots agreement, special
arrangements may be proposed, possibly including an additional
pay factor for not going on the new aircraft type conversion course.
Some form of added responsibility within his/her present fleet
might also be suggested as a reason for not offering a move. For a
variety of personal reasons, such an option could be particularly
attractive to a pilot who is looking for an acceptable alternative to
a move away from his/her present level of operational zone
comfort, with dignity and without humiliation.
112. If a personal family situation is not a reason to stay put, it is
always possible that however desirable the move to a new aircraft
type is, be it in monetary and/or personal ego terms, the pilot
concerned could be secretly feeling (indeed admitting, but not to
others) that the possibility of such a change was a bridge too far
23
Appendix A
It also encourages some senior management to see the
Proficiency Check (PC) as the regulatory imperative and only
obligation of recurrent training.
Some airlines complete the PC first, followed by recurrent and
refresher training in a resultant environment more conducive to
training objectives. The level of Checkitis which senior (older)
pilots develop is surprising. However on reflection, one can
recognise similar tendencies in the context of ones own checks in
the past. Such psychological constraints, that certainly do inhibit
training returns of the recurrent training variety, should be
avoided.
2.0 JAR OPS requirement
APPENDIX A
LOOKING AT TRAINING IN EUROPE UNDER JAA REGULATIONS
1.0 Raison dtre of training
While instructors now have to address the theory of teaching and
learning for their instructor rating, many are dismissive of inputs
from the outside world of teaching and principles of the related
psychology.
This document for instructors (and examiners) mainly focuses on
training for licence type ratings, as opposed to recurrent airline
training and checking, although reference is made in various
parts to the continued need for training during operators
proficiency checks, even under the new JAA regulations. The
feelings of those involved in both scenes are essentially the same
although the product is subtly different. On the one hand, a pilot
is taught how to operate a new aeroplane. On the other, the pilot
who was taught how to fly and operate the aircraft, now needs
refresher training to remember and recover proficiency to deal
with rarely used emergency and abnormal procedures, during his
routine day-to-day normal operations. When so doing, the focus
of Airline pilot training should address the needs of both the
operator and the pilots. That focus should be on updating, as well
as maintaining, the competences required of the pilot
throughout his/her career. If this is not regularly done during
recurrent training sessions, when and how will it ever be
achieved?
The scope widens to include not only conversion training, but also
pre-command training and the operators recurrent training and
checking required by JAR-OPS as compared to JAR FCL rules. JAROPS require the operators proficiency check (OPC) to be
undertaken twice as often as a licence type rating renewal for FCL
purposes. It must also be remembered that an airline pilot can
spend five, ten or more than even 20 years on a single type. It is
in this context that recurrent training is as vitally important to
continued safe operation as were the original licence and type
rating courses.
An early plea is made for recurrent testing to be an integral part
of the training process and a call is also made for the concept of
continuous assessment. However, it is the bureaucratic and
inflexible approach to the JAR FCL type rating renewal test that
drives the process in the opposite direction and promotes the
aggressive testing to induce failure approach (or check to chop).
24
Appendix B
Personnel Licensing Department staff of some State Regulatory
Authorities, seem to consider themselves as a group apart that is
working to their own regulatory imperative. JAR-FCL backs-up
this perception. They (the personnel licensing department
people) need to answer the questions Licensed for what?
and training for what? when dealing with aircrew matters,
while retaining a pragmatic approach to the application of
published rules.
There is also a need for an in-depth description to better justify
the licensing concept. Words like licensed to fly aeroplanes (or
whatever), are unclear in the context of explaining their intent in
any detail. JAR-FCL does not identify the purpose and scope of
the licensing system. In parallel, JAR-FCL makes virtually no
reference to safety, with the only exception being the MCC course
where the aim is to become proficient in multi-crew
co-operation (MCC) in order to operate safely multi-crew multiengine aeroplanes (AMC FCL 1.261(d)).
JAR FCL has extended a States obligation for the oversight of
licence privileges and ratings into maintenance of competency in
accordance with ICAO Annex 1, (at 1.2.5.1), by assuming directly
the oversight of the competency function, whereas Note 1 therein
indicates an acceptable means of compliance in accordance with
Annex 6. There now is considerable overlap between Annex 1
(1.2.5.1) and Annex 6 (9.4.4), with the pertinent exception that
the State does not assume the Operators responsibility.
Essentially, the State has authority over competence but does not
carry responsibility, which could be described as an undesirable
state of affairs.
While there is a high degree of commonality between JAR-FCL
and JAR-OPS, how can the trend not be towards the doctrinaire
application of the letter of the Regulation without any mitigation
of purpose or aim, when every Proficiency Check is treated as a
JAR-FCL test by training captains, formally designated as
TRIs/TREs.
5.0 Round up
Human factors need to be part of a coherent process. They must
be accounted for in the design of the aircraft, in the operating
procedures, in the operational environment, in training
procedures to achieve operational objectives and in the assurance
of competence to achieve the objectives of safety and accident
prevention.
Long before MCC, the question of crew integration in three-crew
procedures arose and was addressed in The Sixties. There was an
IATA technical conference dedicated to Human Factors in flight
operations in The Seventies. Human factors were raised and
supported in ICAO in The Eighties when LOFT and CRM were
introduced to address operational problems and needs. JAR OPS
has provided for advanced qualification programmes to allow for
what looked like innovative training measures in The Nineties,
with varying levels of effectiveness. Progress is still slow as we
enter the next century because Licensing Human Factors have
barely crossed the threshold of perception in a time scale of over
quarter of a century, which is far too long to still be in such a
barren wilderness in human factors education terms.
APPENDIX B
CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
UK CAA CAP 737 APPENDIX FACILITATION SKILLS
Courtesy of UK CAA, this CAP 737 extract is offered as a useful
reference and handy introduction to the subject of 'facilitation'
skills, which are explained in the text.
25
Appendix B
what to think. There are rare occasions when a sharp kick up the
backside delivered by the right person at the right time has the
desired effect, but in general, telling people to change their
attitude is not usually effective. This is particularly so if the person
doing the telling does not have the respect of the recipient, or
represents an authority that lacks credibility. Ironically, this is also
consistent with the instruction of positive behaviour, such as
keep up the good work which has been known to produce an
adverse reaction.
The reason for this is that a persons behaviour is based on past
experiences, values and beliefs which will be different from those
of others. Therefore, telling people to behave differently carries
the implication that their values and beliefs are wrong, and this is
not convincing. People generally behave in a way that they think
is rational, and often find it easy to justify their behaviour to
themselves and others. However, what they may not be aware of
is the effects of their behaviour on other people or the operation;
and that an alternative behaviour, which does not question their
values but has a more positive effect, may be something they
might wish to consider.
The technique of facilitation allows this process to occur,
although it is not just for the poor performer nor for the
development of attitudes. Facilitation can be equally used to
reinforce effective behaviour because it gives people an
understanding of why they are good which encourages their
continued development. Furthermore it can be used in the
development of skills and even knowledge, because it is an
effective tool for allowing self-analysis and in depth thought,
which is an easier way for people to learn, as there is less recourse
to memory techniques. The skills of self-analysis are not just to get
the most from the training session, but can also be continually
used for self-development on the line.
Table 1. Differences between instruction and facilitation
INSTRUCTING
FACILITATING
1. What do the words imply? Telling, showing Making easy,
enabling
2. What is the aim?
Transfer
Gain insight/selfknowledge and analysis to
develop skills
enable an
attitude change
3. Who knows the subject? Instructor
Both
4. Who has the experience
Instructor
Both
5. What is the relationship? Top down
Equal
6. Who sets the agenda
Instructor
Both
7. Who talks the most?
Instructor
Student
8. What is the timescale?
Finite
Infinite
9. Where is the focus?
Instructor/task
Student/attitudes
/behaviour
10. What is the workload?
Medium/high
Intense
11. What are trainers
Judgemental
Non-judgemental
thoughts?
12. How is progress evaluated?
Test
Observation/Self-assessment
Dr Guy Smith, NWA
Notes on Table 1
1. Although instructors have used facilitation techniques
naturally for many years; in its purest sense instructing has a
lot to do with telling, demonstrating and checking that the
task is being done in accordance with a standard. Whereas
facilitation means that students are given the opportunity to
discover what they are doing and the effect it has on others
and the task, so that they can make the decision themselves to
alter their behaviour or even reinforce any positive behaviour.
This process should be made as easy as possible.
26
Appendix B
9. The focus when instructing is often on the task and the
instructor how well they are doing, did they get things in
order, are they being clear, is the equipment working, are they
on time. With facilitation the focus must be solely on the
student, their attitudes and behaviour, and whether they are
learning and are comfortable with the process that is being
used. The focus should also be on the student demonstrating
an understanding and willingness to change.
10. Because each student is different and it is difficult to read
peoples minds, the workload while facilitating is intense, and
more so in a group. The facilitator in this respect is having
several conversations simultaneously, both verbally and non
verbally, and having to think on their feet in reaction to what
is being said. With instructing the workload is high in
preparation and initial delivery, but then reduces over time as
the instructor becomes more familiar with the material.
11. Although the trainers observations and training objectives
are inevitably judgemental, in order to prompt a students self
analysis; the attitude of the trainer when facilitating a debrief
should be non-judgemental. In other words, he or she must be
prepared to accept that the opinion of the student is valid and
not necessarily wrong, even though the trainers own
experience dictates otherwise. This attitude is the most
difficult to achieve genuinely, particularly for trainers who
have spent many years instructing and ensuring things are
right.
12. The evaluation of an instructing session is relatively simple
and measured by test, where a judgement is made whether
the standard has been achieved. When facilitating evaluation
is made by observation only and the students self-assessment.
Purpose
To get a more
accurate and
fuller
response.
Closed
Response
Unknown but
they will say
more than a
few words.
Example
What, when,
why, where,
who, how
To check
understanding
and to control
the discussion.
Probing/building To obtain
further
information.
Can be Yes,
Did you, were
No or specific you, had
data.
you
More in
depth
response.
Tell me more,
why was that,
explain
Summarising
Yes
Is what you
mean, have
you agreed
To confirm
agreement
Avoid:
2.2 Listening
It has often been said that hearing is done with your ears whereas
listening is done with your mind. In this respect the term active
listening means that a person is concentrating carefully on what
is being said, so that they can really understand the other person.
This mnemonic helps to capture some key points:L Look interested
I Inquire with questions
S Stay on target
T Test understanding
E Evaluate the message
N Neutralise your thoughts, feelings and opinions
2.3 Body language
Reading body language and managing your own are essential
when facilitating. A trainer should be able to know when a
student is uncomfortable, confused, interested, distracted or
bored. Furthermore it is important that a trainer is able to
manage their own body language so that the messages they are
giving are accurate and consistent.
2.4 Observation of behaviour
The ability to observe and discuss behaviour and attitudes rather
than technical issues is an important skill that trainers need to
develop to become effective at facilitation. Also trainers should
have the ability to observe behaviour objectively against
established standards.
2.5 Role modelling
As attitude is an imprecise part of competency, there is no better
way of demonstrating appropriate behaviour than role
modelling. This is because the student can observe at first hand
what this behaviour is and experience the positive effects on
themselves. Furthermore, in order to maintain credibility as a
trainer in human factors, it is important that you behave to the
highest level of CRM standards.
2.6 Giving and receiving criticism
A trainer should be able to receive criticism well in order to
develop and be approachable. Furthermore, there may be
occasions when it is appropriate and constructive to give students
direct criticism and this must be carefully handled.
3.0 Continuous development
In order to ensure that you are able to continuously improve your
facilitation skills, the recommended method is to seek feedback
from those you are training. This must be done regularly and
genuinely, otherwise you may not be given anything useful - and
a measure of whether you are doing this well is whether you do
in fact get any criticism. If you find that people are not giving you
any criticism then the following may be occurring:a. You are perfect.
b. You have developed a reputation as someone who has
difficulty receiving criticism.
c. You are not respected enough to deserve being told.
27
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX C
1.0 JAA/JAR LICENCES, TRAINING AND TESTING
1.1 Overview of pilot training under JAR-FCL rules
The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAR) represent the Civil Aviation
Departments of a group of European States who have
collaborated to set common safety standards called Joint Aviation
Requirements (JAR) in the areas of airworthiness, flight
operations and aircrew licensing. The JAR relating to Flight Crew
Licensing for aeroplanes (JAR-FCL1) and helicopters (JAR FCL2),
have now been formally adopted and implemented in the UK and
all future UK pilots will be issued with JAR-FCL licences by the UK
Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). Advantages of licences issued in
accordance with JAR-FCL is that they enable a holder to work as
a pilot in any JAA State that is also a member of the European
Union (EU) and where the EU freedom of employment legislation
applies, without the need for formal acceptance of the holders
licence by the State concerned. However, some European Airlines
impose entry requirements that are additional to the need for an
appropriate JAA flying licence and call for a National Certificate
of Education to a particular local standard and/or fluency in the
language of the State of the prospective employer airline.
1.2 Pilot licences and ratings requirements under
EU JAR-FCL Rules
Under the present European JAR system, there are three types of
aeroplane or helicopter flying licences that can be obtained
after formal tuition at an approved flying training centre. The
licences are the Private Pilot Licence (PPL), the Commercial Pilot
Licence (CPL) and the Airline Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL).
Details of qualifications and training required to obtain a fixed
wing aircraft (Aeroplanes) pilot licence may be found in JAR-FCL1
and in JAR-FCL2 for Helicopters.
Pilots undergo rigorous and extensive training at Regulatory
Authority approved flying schools, leading to the issue of a
Private or Professional JAA licence. Professional pilot licence
training may either be on an Integrated full time basis from
learning to fly until licence issue, or Modular in concept where
attendance at a school is not continuous but phased. The UK CAA,
as the designated Regulatory Authority, approves UK flying
school courses, authorises instructors and examiners and issues all
JAA licences and the UK NPPL. Full details of courses can be
obtained directly from Flying Training Schools. A full listing of
currently JAA approved training centres (UK based or overseas)
may be obtained from the UK CAA Personnel Licensing
Department (PLD) at Aviation House, Gatwick Airport (South
area) and on the UK CAA FCL Internet website.
1.2.1 Private Pilot Licences
The Private Pilot Licence (Aeroplanes) (PPL (A)) is restricted to
recreational pilots and does not allow the holder to receive
remuneration for piloting other than for instructing or testing on
microlight aircraft or Self-launching Gliders. In addition to the
JAA PPL, the UK CAA has now introduced a National Private Pilot
Licence (NPPL) for recreational pilots who only wish to fly simple
aircraft types within the UK airspace. To exercise the privileges of
a private pilot licence, the holder must at least have a valid JARFCL3 / Class 3 medical certificate and a current Class or Type rating
for the aircraft to be flown.
1.2.2 Professional Pilot Licences
The Commercial Pilot Licence and the Airline Transport Pilot
Licence are for professional pilots who seek remuneration in
28
Description
Single-engine
piston (land)
SE (sea)
Single-engine
piston (sea)
TMG
Touring
Motor Glider
ME (land)
Multi-engine
piston (land)
ME (sea)
Multi-engine
piston (sea)
SET (by manufacturer) Single-engine
turboprop (land)
SET (by manufacturer) Single-engine
turboprop (sea)
Test
Examiner
validity
24 months FE or CRE
24 months FE or CRE
24 months FE or CRE
12 months CRE/TRE/FSE
12 months CRE/TRE/FSE
24 months CRE/TRE/FSE
24 months CRE/TRE/FSE
APPENDIX C
a. A separate Airworthiness type certificate, and/or
b. Different minimum flight crew complements, and/or.
c. Handing characteristics that require additional flying or
simulator training.
1.2.4 Aircraft ratings for aeroplanes not covered by JAR FCL
requirements
Aircraft ratings not covered by the requirements of JAR-FCL1
include Self-launching motor gliders, Microlights, Powered
parachutes, Gyroplanes, Balloons, Airships, Helicopter type
ratings, or Flight Engineer.
The instructor and examiner structure for training and testing
pilots towards the issue and revalidation of these ratings is similar
to the JAR FCL system, if not the same.
1.2.5 Class and Type Rating Training centres
a. A Single engine Class Rating can be obtained at an Aero Club,
a Flying School or at a Flying Training Organisation (FTO) centre.
b. A Multi-engine Class Rating can only be obtained at an
approved Flying Training Organisation (FTO) or Type Rating
Training Organisation (TRTO).
c. An Approved Type Rating Rating must be obtained at a
Flying Training Organisation (FTO) or Type Rating Training
Organisation (TRTO), if not at an approved airline in-house
training school.
1.2.6 Instrument Rating (IR) and Instrument Meteorological
Conditions (IMC) Rating
The Instrument Rating is probably the most daunting part of
obtaining a professional licence. The Initial Instrument Rating is
normally conducted by a Regulating Authority Instrument Rating
Examiner (Aeroplane or Helicopters), on the aircraft and in the
airspace of the State issuing the licence (respectively the UK CAA
in UK airspace for British licence holders, unless otherwise
arranged). Thereafter, Instrument Rating revalidations may be
carried out on an aeroplane by an Instrument rating examiner, a
suitably qualified Type rating examiner or a Class rating examiner.
Alternatively, a Synthetic Flight examiner may renew the IR on a
Flight Simulator certificated for the purpose. Note that a multiengine IR is valid for single-engine aeroplanes but a multi-pilot IR
is not valid for single-pilot operations (and vice versa). In some
cases, the IR may be type-specific.
The Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) rating for JARFCL Private Pilot licence holders allows them to fly in Class D and
E airspace in circumstances that require compliance with
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) but not on special VFR flights in
Control Zones when the flight visibility is less than 3km, or to take
off and land at any place if the flight visibility below cloud is less
than 1,800 metres. This rating may be revalidated by a suitably
qualified Authorised Examiner.
1.2.7 Class and Type Rating renewals
a. The renewal of a Class or Type rating is by way of a
proficiency test with an Authorised Class or Type Rating
Examiner or a Synthetic Flight Examiner if conducted in a
flight simulator. In the case of a single pilot class rating, the
examiner can be a Flight Examiner. A minimum number of
flying hours need to have been flown between proficiency
tests as part of the renewal procedure.
b. For Touring Motor Gliders (TMG) and Single Engine Pilots
(SEP), any CAA or JAA Authorised Examiner can sign the
revalidation on the basis of experience in the period
preceding the application for renewal.
Flight Instructor
Flight Instructor Restricted)
Class Rating Instructor
Type Rating Instructor
Instrument Rating Instructor
Synthetic Flight Instructor
FI
FI(R)
CRI
TRE
IRI
SFI (Authorisation)
April 2003
29
APPENDIX C
2.1.2 Examiners
Once a period has been served as an Instructor and the necessary
experience obtained, appointment as Authorised Examiner may
be sought to carry out Pilot Licence Class, Type and other ratings
skill tests or revalidations. In the UK, Instructor pilots must first
attend the CAA Standardisation Core course and then pass a
practical test observed by a Regulatory Authority examiner before
being given an Examiner Authority. Examiner Authorities are
valid for not more than three years. Examiner Authority
revalidations are carried out by Regulatory Authority examiners.
Five roles of Authorised Examiner (AE) are recognised:
a. Flight Examiner
b. Type Rating Examiner
c. Class Rating Examiner
d. Instrument Rating Examiner
e. Flight Instructor Examiner
FE
TRE (aircraft) and/or
Synthetic Flight Examiner SFE
CRE
IRE
FIE
Initial
Skill test
Recurrent
Proficiency
IR or IMC
Revalidation
REMARKS
FI (R)
FI & IRI
FE (PPL)
FE (PPL)
FE (CPL)
IRE
FE (CPL)
FI (R)
FI
CRI
IRI
FI or CRI
FE (PPL)
FE (CPL)
CRE
CRE/IR
CRE or TRE
CRE
IRE CRE/IR
CRE or TRE
CRE/IR
IRE
CRI
SFI
TRI
FE
SFE
CRE or TRE
FE
SFE
CRE
IRE
CRE/IR
TRE/IR
At TRO or TRTO
or in-house
(Airline)
SFI
SFI/IRI
TRI
TRI/IRI
SFE
SFE/IRE
TRE
TRE/IRE
SFE
SFE/IRE
TRE
TRE/IRE
SFE/IRE
At TRO or TRTO
or in-house
(Airline)
SFE
SFE/IRE
TRE
TRE/IRE
LICENCE
PPL & CPL
CLASS RATINGS
1. SPA single engine
TYPE RATINGS
2. MPA single engine
MPA multi engine
30
TRE/IRE
SFE/IRE
TRE/IRE
At flying school, or
Aero club
Specified Types
Airline in-house
or at TRO/TRTO
(if approved
suitable
arrangements exist)
APPENDIX C
FE (CPL)
IRI
IRE
CRI (SPA)
CRE (SPA)
FIE
31
APPENDIX C
the Authority for this purpose, the ability to instruct a student
pilot to the level required for the issue of a PPL, including preflight, post-flight and theoretical knowledge instruction.
3.2.3 Privileges and provisos
The privileges of the holder of an unrestricted FI (A) rating are to
conduct flight instruction for:
a. The issue of a PPL (A) and class and type ratings for single
engine aeroplanes, provided that for type ratings the FI(A) has
completed not less than 15 hours on the relevant type in the
preceding 12 months.
b. The issue of a CPL (A); provided that the FI(A) has completed
at least 500 hours of flight time as pilot of aeroplanes,
including at least 200 hours of flight instruction.
c. Night flying.
d. The issue of an Instrument Rating, provided that the instructor
has:
i. At least 200 hours of flight time in accordance with
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), of which up to 50 hours may be
instrument ground time in a flight simulator; and
ii. Completed as a student an approved course comprising at
least 5 hours of flight instruction in an aeroplane, flight
simulator or other approved device and has passed the
appropriate FI(A) Skill Test.
e. The issue of a single pilot multi engine type or class rating
provided that the instructor meets the requirements for CRI
(SPA)
f. The issue of a FI (A) rating provided that the instructor:
i. Has completed 500 hours of instruction in aeroplanes.
ii. Has demonstrated to a FI(A) examiner the ability to instruct
a student FI(A) during an appropriate skill test.
iii. Is authorised by the Regulatory Authority for this purpose.
3.2.4 Limitations
Certain limitations apply until the necessary experience has been
obtained while acting as a Restricted Flight Instructor FI(R) under
the supervision of a fully qualified FI(A), before the restriction
clause is removed from the holder's Instructor rating by the
Regulatory Authority.
After the initial issue of a FI (A), restricted privileges apply until
the completion of at least 100 hours flight instruction plus the
supervision of at least 25 student solo flights. To conduct flight
training for the issue of professional pilots licences, the FI is
required to have completed a minimum of 500 hours flying of
which not less than 200 hours must have been spent carrying-out
flight instruction.
3.2.5 Broadening the scope of the initial Flight Instructor Rating
Further ratings are required in respect of night flying instruction,
IR instruction, single-pilot multi-engine instruction and
instruction for the FI rating itself. Finally there is the Flight
Instructor Examiner (Aeroplanes) who conducts skill tests and
proficiency checks for the issue or revalidation of the FI (A).
He/she is required to have at least 2,000 flying hours in aeroplanes
and not less than 100 hours of flight time instructing potential FIs.
3.2.6 Revalidation and renewal
To revalidate a FI(A), the holder shall fulfil two of the following
three requirements:
a. Complete at least 100 hours of flight instruction during the
period of validity of the rating, including at least 30 hours of
flight instruction in the 12 months preceding the expiry date
of the FI rating. Of the 30 hours, 10 hours shall be instruction
for an Instrument Rating, if the privileges to instruct for IR are
to be revalidated.
32
APPENDIX C
If the rating has lapsed, the applicant shall have within the 12
months preceding the application:
a. Received refresher training as a CRI (A) to the satisfaction of
the Authority; and
b. Passed as a proficiency check the relevant part (i.e. ME or SE)
of the skill test set out in Appendix 1 to JAR-FCL 1.330 & 1.345.
3.4 Type Rating Instructor Multi Pilot Aeroplanes
TRI (MPA)
To become a TRI (MPA) it is necessary to attend a relevant course
at an Approved Training Organisation, or a Type Rating Training
Organisation, or to undergo an Operator in-house training
programme.
3.4.1 Experience and qualification requirements
An applicant for the initial issue of a TRI (MPA) rating shall have:
a. Completed at least 1,500 hours flight time as a pilot of multipilot aeroplanes;
b. Completed within the 12 months preceding the application at
least 30 route sectors, to include take-offs and landings as
pilot-in-command or co-pilot on the applicable aeroplane
type, or a similar type as agreed by the Authority, of which not
more than 15 sectors may be completed in a flight simulator;
and
c. Successfully completed an approved TRI course; and
d. Conducted on a complete type rating course at least one part
related to the duties of a TRI on the applicable type of
aeroplane under the supervision and to the satisfaction of a
TRI notified by the Authority for this purpose.
To revalidate a IRI (A), the holder shall fulfil two of the following
three requirements:
a. Complete at least 100 hours of flight instruction during the
period of validity of the rating, including at least 30 hours of
flight instruction in the 12 months preceding the expiry date
of the FI rating, of which 10 hours shall be instruction for an
Instrument Rating, if the privileges to instruct for IR are to be
revalidated.
b. Within the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the IRI
rating, attend a FI/IRI refresher seminar approved by the
Regulatory Authority.
c. Within the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the IRI
rating, pass the appropriate skill test as a proficiency check.
If the rating has lapsed, the applicant shall meet the requirement
under (b) and (c) above before the Regulatory Authority can look
to grant a renewal of the rating.
33
APPENDIX C
check on a flight simulator of the applicable type, as set out in
JAR-FCL 1, and
f. Within a period of 12 months, have completed at least three
route sectors as an observer on the flight deck of the applicable
type.
If the privileges are to be extended to further types of multi-pilot
aeroplanes the holder shall have:
a. Satisfactorily completed the simulator content of the relevant
type rating course; and
b. Conducted during a complete type rating course, at least one
part related to the duties of a TRI (A) on the applicable type of
aeroplane, under the supervision of a TRI (A) notified by the
Authority for this purpose.
3.6.2 Privileges
The privileges of the holder of a SFI (A) authorisation are to carry
out synthetic flight instruction on a flight simulator for type
ratings, including the instruction required for multi-crew
co-operation.
3.6.3 Revalidation and renewal
For revalidation of a SFI (A) authorisation The applicant
shall within the last 12 months of the validity period of the
authorisation:
a. Conduct one of the following parts of a complete type
rating/refresher/recurrent training course :
i. One simulator session of at least 3 hours; or
ii. One exercise of at least 1 hour comprising a minimum of 2
take-offs and 2 landings; or
b. Receive refresher training as a TRI (A) conducting simulated
training acceptable to the Authority.
If the authorisation has lapsed The applicant shall have:
a. Completed the simulator content of the applicable type-rating
course;
b. Successfully completed an approved TRI (A) course as agreed
by the Authority; and
c. Conducted during a complete type rating course, at least one
part related to the duties of a TRI (A) on the applicable type of
aeroplane, under the supervision of a TRI (A) notified by the
Authority for this purpose.
4.0 EXAMINER QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS AND
PRIVILEGES
4.1 General
4.1.1 Period of validity
4.1.2 Pre-requisites
34
4.3.1 Privileges
APPENDIX C
4.4 Class Rating Examiner Aeroplane (CRE (A))
4.4.1 Privileges
APPENDIX D
JAR FCL 1*
AMC 1.220
1.300
1.360
1.365
1.370
1.405
1.410
1.420
1.425
1.440
AMC 1.425
IEM 1.425
for helicopter
4.7.1 Privileges
April 2003
35
APPENDIX D
1.6 UK Aeronautical Information Circulars (available on web site
http://www.ais.org.uk)
White
65/02
Pink
36/02
Yellow
86/02
17/98
126/98
41/99
115/99
138/99
11/98
36/98
141/98
52/99
98/99
35/98
71/98
14/99
140/99
But in particular, asymmetric training and practise engine shutdowns in the air
(AIC 52/1999 Pink 193) as amended.
1.7 Flight Operations Communications FODCOM 10/99
1.8 The contents of CAA Standards Documents 14, 17, 23 and/or
24 as appropriate to the Examiner Rating sought.
2.0 NEED-TO-KNOW FOR AUTHORISED EXAMINERS
2.1 The Air Navigation Order (ANO)
a. Definition of Terms (Article 129)
b. Schedule 8 (In detail), to include
i. Privileges of Licences.
ii. Initial licence ratings requirements.
iii. Maintaining validity of Ratings according to intended use.
iv. Certificates of Test/Check (C of T/C), Certificate of
Experience (C of E) or of Revalidation. (Establish
applicability for intended use)
v. Ratings Renewal Test Requirements.
vi. Effective dates of tests and validity of C of T/C, C of E or
Revalidation.
vii. The Instrument Rating Renewal; details of test content.
viii. Type Rating Forms 1179/1180 details (with emphasis on
appended Notes).
ix. General Exemptions relating to ANO Articles, such as the
one regarding the validity of tests, to satisfy JAR periodic
test expiry (Now 12 months).
c. Schedule 10 and CAA Standards Documents 14, 17, 23 and/or
24 to include
i. Training and Tests for crews engaged in Public Transport
Operations.
ii. General training and tests content requirements.
iii. Effective dates for tests and validity of each Test.
2.2 CAP 360 and CAA Standards Documents 14, 17, 23,and 24.
a. Test requirements in detail, with particular emphasis on the
Operators Proficiency Check (OPC).
b. Engine Failure at Take-off; maximum speed for initiation
during training
i. On an aircraft;
ii. In a simulator; and
iii. VMCG corrections in a cross-wind (Source: CAA Flight Test
Department).
2.3 Combined Schedule 8 and 10 tests (with a training input to
satisfy Schedule 10) need to be discussed, to understand how
PASS/FAIL becomes diffused by the training element.
2.4 National Aeronautical Information Publication (UK/AIP)
Consult the RAC section for the Legal description of letdowns as the final arbiter of how correct is a let down chart.
2.5 Rules of ATC and State AIP requirements
a. Altimeter settings.
b. Quadrantal heights and RVSM aspects affecting operations
above FL 290.
36
c. Transition Altitudes.
d. Individual airfields Approach, Circling and Missed Approach
Procedures.
e. NDB let downs; Noise considerations below 2,000 feet on final
approach.
f. IFR / IFR and special VFR
g. Transponder codes normal/emergency
h. Filing of ATC flight plans to include Alternate(s)
i. Danger Areas
j. Radio equipment and Failure procedures
k. General MNPS requirements and NAT procedures
l. Rules of Thumb: 1 in 60 rule, wind drift assessment, estimating
ground speed and time to a station (e.g. VOR with DME) using
indicated Mach Number et al.
2.6 Aerodrome Operating Minima (AOM)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
APPENDIX D
a.
b.
c.
d.
Briefing
Recording
Assessing
De-briefing
37
APPENDIX D
3.1 THE LEARNING PROCESS
Motivation
Perception and understanding
Memory and its application
Habits and transfer
Obstacles to learning
Incentives to learning
Learning methods
Rates of learning
3.2 THE TEACHING PROCESS
Elements of effective teaching
Planning of instructional activity
Reaching methods
Teaching from the known to the unknown
Use of lesson plans
3.3 TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES
Value of structured (approved) course of training
Importance of a planned syllabus
Integration of theoretical knowledge and flight instruction
b.
b.
38
APPENDIX E
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JAA Publications
JAR FCL 1
Joint Aviation Requirements Flight Crew Licensing Requirement
(Aeroplanes)
Contains detailed requirements for flight crew licensing of
Aeroplane pilots within the Joint Aviation Authority. Covers all
requirements for the issue and renewal of private and
professional aeroplane licenses and their ratings, including those
for instructor and examiner qualifications.
JAR FCL 2
Joint Aviation Requirements Flight Crew Licensing Requirement
(Helicopters)
Contains detailed requirements for flight crew licensing of
Helicopter pilots within the Joint Aviation Authority. Covers all
requirements for the issue and renewal of private and
professional helicopter licenses and their ratings, including those
for instructor and examiner qualifications.
JAR FCL 3
Joint Aviation Requirements Flight Crew Licensing Requirement
(Medical)
Contains detailed Medical Standards required for flight crew
licensing within the Joint Aviation Authority. Covers requirements
for the issue and renewal of all medical certificates. Essentially for
Authorised Medical Examiners (AME) but useful information on
required health and medical standards for pilots.
JAR OPS 1
Joint Aviation Requirements (Aeroplanes)
Subpart N Flight Crew
Subpart O Cabin Staff
APPENDIX E
JAR OPS 1 Details requirements that apply to the operation of
aeroplanes for commercial air transportation. The subparts listed
deal with crew composition and all initial or recurrent training
and checking matters for each class of aircrew mentioned,
including CRM and LOFT requirements.
JAR OPS 3
Joint Aviation Requirements (Helicopters)
JAR OPS 3 details requirements that apply to the operation of
helicopters for commercial air transportation. Specific
requirements for training crews and cabin staff are similar to
those for fixed wing aircraft in JAR-OPS 1.
UK CAA Publications
CAP 53
UK Civil Aviation Authority Publication The Private Pilot Licence
and Associated Ratings
The official guide to Licensing and Rating requirements. It
provides information relevant to all Private Pilots in four Parts.
These deal with General and Medical requirements, Aeroplanes,
Rotorcraft and Balloons and Airships, each dealing individually
with a specific Licence and/or Rating, e.g. Syllabuses, Medical
Certificates, Revalidation of Ratings, etc.
CAP 54
UK Civil Aviation Authority Publication Professional Pilot
Licences
The official guide to Licensing and Rating requirements including
the Instrument Rating and the Flying Instructors rating, CPL
Balloons requirements, clarification of hours countable towards
licence upgrade to ATPL and consolidated Navigation
examination details for military and ex military personnel.
LASORS
Licensing, Administration and Standardisation, Operating
Requirements and Safety. LASORS is a new CAA advisory
document for the pilots of single and multi-pilot aircraft, reissued every January and updated either via the CAA Personnel
Licensing Department website (http://www.caa.co.uk/srg) or via email to those individuals who register with the CAA PLD for the
LASORS Free Update Service. It contains clear, accurate answers to
frequently asked questions on all aspects of flight crew licensing
and comprises two parts:
LAS (Licensing, Administration and Standardisation)
supersedes the guidance material published previously in CAP
53 and CAP 54 and in General Information Documents.
ORS (Operating Requirements and Safety) is a digest of
practical knowledge requirements and best practices
procedures for the single pilot operator, consisting principally
of extracts from Safety Sense leaflets and Pink Aeronautical
Information Circulars.
LASORS is a ready source of information for those who are
commencing or engaged in flight training, upgrading flight crew
licences, revalidating or renewing their ratings or seeking to add
ratings to existing licences. It also puts essential safety
information into the pocket of those whose philosophy is Dont
assume, check.
Safety Regulation Group Instructor Course and other notes
CAA TRE Standardisation Core Course
Joining instructions notes
CAA Standards document 14
Guidance to Examiners Single Pilot Aeroplanes (SPA)
Type and Class rating skill & proficiency checks and Instrument
Rating Revalidations
CAA Standards document 17
Aide Mmoire for the guidance of Authorised Examiners Oral
examinations
for the issue and revalidation of Class/Type ratings Single Pilot
Aeroplanes (SPA)
CAA Standards document 23
Guidance to Examiners regarding aeroplane Certificates of
Test/Check or of Experience.
For persons who are authorised by the CAA to sign Certificates of
test and Certificates of Experience in a pilots licence or log book,
as required by JAR-FCL1 licensing. Also contains delegated
authority revalidation requirements and details who is also
cleared to carry out UK AOC Operator Proficiency Checks (OPC)
for pilots employed by a particular operator.
CAA Standards document 24
Guidance to Examiners Multi Pilot Aeroplanes (MPA)
Covering Type Rating skill tests and Proficiency checks
CAA Standards document 29
Guide to performance standards for Instructors of CRM training in
Commercial Aviation
The UK Air Pilot UK Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)
Covers all aspects of flight operations in UK Air space. Available as
a three volume publication, in CD-ROM format and on the CAA
website (http://www.ais.org.uk). AIP Supplements, AIRACS and all
AIC can also be found on the CAA website.
CAP 360 Air Operators Certificate
Explains the administrative procedure for the issue and variation
of Air Operators Certificates (AOC) and to indicate the
requirements to be met by applicants and certificate holders in
respect of equipment, organisation, staffing, training and other
matters affecting the operation of aircraft.
CAP 737 Crew Resource Management (CRM)
Explains the requirement for CRM training and how it can be
satisfied using formally accredited CRM instructors. The selection
of CRM instructors is also discussed and a useful Bibliography is
offered, for readers who want to learn more about the subject or
to prepare relevant in-house guidance for training staff.
CAA Flight Operations Department Notices (FODN)
Guidance to operators and AOC holders in amplification of CAP
360 requirements.
UK Aeronautical Information Circulars (AIC)
Supplementary information of current flight operational interest.
It is distributed on White, Yellow, Pink, Purple or Green paper, to
differentiate readily between subject matter.
Refer to White AIC for changes in Flight Crew Licensing
requirements and read all Pink AIC as they are of flight safety
import. Take particular note of their contents, but in particular
absorb the guidance held in the Pink AIC listed hereunder with
their identification number (as amended)
General
Controlled Flight into terrain (CFIT)
Risk Avoidance
Simulation of engine failure on aeroplanes
Propeller feathering on twin
piston-engined aircraft
Rejected Take-off
38/1999
Pink 191
52/1999
130/1997
Pink 193
Pink 153
141/1998
Pink 182
April 2003
39
APPENDIX E
Inclement weather aspects
Operations from runways affected
by snow, slush or water
Frost, ice and snow on aircraft
Ground de-icing of aircraft
Holdover times
Induction system
(piston engine carburettor) icing
Ice induced stalls on turbo-propeller
& other propeller driven aircraft
Meteorological effects
Flight over and in the vicinity of
high ground
Low altitude wind-shear
Effect of thunderstorms and associated
turbulence on aircraft
81/1999
Pink 195
93/2000
81/2001
Pink 8
Pink 25
145/1997
Pink 161
98/1999
Pink 200
144/1997
Pink 160
19/2002
72/2002
Pink 28
Pink 22
17/1999
147/1998
Pink 188
Pink 184
Approach
Use of ILS facilities in the UK
Absolute Minima
34/1977
49/2002
Pink 141
Pink 32
67/2002
Pink 36
11/1998
Pink 164
Performance
Take-off, climb and landing performance
of light aeroplanes
Landing performance of large
transport aeroplanes
ICAO Publications
40
Published by the
APPENDIX F
Transport Canada. Crew Resource Management Manual.
http://www.crm-devel.org/resources/misc/transcan/transcan1.htm
Weiner, E., Kanki, B., Helmreich, R. Cockpit Resource
Management. 1993 San Diego, Academic Press. ISBN 0-12750026-X
RAeS. CRM Standards for Single Pilot Operators.
http://www.raes-hfg.com (CRMSG page)
FAA website on safety training and research for general aviation
pilots and instructors. http://FlySafe.faa.gov
Dunlap, J., and Mangold, S. Leadership/ Followership; recurrent
training. Instructor manual and student manual. February 1998.
FAA.
Endsley. Mica Endsleys Situation Awareness Technologies
sitewww.satechnologies.com
Reason, J. Human Error. 1990. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-31419-4
GAIN. Operators Flight Safety Handbook . Issue 2. December
2001.
ICAO. Human Factors, Management and Organization. ICAO
Human Factors Digest No 10. ICAO Circular 247-AN/148
Maurino, D., Reason, J., Johnston, N., Lee, R. Beyond Aviation
Human Factors; Safety in High technology Systems . 1995.
Ashgate. ISBN 1-84014-948-5
Reason, J. Managing the Risks of Organizational Accidents. 1997.
Ashgate. ISBN 1-84014-105-0
GIHRE. Enhancing Performance in High Risk Environments:
recommendations for the use of Behavioural Markers. July 2001.
http://www2.hu-berlin.de/GIHRE
Helmreich. University of Texas; Bob Helmreichs CRM and LOSA
site
http://www.psy.utexas.eduwww.psy.utexas.edu/psy/helmreich/nas
aut.htm
AIA/ AECMA. Propulsion System Malfunction and Inappropriate
Crew Response (PSM+ICR). Vols 1 and 2. November 1998.
FAA. Turbofan Engine Malfunction Recognition and Response.
November 2000. Training video and notes. Also in CD form. For a
free copy, write to FAA Engine and Propellor Directorate, ANE110, 12 New England Executive Park, Burlington, MA 01803,
USA.Text can be downloaded from
http://www.faa.gov/certification/aircraft (click on Special Topics
Safety Resource Page ) or from
http://www.faa.gov/certification/aircraft/engine_malf_famil.doc
FAA. Turboprop Engine Malfunction Recognition and Response.
Training video and notes. In preparation may be ready late
2002 or early 2003.For further information, write to FAA Engine
and Propellor Directorate, ANE-110, 12 New England Executive
Park, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
FSF. Approach and Landing Accident Reduction (ALAR) Toolkit.
2000/2001. Flight Safety Foundation. CD. Free to FSF members.
http://www.flightsafety.org/pdf/alar_flyer.pdf
Dismukes, K and Smith, G. Facilitation and Debriefing in
Aviation Training and Operations. Ashgate. October 2000. ISBN:
0 7546 1164 7
APPENDIX F
USEFUL ADDRESSES
Information sources and providers of Publications
For calls from overseas, dial the local access code, then 44 (to
access the UK network) followed by the required number without
the leading digit (0) shown in the following listings of numbers.
FLYING REGULATORS AND PROFESSIONAL BODIES
Civil Aviation Authority
(UK National Regulatory Authority Primary Information Source)
Personnel Licensing Department (PLD)
Aviation House
Tel
+44 (0)1293 57 3700
Gatwick Airport South
Fax
+44 (0)1293 57 3996
West Sussex
e-mail (see website for particulars)
RH6 0YR, UK
Website http://www.caa.co.uk/srg
Medical Department
(Address as above)
Tel
41
APPENDIX F
British Air Line Pilots Association (BALPA) Gatwick Centre
(Pilot Representative Union Information Source)
Little Orchards
Tel
+44 (0)1293 449 117
Gatwick Road
Fax
+44 (0)1293 449 129
Gatwick
e-mail eploymentservices@balpa.org
West Sussex
Website http://www.balpa.org
UB3 5BG, UK
British Helicopter Advisory Board
(Information Source)
The Graham Suite
Tel
+44 (0)1276 856 100
Fairoaks Airport
Fax
+44 (0)1276 856 126
Chobham
e-mail info@bhab.org
Woking
Website http://www.bhab.org
Surrey
GU24 8HX, UK
The Confidential Human Factors Incident Reporting
Programme (CHIRP)
(UK Source of information and confidential advice on operational
occurrence matters)
Building Y20E, Room G15 Tel
+44 (0)1272 395 013
Cody Technology Park
Fax
+44 (0)1272 394 290
Ively Road
e-mail confidential@chirp.co.uk
Farnborough
Website http://www.chirp.co.uk
Hampshire
GU24 8HX, UK
General Aviation Awareness Council
(Information Source)
50a Cambridge Street
Tel
+44 (0)20 7834 5631
London
Fax
+44 (0)20 7834 8623
SW1V 4QQ, UK
e-mail info@gaac.co.uk
Website http://www.gaac.co.uk
The United Kingdom Flight Safety Committee
(Information Source)
The Graham Suite
Tel
+44 (0)1276 855 193
Fairoaks Airport
Fax
+44 (0)1276 855 195
Chobham
e-mail ukfsc@freezone.co.uk
Woking
Website http://www.ukfsc.co.uk
Surrey
GU24 8HX, UK
TRAINING ORGANISATIONS
Providers of Integrated Flying Training Courses, Modular and
Short pilot training courses, also MCC and CRM courses and
Instructor/Examiner courses tailored to suit as individually
required; to prepare instructors for the CAA examiners core
standardisation course and beyond.
A full listing of flying training establishments providing UK CAA
approved Courses both in the UK and overseas, may be obtained
from the Civil Aviation Authority Personnel (Flight Crew)
Licensing Department (PLD). Details may also be found on the UK
CAA PLD Internet website.
Approved Flying Training Organisations (Alphabetically):
BAE Systems Flight Training (Europe)
PPL, PPL/IR, CPL. CPL/IR, ATPL, MCC
Flying School and Information Source Aeroplanes (A) &
Helicopters (H)
Antigua Base Militar
Tel
+34 956 317 806
La Parra
Aeropuerto de Jerez
Fax
+34 956 182 433
Jerez de la Frontera
e-mail info@jerez.baesystems.es
Cadiz
Website http://www.baesystems.es
Spain
42
Tel
Fax
e-mail
APPENDIX G
APPENDIX G
IN CONCLUSION
May the thoughts offered in this publication, guide readers who
are, or intend to become, aviation instructors. Remain fair to your
fellow pilot and do your best to teach well all you know. Demand
absolute professionalism and stay firm in the maintenance of
Standards in your dealings with others. The dream of an accidentfree world of flying remains in your hands to mould from lesson
one. Demonstrate by example and make a start by teaching the
basics of flight safety, then look to see how well the fundamental
safety precepts are absorbed by your pupils.
Encourage excellence and give praise where it is due. Remember
that constant interest on how best to improve your teaching
demands a lot of homework and effort from your part. Remain
curious and look for better ways to sell the goods through
improved knowledge. In the final analysis, enjoy your work in the
knowledge that you have helped to form a happy and safe pilot.
Captain Ralph KOHN, FRAeS & Liveryman of the Guild of Air
Pilots and Air Navigators
Author and production co-ordinator
Vice Chairman, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeS
Member Education and Training Committee, GAPAN
Retired airline pilot instructor/examiner & Regulatory Authority
Training/Flight Operations inspector
43
25