Soviet Work on Radar Cross Section Reduction Applicable to a Future Stealth Program ‘An Intelligence Assessment ICAL REVIEW PROGRAM Ci LEASE AS SANTIZED 1999‘Warning Notice Intelligence Sébrces of Method Involved TEL 7 a va ee SNGriminal Senos Lo. 4 NorowninrsKey Judgments Information avelabe orf 1 November 1983 Sovie: Work on Radar Cross Section Reduction Applicable to a Future Stealth Program ‘We feel certain that the Soviets did not have a Stealth program in the 1970s—a program that uses both body shaping and radar-absorptive materials to attain a true low-observable aircraft or any other platform. Because of the obvious high US interest in this area, the Soviets probably began an intensified research effort in the early 1980s which inay have led toa developmental program now under way. Such a program could be well along before we become aware of it For the last 20 years the Soviets have used—with modest success—radar- absorptive materials or paiat on submarines, reentry vehicles, aircraft, and possibly on spevecraft and ground vehicles. Their results are not compara~ ble to the best US work, but the Soviet work has continued to improve in both quantity and quality. Given the attention to Stealth in the United States, Soviet application probably will become more widespread in the future, Most certainly, the Soviets will be highly motivated to assess US. achievements in radar cross section reduction to improve their own position, An analysis of Soviets’ open literature indicates that their understanding of the theory of radar cross section reduction is comparable to that in the United States. ‘A number of Western countries also have begun programs to reduce - aircraft radar cross sections. As the technology becomes more widespread, technology transfer to the Soviets could begin to play a significant rote in enhancing their work [° 3 The Soviets probably will deploy in this decade some retrofitted aircraft and cruise missiles whose radar cross sections in the forward sector will have been reduced by a factor of 10. Such programs would primarily involve the application of radar-absorptive materials to existing platforms. ‘The cross sections of bombers could be reduced in this manner to about 1 square meter; those of fighter aircraft could be reduced to a fraction of @ square meter: and those of cruise missiles could be reduced to less than one-hundredth of a square meter. In some tactical engagements. such reductions would provide a significant advantage. Reteofited aircraft or ‘cruise missiles would be difficult to detect visually because there would be very little change in their external appearance ii SecaRadar cross section reduction C T may be possible by using body shaping in addition to radar-absorptive materials. We are not certain, however, ifthe Soviets can produce such aircraft or eruise missiles, particulary in large numbers. If they have such a program under way now, it is probably in the very early stages, and deployment probably would not ‘occur until the 1990s because development of new systems requires about a decade. *Contents Materials Transfer of Technology elel ape’ Appendix Low Radar Gross Section Technology: A Tutorial Figure ‘Reduced Blackjack Radar Cross SectionSoviet Work on Radar Cross Section Reduction Applicable to a Future Stealth Program Introduction ‘The radar cross section (RCS) of any object is & measure of how much energy it reflects when illumi nated by a radar. The amount of energy reflected is determined by the size, shape, and material compost- tion of the target, a8 well asthe radar frequency, polarization, and direction of observation. The RCS value is usually expressed in units of area (square meters) o is equivalent in decibels per squate meters (aBsm). This concept is applicable to most platforms: aircraft, helicopters, missiles, reentry vehicles, stel- lites, ships, remotely elloted vehicles, tanks, and trucks, Ships may have RCS values of approximately 10,000 square meters (40 dBsm), und aireraft range typically from 10 square meters (10 dBsm) to 1,000 square meters (30 dBsm). Cruise missile RCS values are considerably smaller—typically 01 square meter (20 dBsm) to 10 square meters (10 dBsm) RCS reductions by an order of magnitude or more ‘often can Be achieved over limited observation angles by retrofitting existing vehicles with radar-absorptive materials (See appendix). Greater improvements can bbe achieved with totally new designs which include ‘body shaping as well as application of radar-absorp- tive materials. Such improvements require extensive research and development (R&D) efforts. ‘The smaller the RCS, the more dificult it is for the radar to detect the target. This is particularly true for low-altitude targets, because the radar miust detect the relatively small target retura in the presence of the much larger return from the ground elutter. In many current air defense situations, the radar return from the ground clutter greatly exceeds the return from the target, thus taxing to the limit the signal processing that rejects clutter. I the RCS of en aircraft or a missile i reduced sufficiently, the ord nary radar will be incapable of seeing it in the presence of the ground clutter " Inaddition, ceduced RCS in sireraft can allow the use cof some electronic jamming techniques that would not be feasible with normal target returns. Self-protection jammers carried on bombers are limited by the ‘maximum power they can emit. Because these jammers must compete with the strength of the radar ‘energy reflected from the body of the aircraft, Jammer power car be reduced if the aircraft RCS is reduced. Such jammers with realizable power levels ‘ean then mask the actual radar signal reflected from the body ofthe aireraft and spoof the radar by providing false position information * In both of these examples, aieraft survivability is increased, Soviet Radar Cross Section Technology ‘Theoretical Base (Open literature has indicated that the Soviets have & thorough understanding of those aspects of electro ‘magnetic theory that are required to analyze and predict RCS. Literature dealing with theory and mathematical concepts generally reflects original Soviet work, but literature dealing with applications ‘of the concepts is primarily from Western sources. It is also apparent that there are more researchers inthis field in the Soviet Union than in the United States. ‘Some of the Soviet books examine in great detail very narow topics almost academic in nature ‘The Soviet open literature containg hundreds of arti cles on electromagnetic theory applicable to analyzing and designing low RCS shapes although RCS reduc- tion is rarely mentioned explicitly. The subjects dis- cussed in the articles include waveguides, cones. ‘ovlinders, edges, gratings, lossy layers, impedancesucfaces, anisotropic crystals, apertures in planar sue faces, and nonradiating modes in structures. At least some of the work probably was motivated by the detite to better understand and contcol the RCS of various platforms. The latest Soviet book on the Geomettie Theory of Diffraction (GTD) presents at ‘of the GTD theory in a eoherent faghion in one publication. GTD is the theory describing how elec tomagaevic enerey diffracts around edges and cor ners. This theory is one of the keys to understanding hhow much radar energy is reflected from complex objects such as aircraft ‘The general Soviet understanding is also fostered theough the All-Union Symposia, which are held regularly every few yeats. The Soviet theoretical work presented in these conferences is atleast comparable in quality to the Western work in most areas In addition to doing good quality research oftheir ‘own, the Soviets clearly study all US open literature. They reference the works of prominent US research- rs in their gublications, translate US professional journals, and attend US professional conferences. For example, in 1965 in the United States, a 1,138-paze special issue on radar reflectivity was published at an unclassified level. Within one year. it was fully trans lated by the Soviets for their own ute. Measurement Capability Although many advances have been made during the ‘ast 20 years in the theoretical approach to determin: ing RCS values, measurements must still be made by all who work in the area 10 validate the analytic models, The Soviets published 2 book more than 10 yeurs ago that indicated they understand the funda rentals of RCS measurements. The book reviews Aifraction, modeling, various range configurations, parasitic scattering, measurement errors, and iast: mentation—sgain borrowing heavily from US, ‘syurees. To date, we have identifiee Ene sada RS mere a c D There are probs Diy a number of indoor ranges" that would be switabe for making measurements of scale models, ee) In she unten alums whote RCS have been reduced tothe mini sum by shaping and treatment with radatabsorive traterals Atthe time the Jrange was designee the Soviets probably could aemeve smaller etvrns from nonmetallic cables than fom shaped calms, Howeversa very large outdoor suspension system, cing unable to pectely contol the azimth ofthe targets. wll mit Soviet diageostc capability 308 therfore, affect any efforts to achieve vers tw eres 7 secund range, ar menswsig RES uaAte targets have inctded fllsize Getter Siverafsueface toe mises SAMS) st tpsurace missiles, and drones, as well as scale model: ct =], c Awe have aso identities C ihe oatog for making RCS measurements tans alceady ie epetation E a Measurements could be made at this test. range ata friquencies—~optical, inftared. and micro wave—to determine the effectiveness of various paints ‘and coatings. The facility also could be sed to develop synthetic aperture radars in which high reso lution is achieved through signal processing of obser. vations taken from diferent angle Materials . Much of the Soviet work in composite materials is probably motivated by applications other than RCS reduction. Their strength lightness, and rigidity make them suitable for many steuctucal aerospace appli tions. However, when composites are combined into layers of thin absorptive sheets, the resultant steture ‘can minimize the feflcction of electromagnetic cneray ‘The Soviet program for composites involves thousands of scientists and engineers} data indicate {hat Soviet research work i fibers and metal matrices is probably comparable to that in the United States. heir Fiber work has emphasized ara, boro and eranhite Fibers. bu some work as fis been dane on carbon fibers. The Soviets have studied at leas 60 different material combinations, with emphasis on composites based on aluminum, magnesium itaaium, copper. and nickel. Their technology base in compe: ites probably is adequate to support the production of an al-composite aircraft in the 1990s. Such an air- craft, with proper shaping, has the potential of pro- ‘ducing very low RCS. The Soviets already have a good understanding of smoce conventional fecrte-based radar-abrorbing ma terials as is evidenced by a recently published book on the subject. The knowledge expressed in an earlier book on elastic magnetic materials would be useful ia developing exible radar-absorptive materials for cov- ering the platform steveture Paint can also serve as the medium containing radae- absorptive material. The paint usually contains small fertie particles which act as small magnets that tend to realign themselves with the oscillating eleciromag- netic Feld, thus absorbing the energy and converting it ta heat. Soviet open literature indicates that the ‘Soviets have the capability to prepare sli iron oxides (Cervites) and tnix them into various polymere resins such 2s eporys and plastics, to produce radar-absorb- ing paints. The thickness of the material will deter- rine the frequency band at which absorption will be ‘maximized. We do not believe that the Soviets have fielded ground force vehicles painted with radar- absorbing paint, but their technology is mature «enough to support such applications in the late 1980s, They have applied radar-abzorbing paint to aiceraft in the past, but only with limited success. We are uncertain of the effectiveness of the Soviet paint. ‘Transfer of Technology The United States is no longer the only Western country interested in reducing the RCS of aircraft. As similar work builds up in other counties the technol: ‘ey will proliferate. making technology transfer tthe Seviet Union more likely. Some examples?: “at gn "ioe anterest fn radar-ansorpiive metesie!s applications follow: ‘An anechoie chamber for making indoor RCS ‘measurements, built in 1978 for the Avions Mares! Dassault-Breguet, France, is now being used to reduce the RCS of a Mirage-class fighter. + Polith researchers at the Wroclaw Technica: a> * ee versity have completed theoretical work in paint absorbs electromagnetic waves and nov: 2ce ont let e paints, Via ties tiveness of this paint ss unknown. + Bulgarian researchers at the Univers 0°" were measuring various eo3er: in the early 1970s. This work was probaaly io: th: eniers aT evelopment of attenuators to be wsed in microwave is shselloct erhue circuitry.rc _\ +L Daots indicate that to improve their capa: bility ia carbon carbon composites, the Soviets have ‘exploited Western literature and conferences, ivit- ced Western experts on lecture tours, nd purchased hot isostatic presses from Sweden, France, and the United States + S. Ye, Sslibekov noted at the 1972 All-Union Conference on Composite Materials that a revise of US literature eqneerning fiber/matrix itersetions fn metal matvixtcompasites had led to 4 Soviet program on applying nickel coatings on graphite Fibers for gaphite/aluminum composites, Reentry Vehicles ~ While the Stealth publicity in the Waited Staes bas (the RCS of reentry vehicles been concersed with only aireraf, the technology = concepis can be applied fo many different platform, “(Co 96 ee tsi Indeed, the Soviets have attempted 1 reduce the RCS. Rica Chemical PRE Meow, collaborated \ of several different kinds, although with only lied with institute 108. Moscow, on the reduction af RV success to date Gros sceton. The approach wa tectene sf | Submarines J ediom ou af the RV he stim ea tree th ‘The Soviets have been interested in the application of | the oxygen present in the ionosphere so create an | Indar-aborivematrt submarina or mote | lois layer td therfore rence he RCS, More than 30 years Ths won havin lowing: [ely he poet wos esi ew sein the RW) : 5 \ wake to retuce ite averall RES sgature Keylov Centeal Sciemitic Research Institate of the Shipbuilding tndustry was conducting eescareh on radar-absorptive coatings for submarines in the carly 1960s, The work was to deteriine the opt ‘min combinations of rubber, epany, ctton-elas find eviet layers for electromagnet and seoustic| Aieratt There have been numerous reported examples during the pas" 20 years of Soviet attempts to apply radar- absorptive paint to aircraft, but we see no evidence of ‘continuing progeam of of deployment of large numbers of such aireraft. Similarly, there are indica tions of interest inthe use of composites for RCS reduction but no evidence of deployment | + Two F-14 fight erews intercepted two Soviet Bear aircraft in 1979 which were painted dark gray. had no visible identification numbers painted on the fasclage, and produced smaller-than-rormal radar ‘returns, The cause ofthe reduced radar returns 6“The Soviet airraft currently in development have no ‘outward signs of RCS reduction, but we believe some ‘of them will have features that will significantly feduce their RCS. This i eve forthe SU-27 Jand MiG-29 L) for example, which strong resemble US aurcraft oF contemporary design such asthe FS and F-16. The same applies tothe latest Soviet bomber, the Blackjack, which se=ms to bea sealed-up version ofthe B-1. Another aircraft caret andr drone Jis tude, long-endurance vehicle similar «the U2 None ofthese aircraft exhibit any evidence of the ground-up configuration design necessary to achieve the minimum RCS ‘Although the Soviet RCS reduction technology is ft ‘comparable to the best US work, the quality and {quantity of Soviet work over the past 20 years have ‘been increasing, And some ofthe aircraft noted above now in testing probably will incorporate some tech- niques that would reduce the RCS value by an order fof magnitude in the forward sector. These aircraft ‘could include such features as conducting windshields to reflect the incident radar energy, engine inlets th are curved and/or lined with radar-absorbing mate al, conducting band-pass radomes, and canted and lined bulkheads. All of these techniques have been discussed in US open literature, and the Soviet under- standing of materials and electtomagnetics is ade- {quate to sunport the implementation of such tect Sonne a ‘Such methods of reduction probably will be incorpo- rated in some operational Soviet aircraft alter the ‘mid-1980s. Because it typically takes the Soviets about 10 years to develop 2 new aircraft the bomber ‘ith the smallest RCS expected tobe a threat to the United States i this decade probably will bea Blackjack. It may incorporate the RCS reduction features just mentioned. The figure shows the upper ‘and lower bounds of our estimates of the reduced Blackjack RCS at X-band (8 to 10 GHz) frequencies. ‘The actual smoothed value at any azimuth angle probably be between these bounds. The values will increase as frequency decreases. For some azimuth ‘angles the cross section of the bomber could be as litle ag U square meter. After a similar retrofitting, the eross section of a fighter airraft could be a fraction ofa square meter. Radically new Soviet aerodynamic designs that would incorporate extensive use of radar-absorptive materi- als could be operational in the 1990s and have cross sections reduced by another order of magnitude. ‘Whether the Soviets choose to develop new aircraft from the ground up to minimize the radar cross section and therefore incur aerodynamic penalties will depend on theit perception oftheir requirements.Reduced Blackjack Radar Cross Section, (8-10 GHz) spread use of radar-absorbing Cruise Missiles Reducing the cross sections of eruise missiles is one of the more attractive applications because oftheir inherently small size and relatively simple shape. TR smallest Soviet cruise missiles, such as the SS-NX-21. for example, could probably be retrofitted to reduce the cross section from less than one-tenth to less than ‘one-hundredth of a square meter in the forward sector ‘and thus improve their survivability. Work probably is lander way to reduce cross sections of eruise missiles, ‘thus making them ready for'deployment in this, decade Ground Vehicles ‘An examination of (2 1D revealed tittle evidence of the Soviets" attempt to reduce RCS in ground vehicles. However, work is probably under way to measure the signature of ground vehicles J c “J This Soviet activity could support wide before the end of the decade. We are uncertain ofthe paints effective- ress, however. because it would depend upon the tactical situation, the vehicles, and the technical characteristics of sensors observing the vehicles.Appendix Low Radar Cross Section Technology: A Tutorial This appendint a Cw focus on serooynamn targets ou most of The princiles of RCS reduction ae general and could te applied to ater targets a wel get can be reduced passively in two basic ways: incorporate surface shapes which minimize the reflection back in the direction of the radar or utilize special materials to absorb the electeo- ‘energy incident on the target. Body Shaping. The shaping approach can best be ‘understood by considering the radar wavelength in relation to the target dimensions. The frequency of 2 typical Fire-control radar produces wavelengths of about 3 cent Airera{t dimensions are much larger than this, and the reflection can be viewed as an optical phenomenon. “Most ofthe incident energy will be reflected from the aircraft surfaces like a light beam, and the largest ‘eturas will cme from surfaces that are perpendicu: lar to the incident energy. This reflection is called specular. A eylinder will produce a specular return falong its entire length when viewed from the side. A sphere will have a specular retuen from one spot. independent 2f its orientation. Some nonspecular ce- fection also occurs since the radar wavelength is ‘actually not that of light, but this coatribution is much smaller than specular reflection in most cases. Nonspecvlar reflection becomes a significant contrib- tutor to the (otal reflected power only after the specular returns have been eliminated. One way to reduce the amount of energy reflected back to the radar isto shape the surface so thatthe encrey is feflected away from the radar. For example. if the ‘oe of 2 missile is made pointed instead of round. the amount of energy reflected from it when seen from the front will be reduced considerably. Similarly, if the underside ofan aircraft could be made perfectly fat, a ground-based radar looking up at the aireraft would see in effect only a very small RCS target. ‘because mast of the energy would be reflected away fom it. fn both examples, the incident energy has been redirected by the target shape in some direction away from the radar. For some targets, there may be aspect angles for which itis simply aot feasible to redirect the energy. For examole, when viewed trom the side, the RCS of eurrent-generation eruise mis- siles i very difficult to rede. “The principal dificult is that most shapes that rminitvize the radar return incur some aerodynamic penalties such as reduced stability, range, and maneu- verability, The derivation of areraft or missile de signs, which minimizes the radar return wl taining acceptable aerodynamic performance, R&D area. Even more capable control system probably be needed to compensate for insta low RCS designs. Baffle arrangements and mesh screens ean be used to hide the engine intakes—a major contributor to the total reflection—from the radar while sill allowing air to pass through however, these techniques can cause a major reduction in engine power, Engine inleis ean be curved, at the expense of reduced airflow, to reduce the radar reflections from the inlet inside walls and the engine. Inlets can also be recessed inside the fuselage to hide the opening from the radar. They can be placed above the wing to reduce the RCS signature when viewed from below and below the wing when viewed from above, Another technique is nonplanar inlet face shaping. To reduce the RCS of engine nozzles, several approaches are being considered: two-dimensional nozzles: high-aspect ratio nozzles: ejector nozzles: and rnorzle/aicframe integration. which will provide par~ tial shielding of the opening antiBcfore RCS reduction techaiques can be integrated into practical aircraft designs, intensive analytical semiempirical test studies will have to be performed by the Soviets to consider the interactive effects of different observable signatures, not only on each other ‘but also on aerodynamics, propulsion, configuration, and structure. Viable trades can then be established uring the vehicle design process. The promising aircraft configurations must then be comprehensively ested (o validate preliminary date estimates, isolate and identify the RCS contributors, and refine the ‘designs to further reduce the signature levels. Unprec- ‘edented cooperation between experts in aerodynamics and electromagnetics will be required, because much ‘of the theoretical work has occurred in the academic arena. Further work will include the development of ‘new computer codes, wind tunnel and RCS measure- ments, and extensive fligi testing. Absorbing Materials. The second principal way to Feduce RCS is to utilize radar-absorbing material (RAM). Some of the materials which could be used in RAM are graphite fibers, eraphite/epory composites, fecrites, Kevlar material, rubber, elastomers, and plastics. The materials can be in the form of inks. sheets, honeycombs, dielectric single-core sandwiches, ‘multilayer cores, magnetic core laminates, and hybrid sandwiches, Magnetic powders in the form of fakes, ‘microspheres, and chopped wire rod can be loaded into silicone rubber and/or epoxy. High dieletrie constant and magnetic fillers can be added to poly: mide-based graphite/carbon resistive inks. The inks fr coatings can then be placed on kapton film and lass/phenolic honeycomb. Some of these materials ccan be made readily in small quantities, but large- ‘quantity production may require new technologies. Improved fabrication techniques and methods of bonding these materials to aircraft structures are also needed, Radar-absorptive materials can be applied to ‘metal surfaces in those locations where the majority of the reflected signals are produced oF they may be used as actual radar-absorbing structures (RAS). The use of absorbing composite materials for integral structural applications has the potential to improve strength-to-wcight ratios in addition to reducing radur signatures, Much work is stil required to verify the feasibility of manufacturing typical comresite RAS. aircraft or missile sections and to verify the predicted performanee. {ngine inlets and exhaust nozzles of jes aircraft are large contributors to the total reflection when viewed fam the front or from the rear, respectively. Shatin leading edges ofthe inlets act as linear radiatorsand. the inlet duct may act asa low-attenuation wave ide. The resolting standing waves and edge- tures of engine inlets or exhausts. The radar-absorb- ing materials presently available do not have the combination of mechanical and electrical properties required for integral structural design and hig perature applications. Encapsulation of temperature- sensitive magnetic particles in insulating binders is ‘one approach to resolving this problem. Single-ramp, ‘two-dimensional exhatist systems have significantly tiore potential for RCS reduction then round nozzles. ‘An argument against the use of two-dimensional exhaust systems has been the increased weight of such systems, but current developments in carbon-carbon ‘composite technology are expected to provide lighter weight structural materials, ‘New microwave-absorbing materials, material combi ‘ations, and structural mechanical concepts must be developed fer application to future railitary aera Most RAM is ether too heavy to apply over the entire sireraftor is effective only over a limited band of radae frequencies. Therefore, more R&D is needed 10 reduce the weight and increase the bandwidth of RAM for aircraft applications. Radar-absorptive ‘aint (RAP), which can also be relatively heavy, could be upplied to tanks without appreciably increasing the {otal weight. RAP would not be practia! for most aireraft applications 10‘Other, more specific techniques ean reduce the RCS of aircraft. These techniques can be considered as special eases of the aforementioned generic body shaping and materials application approaches. Cano- pies and windshields, which are transparent a optical Frequencies but which are reflective at microwave frequencies, can be used to reduce the radar reflection from the inside ofthe cockpit. For most aircraft cockpits are a major contribution tothe total reflected power because they contain many flat surfaces. Me- tallic radomes can be designed in principle which wi be transparent st only one frequency, thus cone the radar antenna from observation at all frequencies except its own, Most avionics antennas, particularly radar dishes, increase the aircraft RCS when viewed from the front, A simple expedient may be simply 10 cover the antenna bulkhead with absorbing material land to cant the radar antenna away from an observing. threat radar. This may be particularly effective approach for phased-array antennas ‘Sometimes RAM is incorporated in sircraft to im- prove avionies antenna performance, not to reduce the RCS of the aircraft. RAM in the bottom of an airborne interceptor radome will reduce the down- ‘ward-looking antenna sidelobes, thus reducing the ‘ground clutter and, therefore, improving the overall performance of the airborne intercept radar. Radar: absorptive materials could also be used around re cessed airborne jammer antennas to improve their radiation pattert RCS Calculations ‘The two principal ways of obtaining the RCS of a aiven target are to caleulate it analytically oF 10 measure the actual vehicle ora scale mode! of it Exact theoretical solutions for RCS have been devel coped for only 2 few simple shapes spheres. opives, and elipsoids. The usual approach to calculating the reflected radar power from a complex shape such a8 an aircraft is to frat break it doven to the basic shapes Tor which solutions ist ealelate the reflection from, ‘each of the simple stipes separately, and then proper ly add the results. Computer codes allow one to input entire complex bodies such as aireraft using thre: view drawings into the computer, which then carries ‘ut the necessary calculations. One of the most widely sased mathematical tools i the GTD. Diffraction ‘coefficients are used to calculate how much of the incident radar energy is diffracted around edges. and analytic models of creeping and traveling wawes are used to calculate how much energy propagates slong ‘the surfaces. In the theoretical area, much more work needs to be done to improve the modeling of cavities such as engine inlets. engine exhaust nozzles, and cockpits. Many of the computer codes producing the mast accufate results also .equire inordinate run times, and more work is needed to improve their efficiency as well as accuracy. Of particular impor- tance isthe accuracy of modeling such radome appendages as strakes, Pitot tubes, and lightning protection schemes I the radar wavelength becomes a signiicant fraction of the target body—as would be the ease of 150- megahertz (MHz) (2-meter wavelength) radar observ- ing a cruise missle—optical methods, such as GTD. ‘break down and other approaches must be used. One method is to model the target using a large number of ‘conducting elements to outline the target, solve forthe ‘currents in the elements, and then calculate the net field reradiated by the currents. This approach is sometimes refered to as the Moment Method. One recent advance, which i showing considerable prom- ise ie the modeling of complex surfaces using small, curved patches and caleulating the field radiated by all ofthe patches. The analytically derived cesults may agree with actual values to better than 6 4B. that {sa factor of 4, Development of good analytic ‘modeling tools that can predict the RCS values reliably is a key requirement to the development of new low RCS aerodynamic designs RCS Measurements For high confidence, measurements are still needed, particularly for new aerodynamic shapes. Measu' ‘ments can be static or dynamic; each has its advan- tages and disadvantages. In static measurements, the Larget is cither supported on a pole having an RCS that has been minimized or suspended from some stevctuce using nonmetallic fines. A calibrated radaris tnen used 10 measure wf strength ofthe reflected ‘energy asa function of the aspect angle, as the target is rotated. The reflections from the pole or the lines are reduced as much as possible to minimize the ‘contributions to the reflection from the target itsell But some reflections from the target support always remain. Their presence would become particularly significant when measuring physically ery large, but low RCS targets because a heavy support structure would be needed, and reflections from such structures can be significant. The pole mounting can provide very accurate position contol ‘Sometimes itis not practical to measure an actual aircraft because of its size, weight. or unavailability {Im that case, a model reduced in size can be used instead, providing the wavelength ofthe calibrated instrumentation radar is reduced proportionately. Measurements using scale models have several li tions. Models often cannot reproduce ace the RCS contributors of an actual aireraft such as cooling ports, avionics antennas, and hinged control surfaces. Also, itis not posible to measure accurately the effects of any RAM application since the material properties do aot scale linearly with frequency. {In dynamic measurements, the vehicle to be measured actually lown past a calibrated instrumentation radar. This method provides the most realistic data but only over limited aspect angles, Its also very ‘expensive, and special inertial instrumentation aboard the aireraft may be necessary to provide accurate vehicle attitude information. This would be needed 10 ‘relate the radar measurements to the angle at which the aircraft was observed {in most cases, radar calibration is accomplished by using a sphere of an appropriate size since ths is one of the few objects whose RCS valve is known exactly ‘The sphere may be placed on pole, suspended from towers, elevated by a balloon, of dropped from an aircraft Fer increased sccurty, the static tests could be per formed outdoors at night or indoors in anechoie chambers. Dynamic tests could be performed in ex ‘tremely remote locations of at night. RCS Enhancement Sometimes efforts are made to actualy’inercase the RCS. This can be accomplished by adding Lunebere lenses or corner reflectors to the target. Both devices have the effect of focusing the reflected energy buck in the direction of the radar, thus increasing the ‘effected energy and, therefore, the effective RCS, A ‘ypical RCS enhancement application would be to ‘ake the reflected signal from small. inexpensive target drones appear to be as large as from bomber aireraft in air defense exercises. Such drones also could be used to simulate