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QUICK REFRESHER GUIDE

For
Instrumentation Engineering
By
www.thegateacademy.com
Quick Refresher Guide
Contents
CONTENTS
Part
#1. Mathemathics
1.1 Linear Algebra
1.2 Probability & distribution
1.3. Numerical Method
1.4. Calculus
1.5. Differential Equations
1.6. Complex Variables
#2. Network Theory

2.1 Network Solution Methodology
2.2 Transient/Steady State Analysis of RLC Circuits to dc Input
2.3 Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis
2.4 Transfer Function of an LTI System
2.5 Two Port Networks
2.6 Network Topology
#3. Signals & Systems

3.1 Introduction to Signals & Systems
3.2 Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems
3.3 Fourier Representation of Signals
3.4 Z-Transform
3.5 Laplace Transform
3.6 Frequency response of LTI systems and Diversified Topics
#4. Control System

4.1 Basics of Control System
4.2 Time Domain Analysis
4.3 Stability & Routh Hurwitz Criterion
4.4 Root Locus Technique
4.5 Frequency Response Analysis using Nyquist Plot
4.6 Frequency Response Analysis using Bode Plot
4.7 Compensators & Controllers
4.8 State Variable Analysis
#5. Digital Circuits

5.1 Numebr Systems & Code Conversions
5.2 Boolean Algebra & Karnaugh Maps
5.3 Logic Gates
5.4 Logic Gate Families
5.5 Combinational Digital Circuits
5.6 AD /DA Convertor
Page No.
1 42
18
9 14
15 19
20 30
31 37
38 42
43 69
43 49
50 54
55 62
63 64
65 66
67 69
70 87
70 72
73 74
75 77
78 80
81 83
84 87
88 114
88 90
91 94
95 96
97 98
99 101
102 104
105 110
111 114
115 138
115 116
117 118
119 122
123 124
125 129
130
THE GATE ACADEMY PVT.LTD. H.O.: #74, KeshavaKrupa (third Floor), 30th Cross, 10th Main, Jayanagar 4th Block, Bangalore-11
: 080-65700750, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web: www.thegateacademy.com
Page.I
5.7 Semiconductor Memory

5.8 Introduction to Microprocessors
#6. Analog Circuits

6.1 Diode Circuits - Analysis and Application
6.2 DC Biasing-BJTs
6.3 Small Signal Modeling Of BJT and FET
6.4 Operational Amplifiers and Their Applications
6.5 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits Feedback Amplifiers
6.6 Power Amplifiers
6.7 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
#7. Measurement
7.1 Basics of Measurements and Error Analysis
7.2 Measurements of Basic Electrical Quantities 1
7.3 Measurements of Basic Electrical Quantities 2
7.4 Electronic Measuring Instruments 1
7.5 Electronic Measuring Instruments 2
#8. Communications
8.1 Basics of Communication Signals
8.2 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
8.3 DSBSC and SSB Modulation
8.4 Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation
8.5 Angle Modulation
8.6 Superhetrodyne Receivers
8.7 Noise in Analog Modulation
8.8 Digital Communications
#9. Analytical, Optical, and Biomedical

9.1 U.V, Visible and IR spectrometry
9.2 Mass Spectrometer
9.3 X ray and Nuclear Radiation Measurements
9.4 Optical Sources and Detectors
9.5 Interferometer, Applications in Metrology
9.6 Basics of Fibre Optics
9.7 Ultrasonic Transducers and Ultrasanography
9.8 ECG EEG EMG
9.9 Clinical Measurement and Computer Assisted Tomography
#10. Transducers
10.1 Classification of Transducers
10.2 Resistive Transducers
10.3 Inductive Transducers
10.4 Capacitive Transducers
Contents
131
132 138
139 170
139 145
146 150
151 155
156 159
160 161
162 163
164 170
171 195
171 176
177 185
186 188
189 193
194 195
196 210
196
197 198
199 200
201
202 205
206
207
208 210
211 239
211- 214
215 216
217 220
221 223
224 225
226 229
230 231
232 236
237 239
240 284
240 242
243 250
251 254
255 259
Page.II
10.5 Piezo Electric Transducers

10.6 Mechanical Transducers in Instrumentation
10.7 Measurement of Non Electrical Quantities
#11. Process Control

11.1 Introduction, Building blocks of Process control
11.2 Modes of Controller Operation
11.3 Tuning of Controllers
11.4 Process Control System Configurations
#Reference Books
Contents
260 264
265 270
271 283
285 304
285 288
289 299
300 303
304
305 306
Page.III
Mathematics
Part - 1: Mathematics
1.1 Linear Algebra
1.1.1
Matrix
Definition: A system of m n numbers arranged along m rows and n columns.
Conventionally, single capital letter is used to denote a matrix.
Thus,
A=[
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
ith row, jth column
1.1.1.1 Types of Matrices

1.1.1.2 Row and Column Matrices
Row Matrix [ 2, 7, 8, 9]
Column Matrix
[1 ]
1
1
single row ( or row vector)

single column (or column vector)
1.1.1.3 Square Matrix
Same number of rows and columns.

Order of Square matrix no. of rows or columns
Principle Diagonal (or Main diagonal or Leading diagonal): The diagonal of a square
matrix (from the top left to the bottom right) is called as principal diagonal.
Trace of the Matrix: The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix.
tr ( A) = tr(A) , is scalartr ( A+B) = tr (A) + tr (B)
tr (AB) = tr (BA)
1.1.1.4 Rectangular Matrix

Number of rows
Number of columns
1.1.1.5 Diagonal Matrix

A Square matrix in which all the elements except those in leading diagonal are zero.
e.g. [
THE GATE ACADEMY PVT.LTD. H.O.: #74, Keshava Krupa (third Floor), 30th Cross, 10th Main, Jayanagar 4th Block, Bangalore-11
Page 1
Mathematics
1.1.1.6 Unit Matrix (or Identity Matrix)

A Diagonal matrix in which all the leading diagonal elements are 1.
1
e.g.
I = [
]
1
1
1.1.1.7 Null Matrix (or Zero Matrix)
A matrix is said to be Null Matrix if all the elements are zero.
e.g.
1.1.1.8 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices:

Symmetric, when a = +a for all i and j. In other words
Skew symmetric, when a = - a In other words
= -A
=A
Note: All the diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix must be zero.
Symmetric
Skew symmetric
a h g
h g
f]
[h b f ]
[h
g f c
g f
Symmetric Matrix
= A
Skew Symmetric Matrix = - A
1.1.1.9 Triangular Matrix

A matrix is said to be upper triangular if all the elements below its principal diagonal
are zeros.
A matrix is said to be lower triangular if all the elements above its principal diagonal
are zeros.
a
a h g
[
]
[
g b
]
b f
f h c
c
Upper Triangular Matrix
Lower Triangular Matrix
1.1.1.10
Orthogonal Matrix: If A. A = I, then matrix A is said to be Orthogonal matrix.
1.1.1.11
Singular Matrix: If |A| = 0, then A is called a singular matrix.
1.1.1.12
)
Unitary Matrix: If we define, A = (A
Then the matrix is unitary if A . A = I
= transpose of a conjugate of matrix A
Page 2
1.1.1.13
Mathematics
Hermitian Matrix: It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to its own
conjugate transpose.
A = A or a = a
1.1.1.14
Note: In Hermitian matrix, diagonal elements
1.1.1.15
Skew Hermitian matrix:

It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to the negative of conjugate
transpose.
A = A or a =
Note: In Skew-Hermitian matrix , diagonal elements

1.1.1.16
always real
either zero or Pure Imaginary
Idempotent Matrix
If A = A, then the matrix A is called idempotent matrix.
1.1.1.17
Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar:
Every element of the matrix gets multiplied by that scalar.

Multiplication of Matrices:
Two matrices can be multiplied only when number of columns of the first matrix is equal to the
number of rows of the second matrix. Multiplication of (m n)
, and (n p) matrices results in matrix of (m p)dimension , =, .
1.1.1.18
Determinant:
An n order determinant is an expression associated with n
n square matrix.
If A = [a ] , Element a with ith row, jth column.

For n = 2 ,
a
D = det A = |a
a
a |=a
-a
Determinant of order n
D = |A| = det A = ||
a
a
a
a
|
|
Page 3
1.1.1.19
Mathematics
Minors & Co-Factors:
The minor of an element in a determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting the

row and the column which intersect that element.
Cofactor is the minor with proper sign. The sign is given by (-1)
(where the element
th
th
belongs to i row, j column).
1.1.1.20 Properties of Determinants:

1. A determinant remains unaltered by changing its rows into columns and columns into
rows.
2. If two parallel lines of a determinant are inter-changed, the determinant retains its
numerical values but changes its sign. (In a general manner, a row or a column is
referred as line).
3. Determinant vanishes if two parallel lines are identical.
4. If each element of a line be multiplied by the same factor, the whole determinant is
multiplied by that factor. [Note the difference with matrix].
5. If each element of a line consists of the m terms, then determinant can be expressed as
sum of the m determinants.
6. If each element of a line be added equi-multiple of the corresponding elements of one or
more parallel lines, determinant is unaffected.
e.g. by the operation,
+ p +q , determinant is unaffected.
7. Determinant of an upper triangular/ lower triangular/diagonal/scalar matrix is equal to
the product of the leading diagonal elements of the matrix.
8. If A & B are square matrix of the same order, then |AB|=|BA|=|A||B|.
9. If A is non singular matrix, then |A |=| | (as a result of previous).
10.
11.
12.
13.
Determinant of a skew symmetric matrix (i.e. A =-A) of odd order is zero.

If A is a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix (i.e. A = A ) then |A|= 1.
If A is a square matrix of order n, then |k A| = |A|.
|I | = 1 ( I is the identity matrix of order n).
1.1.1.21
Inverse of a Matrix
|A| must be non-zero (i.e. A must be non-singular).

Inverse of a matrix, if exists, is always unique.
a b
d
If it is a 2x2 matrix 0
1 , its inverse will be
0
c d
c
| |
b
1
a
Important Points:
1. IA = AI = A, (Here A is square matrix of the same order as that of I )
2. 0 A = A 0 = 0,
(Here 0 is null matrix)
3. If AB = , then it is not necessarily that A or B is null matrix. Also it doesnt mean BA = .
4. If the product of two non-zero square matrices A & B is a zero matrix, then A & B are
singular matrices.
5. If A is non-singular matrix and A.B=0, then B is null matrix.
6. AB BA (in general) Commutative property does not hold
7. A(BC) = (AB)C Associative property holds
8. A(B+C) = AB AC Distributive property holds
Page 4
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Mathematics
AC = AD , doesnt imply C = D ,even when A

-.
If A, C, D be
matrix, and if rank (A)= n & AC=AD, then C=D.
(A+B)T = A + B
(AB)T = B . A
(AB)-1 = B . A
AA =A A=I
(kA)T = k.A (k is scalar, A is vector)
(kA)-1 =
. A (k is scalar , A is vector)
(A ) = (A )
) (Conjugate of a transpose of matrix= Transpose of conjugate of matrix)
(
A ) = (A
If a non-singular matrix A is symmetric, then A is also symmetric.
If A is a orthogonal matrix , then A and A are also orthogonal.
21. If A is a square matrix of order n then (i) |adj A|=|A|

(ii) |adj (adj A)|=|A|( )
(iii) adj (adj A) =|A| A
1.1.1.22 Elementary Transformation of a Matrix:
1. Interchange of any 2 lines
2. Multiplication of a line by a constant
(e.g. k )
3. Addition of constant multiplication of any line to the another line (e. g.
+p
Note:
Elementary transformations dont change the ran of the matrix.
However it changes the Eigen value of the matrix.
1.1.1.23
Rank of Matrix
If we select any r rows and r columns from any matrix A,deleting all other rows and columns,
then the determinant formed by these r r elements is called minor of A of order r.
Definition: A matrix is said to be of rank r when,
i)
It has at least one non-zero minor of order r.
ii) Every minor of order higher than r vanishes.
Other definition: The rank is also defined as maximum number of linearly independent row
vectors.
Special case: Rank of Square matrix
Rank = Number of non-zero row in upper triangular matrix using elementary transformation.
Note:
1.
2.
3.
4.
r(A.B)
min { r(A), r (B)}
r(A+B) r(A) + r (B)
r(A-B)
r(A) - r (B)
The rank of a diagonal matrix is simply the number of non-zero elements in principal
diagonal.
5. A system of homogeneous equations such that the number of unknown variable exceeds
the number of equations, necessarily has non-zero solutions.
Page 5
Mathematics
If A is a non-singular matrix, then all the row/column vectors are independent.

If A is a singular matrix, then vectors of A are linearly dependent.
r(A)=0 iff (if and only if) A is a null matrix.
If two matrices A and B have the same size and the same rank then A, B are equivalent
matrices.
10. Every non-singular matrix is row matrix and it is equivalent to identity matrix.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1.1.1.24
Solution of linear System of Equations:
For the following system of equations A X = B

a
a
x
x
a
a
Where, A =
,
[a
B =
[x ]
A= Coefficient Matrix, C = (A, B) = Augmented Matrix

r = rank (A), r = rank (C), n = Number of unknown variables (x , x , - - - x )
Consistency of a System of Equations:
For Non-Homogenous Equations (A X = B)
i) If r r , the equations are inconsistent i.e. there is no solution.
ii) If r = r = n, the equations are consistent and there is a unique solution.
iii) If r = r < n, the equations are consistent and there are infinite number of solutions.
For Homogenous Equations (A X = 0)
i) If r = n, the equations have only a trivial zero solution ( i.e. x = x = - - - x = 0).
ii) If r < n, then (n-r) linearly independent solution (i.e. infinite non-trivial solutions).
Note:
Consistent means:
one or more solution (i.e. unique or infinite solution)
Inconsistent means:
No solution
Cramers ule
Let the following two equations be there
a
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(i)
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(ii)
a
D = |b
a
b |
Page 6
b
D =|
b
a
|
a
a
D =|
a
b
|
b
Mathematics
Solution using Cramers rule:

x =
and x =
In the above method, it is assumed that

1. No of equations = No of unknowns
2. D 0
In general, for Non-Homogenous Equations
D 0 single solution (non trivial)
D = 0 infinite solution
For Homogenous Equations
D 0 trivial solutions ( x = x =x = 0)
D = 0 non- trivial solution (or infinite solution)
Eigen Values & Eigen Vectors
1.1.1.25
Characteristic Equation and Eigen Values:
Characteristic equation: | A
I |= 0, The roots of this equation are called the characteristic
roots /latent roots / Eigen values of the matrix A.
Eigen vectors: [
]X=0
For each Eigen value , solving for X gives the corresponding Eigen vector.
Note: For a given Eigen value, there can be different Eigen vectors, but for same Eigen vector,
there cant be different Eigen values.
Properties of Eigen values
1. The sum of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to the sum of its principal diagonal.
2. The product of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to its determinant.
3. The largest Eigen values of a matrix is always greater than or equal to any of the
diagonal elements of the matrix.
4. If is an Eigen value of orthogonal matrix, then 1/ is also its Eigen value.
5. If A is real, then its Eigen value is real or complex conjugate pair.
6. Matrix A and its transpose A has same characteristic root (Eigen values).
7. The Eigen values of triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix.
8. Zero is the Eigen value of the matrix if and only if the matrix is singular.
9. Eigen values of a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix has absolute value 1.
10. Eigen values of Hermitian or symmetric matrix are purely real.
11. Eigen values of skew Hermitian or skew symmetric matrix is zero or pure imaginary.
| |
12.
is an Eigen value of adj A (because adj A = |A|. A ).
Page 7
13. If
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Mathematics
is an Eigen value of the matrix then ,

Eigen value of A is 1/
Eigen value of A is
Eigen value of kA are (k is scalar)
Eigen value of A
I are + k
Eigen value of (A
I)2 are (
)
Properties of Eigen Vectors

1) Eigen vector X of matrix A is not unique.
Let is Eigen vector, then C is also Eigen vector (C = scalar constant).
2) If , , . . . . . are distinct, then , . . . . .
are linearly independent .
3) If two or more Eigen values are equal, it may or may not be possible to get linearly
independent Eigen vectors corresponding to equal roots.
4) Two Eigen vectors are called orthogonal vectors if T = 0.
( , are column vector)
(Note: For a single vector to be orthogonal , A = A or, A. A = A. A = )
5) Eigen vectors of a symmetric matrix corresponding to different Eigen values are
orthogonal.
Cayley Hamilton Theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
1.1.1.26
Vector:
Any quantity having n components is called a vector of order n.

Linear Dependence of Vectors
If one vector can be written as linear combination of others, the vector is linearly
dependent.
Linearly Independent Vectors
If no vectors can be written as a linear combination of others, then they are linearly
independent.
Suppose the vectors are x x x x
Its linear combination is x + x + x + x = 0

If , , , are not all zero they are linearly dependent.
If all are zero they are linearly independent.
Page 8
Mathematics
1.2 Probability and Distribution

1.2.1
Probability
Event: Outcome of an experiment is called event.

Mutually Exclusive Events (Disjoint Events): Two events are called mutually exclusive, if the
occurrence of one excludes the occurrence of others i.e. both cant occur simultaneously.
A
B =, P(A
B) =0
Equally Likely Events: If one of the events cannot happen in preference to other, then such events
are said to be equally likely.
Odds in Favour of an Event =
Where m
n
no. of ways favourable to A
no. of ways not favourable to A
Odds Against the Event =

Probability: P(A)=
.
.
P(A) P(A)=1
Important points:
P(A B) Probability of happening of at least one event of A & B
P(A B) ) Probability of happening of both events of A & B
If the events are certain to happen, then the probability is unity.
If the events are impossible to happen, then the probability is zero.
Addition Law of Probability:
a. For every events A, B and C not mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)- P(A B)- P(B C)- P(C A)+ P(A B C)
b. For the event A, B and C which are mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)
Independent Events: Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of one does not
affect the occurrence of the other.
If P(A B)= P(A) P(B)
Independent events A & B
Conditional Probability: If A and B are dependent events, then P. / denotes the probability of
occurrence of B when A has already occurred. This is known as conditional probability.
P(B/A)=
)
( )
Page 9
For independent events A & B
Mathematics
P(B/A) = P(B)
Theorem of Combined Probability: If the probability of an event A happening as a result of trial is

P(A). Probability of an event B happening as a result of trial after A has happened is P(B/A) then
the probability of both the events A and B happening is
P(A B)= P(A). P(B/A),
[ P(A) 0]
= P(B). P(A/B),
[ P(B) 0]
This is also known as Multiplication Theorem.

For independent events A&B
P(B/A) = P(B), P(A/B )= P(A)
Hence P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
Important Points:
If P
1.
2.
3.
4.
& P are probabilities of two independent events then

P (1-P )
probability of first event happens and second fails (i.e only first happens)
(1-P )(1-P )
probability of both event fails
1-(1-P )(1-P ) probability of at least one event occur
PP
probability of both event occurs
Bayes theorem:
An event A corresponds to a number of exhaustive events B , B ,.., B .
If P(B ) and P(A/B ) are given then,
P. /=
(
(
). ( )
). ( )
This is also known as theorem of Inverse Probability.

Random variable: Real variable associated with the outcome of a random experiment is called a
random variable.
1.2.2
Distribution
Probability Density Function (PDF) or Probability Mass Function:

The set of values Xi with their probabilities P constitute a probability distribution or probability
density function of the variable X. If f(x) is the PDF, then f(x ) = P( = x ) ,
PDF has the following properties:
Probability density function is always positive i.e. f(x)
f(x)dx = 1 (Continuous)
f(x ) = 1 (Discrete)
Page 10
Mathematics
Discrete Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) or Distribution Function

The Cumulative Distribution Function F(x) of the discrete variable x is defined by,
F (x) = F(x) = P(X x) =
P(x ) =
f(x )
Continuous Cumulative Distribution function (CDF) or Distribution Function:

If F (x) = P(X x) = f(x)dx, then F(x) is defined as the cumulative distribution function or
simply the distribution function of the continuous variable.
CDF has the following properties:
( )
i)
= F (x) =f(x) 0
ii) 1 F (x) 0
iii) If x
x then F (x ) F (x ) , i.e. CDF is monotone (non-decreasing function)
) =0
iv) F (
v) F ( ) = 1
vi) P(a x b) = f(x)dx = f(x)dx - f(x)dx = F (b) F (a)
Expectation [E(x)]:
1. E(X) =
x f(x ) (Discrete case)
2. E(X) = x f(x )dx (Continuous case)
Properties of Expectation
1. E(constant) = constant
2. E(CX) = C . E(X) [C is constant]
3. E(AX+BY) = A E(X)+B E(Y) [A& B are constants]
4. E(XY)= E(X) E(Y/X)= E(Y) E(X/Y)
E(XY) E(X) E(Y) in general
But E(XY) = E(X) E(Y) , if X & Y are independent
Variance (Var(X))
Var (X) =E,(x
) ]
Var (X)= (x x
) f(xx )
Var (X)= (xx

Var (X) =E(
(Discrete case)
) f(x)dx (Continuous case)
)-,E(x)-
Properties of Variance
1. Var(constant) = 0
2. Var(Cx)
= C Var(x) -Variance is non-linear [here C is constant]
Page 11
Mathematics
3. Var(Cx D) = C Var(x) -Variance is translational invariant [C & D are constants]

4. Var(x-k)
= Var(x) [k is constant]
5. Var(ax+by) = a Var(x) + b Var(y) 2ab cov(x,y) (if not independent) [A & B are
constants]
= a Var(x) + b Var(y) (if independent)
Covariance
Cov (x,y)=E(xy)-E(x) E(y)
If independent
covariance=0,
E(xy) = E(x) . E(y)
(if covariance = 0, then the events are not necessarily independent)

Properties of Covariance
1. Cov(x,y) = Cov(y,x) (i.e. symmetric)
2. Cov(x,x) = Var(x)
3. |Cov(x,y)|
Standard Distribution Function (Discrete r.v. case):
1. Binomial Distribution : P(r) = C p q
Mean = np,
Variance = npq,
S.D. =npq
2. Poisson Distribution: Probability of k success is P (k) =
no. of success trials , n no. of trials , P success case probability
mean of the distribution
For Poisson distribution: Mean = , variance = , and =np
Standard Distribution Function (Continuous r.v. case):
1. Normal Distribution (Gaussian Distribution): f(x) =
Where and are the mean and standard deviation respectively

P(
<x<
) = 68%
P(
<x<
) = 95.5%
P(
<x<
) = 99.7%
Total area under the curve is is unity i.e. f(x)dx = 1
P(x1 < x < x2) =
2. Exponential distribution :
3. Uniform distribution:
4. Cauchy distribution :
dx = Area under the curve from x1 to x2
f(x) = e
, x
, here
= , x
f(x)=
, b f(x) a
= , otherwise
f(x)= .(
)
5. Rayleigh distribution function : f(x) =
Mean:
For a set of n values of a variant X=( x , x , . . , x )
Page 12
Mathematics
The arithmetic mean, =
For a grouped data if x , x , . . , x are mid values of the class intervals having frequencies
f , f ,.., f ,then, =
If is mean for n data; is mean for n data; then combined mean of n +n data is
=
If , be mean and SD of a sample size n and m ,
SD of combined sample of size n +n is given by,
(n
n )
D = m -m
( n)
=n
+n
(m ,
= (n
be those for a sample of size n then
+n D +n D
= mean, SD of combined sample)

)
(n D )
Median: When the values in a data sample are arranged in descending order or ascending order
of magnitude the median is the middle term if the no. of sample is odd and is the mean of two
middle terms if the number is even.
Mode: It is defined as the value in the sampled data that occurs most frequently.
Important Points:
Mean is best measurement ( all observations taken into consideration).
Mode is worst measurement ( only maximum frequency is taken).
In median, 50 % observation is taken.
Sum of the deviation about mean is zero.
Sum of the absolute deviations about median is minimum.
Sum of the square of the deviations about mean is minimum.
Co-efficient of variation =
100
Correlation coefficient = (x,y) =
( , )
-1 (x, y) 1
(x,y) = (y,x)
|(x,y)| = 1 when P(x=0)=1; or P(x=ay)=1 [ for some a]
If the correlation coefficient is -ve, then two events are negatively correlated.
If the correlation coefficient is zero, then two events are uncorrelated.
If the correlation coefficient is +ve, then two events are positively correlated.
Line of Regression:
The equation of the line of regression of y on x is y
The equation of the line of Regression of x on y is (x
y=
x) =
(x
x)
(y
y)
is called the regression coefficient of y on x and is denoted by byx.
Page 13
Mathematics
is called the regression coefficient of x on y and is denoted by bxy.
Joint Probability Distribution: If X & Y are two random variables then Joint distribution is defined
as, Fxy(x,y) = P(X x ; Y y)
Properties of Joint Distribution Function/ Cumulative Distribution Function:
1. F (
,
) =
2. F ( , ) = 1
3. F (
, ) =
{ F (
, ) = P(
y) = 0 x 1 = 0 }
) = F (x) . 1 = F (x)
4. F (x, ) = P(
x
5. F ( , y) = F (y)
Joint Probability Density Function:
Defined as f(x, y) =
Property:
F(x, y)
f(x, y) dx dy
= 1
Note: X and Y are said to be independent random variable

If fxy(x,y) = fx(x) . fy(y)
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Mathematics
1.3 Numerical Methods

1.3.1
Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equation / Root Finding :

Consider an equation f(x) = 0
1. Bisection method
This method finds the root between points a and b.
If f(x) is continuous between a and b and f (a) and f (b) are of opposite sign then there is a
root between a & b (Intermediate Value Theorem).
First approximation to the root is x1 =
If f(x1) = 0, then x1 is the root of f(x) = 0, otherwise root lies between a and x1 or x1 and
b.
Similarly x2 and x3 . . . . . are determined.
Simplest iterative method
Bisection method always converge, but often slowly.
This method cant be used for finding the complex roots.
Rate of convergence is linear
2. Newton Raphson Method (or Successive Substitution Method or Tangent Method)
( )
xn+1 = xn
(
This method is commonly used for its simplicity and greater speed.
Here f(x) is assumed to have continuous derivative f(x).
This method fails if f(x) = .
It has second order of convergence or quadratic convergence, i.e. the subsequent error at
each step is proportional to the square of the error at previous step.
Sensitive to starting value, i.e. The Newtons method converges provided the initial
approximation is chosen sufficiently close to the root.
Rate of convergence is quadratic.
3. Secant Method
x
=x
) (
f(x )
Convergence is not guaranteed.

If converges, convergence super linear (more rapid than linear, almost quadratic like
Newton Raphson, around 1.62).
4. Regula Falsi Method or (Method of False Position)
Regula falsi method always converges.
However, it converges slowly.
If converges, order of convergence is between 1 & 2 (closer to 1).
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Mathematics
It is superior to Bisection method.

Given f(x) = 0
Select x0 and x1 such that f(x0) f(x1) < 0
x =x -
, f(x ) =
(i.e. opposite sign)
( )
)
Check if f(x0) f(x2) < 0 or f(x1) f(x2) < 0

Compute x
which is an approximation to the root.

1.3.2
1.
Solution of Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method
Here equations are converted into upper triangular matrix form, then solved by bac
substitution method.
Consider
a1x + b1x + c1z = d1
a2x + b2x + c2z = d2
a3x + b3x + c3z = d3
Step 1: To eliminate x from second and third equation (we do this by subtracting suitable
multiple of first equation from second and third equation)
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
(pivotal equation, a1 pivot point.)
b y + c z = d
b y + c z = d
Step 2: Eliminate y from third equation
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
b y + c2z = d
c z = d
(pivotal equation, b is pivot point.)
Step 3: The value of x , y and z can be found by back substitution.

Note: Number of operations: N =
2.
+n -
Gauss Jordon Method

Used to find inverse of the matrix and solving linear equations.
Here back substitution is avoided by additional computations that reduce the matrix to
diagonal from, instead to triangular form in Gauss elimination method.
Number of operations is more than Gauss elimination as the effort of back substitution
is saved at the cost of additional computation.
Step 1: Eliminate x from 2nd and 3rd
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Mathematics
Step 2: Eliminate y from 1st and 3rd

Step 3: Eliminate z from 1st and 2nd
3.
L U Decomposition
It is modification of the Gauss eliminiation method.
Also Used for finding the inverse of the matrix.
[A]n x n = [ L ] n x n [U] n x n
a11 a12 a13
1 0 0
a21 b22 c23
L21 1 0
=
a31 b32 c33
L31 L32 1
U11 U12 U13

0
U22 U23
0
0 U31
Ax = LUX = b can be written as

a)LY=b and
b) UX=Y
Solve for from a) then solve for from b). This method is nown as Doolittles method.
Similar methods are Crouts method and Choles y methods.
4. Iterative Method
(i) Jacobi Iteration Method
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
If a1, b2 , c3 are large compared to other coefficients, then solving these for x, y, z
respectively
x = k1 l1y m1z
y = k2 l2x m2z
z = k3 l3x m3y
Let us start with initial approximation x0 , y0 , z0
x1= k1 l1y0 m1z0
y1= k2 l2y0 m2z0
z1= k3 l3y0 m3z0
Note: No component of x(k) is used in computation unless y(k) and z(k) are computed.
The process is repeated till the difference between two consecutive approximations is
negligible.
In generalized form:
x(k+1) = k1 l1 y(k) m1z(k)
y(k+1) = k2 l2 x(k) m2z(k)
z(k+1) = k3 l3 x(k) m3y(k)
(ii) Gauss-Siedel Iteration Method
Modification of the Jacobis Iteration Method
Start with (x0, y0, z0) = (0, 0, 0) or anything [No specific condition]
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Mathematics
In first equation, put y = y0 z = z0 which will give x1

In second equation, put x = x1 and z = z0 which will give y1
In third equation, put x = x1 and y = y1 which will give z1
Note: To compute any variable, use the latest available value.
In generalized form:
x(k+1) = k1 l1y(k) m1z(k)
y(k+1) = k2 l2x(k+1) m2z(k)
z(k+1) = k3 l3x(k+1) m3y(k+1)
1.3.3
Numerical Integration
Trapezoidal Formula: Step size h =
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
(remaining terms)+
Error = Exact - approximate

The error in approximating an integral using Trapezoidal rule is bounded by
h
(b
1
a) max |f ( )|
, , -
Simpsons One Third Rule (Simpsons Rule):
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
(all odd terms)
(all even terms)+
The error in approximating an integral using Simpsons one third rule is

h
(b
1
a) max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
Simpsons Three Eighth Rule:
f(x)dx =
h ( first term
{
last term)
(all multiple of terms)

}
(all remaining terms)
The error in approximating an integral using Simpsons / rule is

(b
a)
max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
1.3.4 Solving Differential Equations

(i) Euler method (for first order differential equation )
Given equation is y = f(x, y); y(x0) = y0
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Mathematics
Solution is given by, Yn+1 = yn + h f(xn,yn)

(ii) Runge Kutta Method
Used for finding the y at a particular x without solving the 1st order differential equation
= f(x, y)
K1 = h f(x0, y0)
K2 = h f(x0 + , y0 + )
K3 = h f(x0 + , y0 + )
K4 = h f(x0 +h, y0 + k3)
K = (k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4)
Y(x0+h) = y0 + k
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Mathematics
1.4 Calculus
1.4.1
Limit of a Function
Let y = f(x)
Then lim
f(x)=
0< |x a|< , |f(x)
i.e, f(x)
|<
as x a implies for any
(>0), (>0) such that whenever
Some Standard Expansions

(1
x) = 1
a
=x
a
nx
x
e =1+x+
log(1
x) = x
log(1
x) =
Sin x = x
n(n
1)(n
.........x
.........a
.........
+
.........
.........
.........
Cos x = 1
Sinh x = x
.........
.........
Cosh x = 1
.........
Some Important Limits

lim
sinx
=
x
lim (1
lim(1
lim
lim
1
) =
x
x) =
1
x
1
x
= log a
=1
Page 20
lim
lim
log(1
x
x
x
x)
Mathematics
=1
a
=
a
lim log|x| =
L Hospitals ule
When function is of
limit.
or
form, differentiate numerator & denominator and then apply
Existence of Limits and Continuity:

1. f(x) is defined at a, i.e, f(a) exists.
2. If lim f(x) = lim f(x) = L ,then the lim f(x) exists and equal to L.
3. If lim
f(x) = lim
f(x)= f(a) then the function f(x) is said to be continuous.
Properties of Continuity
If f and g are two continuous functions at a; then
a. (f+g), (f.g), (f-g) are continuous at a
b.
is continuous at a, provided g(a) 0
c. |f| or |g| is continuous at a
olles theorem
If (i) f(x) is continuous in closed interval [a,b]
(ii) f(x) exists for every value of x in open interval (a,b)
(iii) f(a) = f(b)
Then there exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that
( )=0
Geometrically: There exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that tangent at c is parallel to
x axis
C
C
2
C1
a
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Mathematics
Lagranges Mean Value Theorem

If (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,b] and
(ii) f(x) exists in the open interval (a,b), then atleast one value c of x exist in (a,b) such that
( )
( )
= f (c).
Geometrically, it means that at point c, tangent is parallel to the chord line.
Cauchys Mean Value Theorem

If (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,a+h] and
(ii) f (x) exists in the open interval (a,a+h), then there is at least one number
such that
(0< <1)
f(a+h) = f(a) + h f(a+ h)

Let f1 and f2 be two functions:
i) f1,f2 both are continuous in [a,b]
ii) f1, f2 both are differentiable in (a,b)
iii) f2 0 in (a,b)
then, for a
( )
( )
1.4.2
( )
=
( )
b
( )
( )
Derivative:
( ) = lim
( )
Provided the limit exists ( ) is called the rate of change of f at x.

Algebra of derivative:i. (f g) = f
g
ii. (f g) = f g
iii. (f. g) = f . g
f .g
iv. (f/g) =
Page 22
Mathematics
Homogenous Function
Any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in from xn . / is called homogenous function of
order n in x and y. (Every term is of nth degree.)
f(x,y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + a2xn-2y2
f(x,y) = xn
an yn
. /
Eulers Theorem on Homogenous Function

If u be a homogenous function of order n in x and y then,
x +y
= nu
1.4.3
+ 2xy
+y
= n(n
1)u
Total Derivative
If u=f(x,y) ,x=(t), y=(t)

=
u=
+
x+
.
y
Monotonicity of a Function f(x)

1. f(x) is increasing function if for
, f( )
Necessary and sufficient condition, f (x)
2. f(x) is decreasing function if for
, , f( )
Necessary and sufficient condition, f (x)
f( )
f( )
Note: If f is a monotonic function on a domain D then f is one-one on D.

Maxima-Minima
a) Global
b) Local
Rule for finding maxima & minima:

If maximum or minimum value of f(x) is to be found, let y = f(x)
Find dy/dx and equate it to zero and from this find the values of x, say x is , , (called the
critical points).
Find
at x = ,
If
, y has a minimum value
If
,y has a maximum value
Page 23
If
Mathematics
= , proceed further and find at x = .
If
, y has neither maximum nor minimum value at x =
But If
= , proceed further and find
If
, y has minimum value
If
, y has maximum value
If
at x = .
= , proceed further
Note: Greatest / least value exists either at critical point or at the end point of interval.
Point of Inflexion
If at a point, the following conditions are met, then such point is called point of inflexion
Point of
inflexion
i)
ii)
=0,
iii)
Neither minima nor maxima exists
Taylor Series:
f(a
h)= f(a)
h f(a)
f(a)
.........
Maclaurian Series:
f(x) = f( )
x f( )
f ( )
f ( )
Maxima & Minima (Two variables)

r=
1.
= 0,
2. (i) if rt
(ii) if rt
(iii) if rt
(iv) if rt
,s=
=
, t=
solve these equations. Let the solution be (a, b), (c, d)
s
and r
maximum at (a, b)
s
and r
minimum at (a, b)
s < 0 at (a, b), f(a,b) is not an extreme value i.e, f(a, b) is saddle point.
s > 0 at (a, b), It is doubtful, need further investigation.
Page 24
1.4.4
Mathematics
Standard Integral Results
1. x dx =
, n
2. dx = log x
3. e dx = e
4. a dx =
(prove it )
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
cos x dx = sin x
sin x dx = cos x
sec x dx = tan x
cosec x dx = cot x
sec x tan x dx = sec x
cosec x cot x dx = cosec x
dx = sin
12.
dx =
sec
13.
dx = sec x
14. cosh x dx = sinh x

15. sinh x dx = cosh x
16. sech x dx = tanh x
17. cosech x dx = coth x
18. sech x tanh x dx = sech x
19. cosec h x cot h x dx = cosech x
20. tan x dx = log sec x
21. cot x dx = log sin x
22. sec x dx = log( sec x tan x) = log tan(
23. cosec x dx = log(cosec x cot x) = log tan
x )
24.
dx = log(x
a ) = cosh ( )
25.
dx = log(x
a ) = sinh ( )
26. a
x dx =
27. a
x dx = x
log(x
a )
28. x
a dx = x
log(x
a )
29.
dx =
tan
30.
dx =
log (
) where x <a
31.
dx =
log (
) where x > a
32. sin x dx =
33.
34.
35.
36.
sin
sin x
sin x
cos x dx =
tan x dx = tan x x
cot x dx = cot x x
ln x dx = x ln x x
37. e
sin bx dx =
(a sin bx
b cos bx )
38. e
cos bx dx =
(a cos bx
b sin bx )
Page 25
39. e ,f(x)
Mathematics
f (x)-dx = e f(x)
Integration by parts: u v dx = u. v dx
v dx)dx
I L A T E
E
Selection of U & V
Inverse circular
(e.g. tan 1 x)
Exponential
Logarithmic
Algebraic Trigonometric
Note: Take that function as u which comes first in ILATE

1.4.5 Rules for Definite Integral
1. f(x)dx = f(x)dx+ f(x)dx
2. f(x)dx = f(a
3. f(x)dx =
x)dx
f(x)dx+
=0
4. f(x)dx =2 f(x)dx
=0
a<c<b
f(x)dx = f(a
x)dx
f(a x)dx
f(x)dx =
if f(a-x)=f(x)
if f(a-x)=-f(x)
if f(-x) = f(x), even function
if f(x) = -f(x), odd function
f(x)dx
Improper Integral
Those integrals for which limit is infinite or integrand is infinite in a
then it is called as improper integral.
b in case of f(x)dx,
1.4.6 Convergence:
f(x)dx is said to be convergent if the value of the integral is finite.
If (i)
f(x) g(x) for all x and (ii) g(x)dx converges , then f(x)dx also converges
If (i) f(x) g(x)
for all x and (ii) g(x)dx diverges, then f(x)dx also diverges
( )
( )
If lim
diverge.
is converges when p
The integral
The integral
= c where c 0, then both integrals f(x)dx and g(x)dx converge or both
dx and
1 and diverges when p
e dx is converges for any constant p
is convergent if and only if p
is convergent if and only if p
and diverges for p
Page 26
1.4.7
Mathematics
Vector Calculus:
Scalar Point Function:

If corresponding to each point P of region R there is a corresponding scalar then (P) is said to
be a scalar point function for the region R.
(P)= (x,y,z)
Vector Point Function:
If corresponding to each point P of region R, there corresponds a vector defined by F(P) then F is
called a vector point function for region R.
F(P) = F(x,y,z) = f1(x,y,z) +f2(x,y,z) f3(x,y,z)
Vector Differential Operator or Del Operator:
=.
Directional Derivative:
is the resolved part of f in direction N
.
The directional derivative of f in a direction N
= | f|cos
f. N
is a unit vector in a particular direction.
Where N
Direction cosine: l
n =1
Where, l =cos , m=cos , n=cos ,

1.4.8
Gradient:
The vector function f is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f(x,y,z) and written
as grad f.
grad f = f =
1.4.9
f is vector function
If f(x,y,z) = 0 is any surface, then f is a vector normal to the surface f and has a
magnitude equal to rate of change of f along this normal.
Directional derivative of f(x,y,z) is maximum along f and magnitude of this maximum
is | f|.
Divergence:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div. F and
is defined by the equation.
div. F = . F
Page 27
F=f +
div.F= . f = .
=
Mathematics
/ .( f +
. f is scalar
. =
is Laplacian operator
1.4.10 Curl:
The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is
defined by the equation.
Curl F =
f =|
|
f
F is vector function
1.4.11 Solenoidal Vector Function
If .A = 0 , then A is called as solenoidal vector function.
1.4.12 Irrotational Vector Function
If
A =0, then A is said to be irrotational otherwise rotational.
1.4.13 DEL Applied Twice to Point Functions:

1. div grad f =
2.
3.
4.
5.
f=
---------- this is Laplace equation
curl grad f =
f=0
div curl F = .
F =0
curl curl F =
(
f) = ( . f) grad div F = ( . f)=
(
F) +
F
F
1.4.14 Vector Identities:

f, g are scalar functions & F, G are vector functions
1. (f g) = f + g
2. . (F G) = . F
.G
(F G) =
3.
F
G
4. (fg) = f g + g f
5. . (fG)= f. G f. G
6.
(fG) = f G f
G
7. (F. G) = F (
G) G (
F)
8. . (F G) = G.(
F) F. (
G)
Page 28
(F
9.
G) = F(
G)
G(
Mathematics
F)
Also note:
1. (f/g)= (g f f g)/g
2. (F.G) = F.G F . G
3. (F G) = F G + F G
4.
(fg) = g f + 2 f. g + f
1.4.15 Vector product

1. Dot product of A B with C is called scalar triplet product and denoted as [ABC]
Rule: For evaluating the scalar triplet product
(i) Independent of position of dot and cross
(ii) Dependent on the cyclic order of the vector
[ABC] = A B. C = A. B C
= B C. A= B.C A
= C A. B = C.A B
A B. C = -(B A. C)
B
= (extreme adjacent) Outer
) C
2. (A
= (Outer. extreme) adjacent (Outer. adjacent) extreme
= (C
.A
)B
.B
- (C
)A
(A
B)
C
(B
) = (A
.C
)B
.B
C
- (A
)C
A
(A B ) C A (B C )
1.4.16 Line Integral, Surface Integral & Volume Integral
Line integral = F( )d
If F( )= f(x,y,z) (x,y,z) + (x,y,z)
d = dx dy dz
dy dz )
F( )d = ( f dx
ds, Where N is unit outward normal to Surface.
Surface integral: F .
ds or F . N
Volume integral : F dv
If F(R ) = f(x,y,z) +
(x,y,z)
F dv = fdxdydz
(x,y,z) and v = x y z , then
dxdydz + dxdydz
1.4.17 Greens Theorem

If R be a closed region in the xy plane bounded by a simple closed curve c and if P and Q are
continuous functions of x and y having continuous derivative in , then according to Greens
theorem.
(P dx
dy) = .
/ dxdy
Page 29
Mathematics
1.4.18 Sto es theorem

If F be continuously differentiable vector function in R, then F. dr =
F .N ds
1.4.19 Gauss divergence theorem

The normal surface integral of a vector point function F which is continuously differentiable over
the boundary of a closed region is equal to the
F .N.ds = div F dv
Page 30
Mathematics
1.5: Differential Equations

1.5.1
Order of Differential Equation: It is the order of the highest derivative appearing in it.
1.5.2
Degree of Differential Equation: It is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it,
after expressing the equation free from radicals and fractions as far as derivatives are
concerned.
1.5.3
Differential Equations of First Order First Degree:
Equations of first order and first degree can be expressed in the form f (x, y, y ) = or
y = f(x, y). Following are the different ways of solving equations of first order and first degree:
1. Variable separable : f(x)dx + g(y)dy = 0
f(x)dx
g(y)dy = c is the solution
2. Homogenous Equation:
( ,
( ,
)
)
To solve a homogeneous equation, substitute y = Vx

=V+x
Separate the variable V and x and integrate.
Equations Reducible to Homogenous Equation:

The differential equation:
This is a non - homogeneous but can be converted to homogeneous equation

Case I: If
Substitute x = X + h
y=Y+k
(h and K are constants)
Solve for h and k

ah b
c=0
ah b
c =0
=
Case II: If
=
=
=
(say)
(
(
)
)
Page 31
Mathematics
Substitute ax +by = t, so that,

(
Solve by variable separable method.

3. Linear Equations:
The standard form of a linear equation of first order:
+ P(x) y = Q(x) , where P and Q are functions of x
Second order linear equation:
d y
dx
P(x)
dy
dx
(x)y = (x)
Commonly nown as Leibnitzs linear equations

Integrating factor, I.F. = e
ye
= . (I. F)dx
y(I. F. ) = . (I. F)dx
Note: The degree of every linear differential equation is always one but if the degree of the
differential equation is one then it need not be linear.
Ex:
x . /
= 0.
.1 Bernoullis Equation:
+Py=Qy
where, P & Q are functions of x only.
Divide by y
y
Substitute, y
Py
=Q
=z
(1
n)Pz = Q (1-n)
This is a linear equation and can be solved easily
4. Exact Differential Equations:

M (x, y) dx + N (x, y) dy = 0
Page 32
Mathematics
The necessary and sufficient condition for the differential equations M dx +N dy = 0 to be

exact is
=
Solution of exact differential equation:
M dx
(terms of N not contaning x ) dy = C
4.1 Equation Reducible the Exact Equation:

Integrating Factor:
Sometimes an equation which is not exact may become so on multiplication by some
function known as Integrating factor (I.F.).
Rule 0: Finding by inspection
1. x dy + y dx = d (x y)
2.
=d( )
3.
= d [log (
4.
=-d( )
5.
= d [tan (
)-
6.
=d[
)-
log(
)]
Rule 1: when M dx + N dy = 0 is homogenous in x and y and M x + N y

Rule 2: If the equation f (x, y) y dx + f (x, y) x dy = 0 and M x N y
/ = f(x), then I.F. = e
Rule 3: If the M dx + N dy = 0 and .

Rule 4: If the equation M dx + N dy = 0 and
1.5.4
0 then I.F. =
0 then I.F. =
( )
/ = f(y) , then I.F. = e
( )
Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients:

-------
The equation can be written as (D
y=X
D
-----
)y = X {Where, D =
f(D) y = X ; f(D) = 0 is called Auxiliary Equation.

Rules for Finding Complimentary Function:
Case I :
If all the roots of A.E. are real and different
Page 33
(D
m ) (D
m ) - - - - - - (D
m )y=0
So, the solution is: y = C e

Case II:
Mathematics
C e
-- - - - -+ C e
If two roots are equal i.e. m = m

y = (C
C x)e
Similarly, if m = m = m
y = (C
Case III:
C x +C x ) e
If one pair of roots are imaginary

i.e.
m =
i , m =
y = e (C cos x
Case IV:
i
C sin x)
If two pairs of root are imaginary

i.e. repeated imaginary root
y=e
1.5.5
i ,
C ) cos x
,(C x
i
(C x
C ) sin x ]
Rules for finding Particular Integral

P.. =
X=
( )
.X
Case I:
When X =
P.I. =
( )
P.I. = x
( )
P.I. =
( )
put D = a
[ ( )
0]
put D = a
[ ( )
0, ( ) = 0]
put D = a
[ ( ) = 0, ( ) = 0, ( )
0]
Case II:
When X = sin (ax + b) or cos (ax +b)
P.I. =
=x
=
)
(
put
)
=-
, (-
0]
put
=-
, (-
, (-
) = 0]
) put
=-
, (-
, (-
Page 34
= , (-
Mathematics
) = 0]
Case III:
When X =
, m being positive integer

P.I. =
= [ ( )-
( )
(D) ,1
(D) [1
( )
( )
( )
( )
Case IV:
When X =
V where V is function of x
P. I. =
( )
V then evaluate
V as in Case I, II & III
Case V:
When X = x V(x)
P.I. =
( )
( )
x V(x) = 0
( )
( )
V(x)
Case VI:
When X is any other function of x
P.I. =
Factorize f(D) = (D
( )
) (D
and then apply,
) - - - - - - - (D
X=
) and resolve
( )
into partial fractions
on each terms.
Complete Solution: y = C.F. + P..

1.5.6
Cauchy-Euler Equation: (Homogenous Linear Equation)

.
Substitute
------ -
=X
x=e
x
= Dy
= D (D-1) y
= D (D-1)(D-2) y
Page 35
Mathematics
After substituting these differentials, the Cauchy Euler equation results in a linear equation
with constant coefficients.
1.5.7
Legendres Linear Equation:

(
ax + b =
- - - - -- -
=X
t = ln (ax + b)
(ax + b)
=aDy
D(D-1)y
D(D-1)(D-2)y
After substituting these differentials, the Legendres equation results in a linear equation with
constant coefficients.
1.5.8
Partial Differential Equation:

z = f(x, y)
=p,
1.5.9
=q,
= r,
= s,
Homogenous Linear Equation with Constant Coefficients:

------ -
= f( x, y)
this is called homogenous because all
terms containing derivative is of same order.

(
-------
) = f(x, y)
{ where D =
and D =
f (D, D) = f(x,y)
Step I: Finding the C.F.
1. Write A.E.
Where m =
2. CF = (y +
CF = (y +
CF =
(y +
----= 0,
and the roots are
,
---- x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
are distinct
x) + x (y +
x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
x) + x
(y +
x) +
(y +
x) + - - - -
,
,
two equal roots.

three equal roots.
Page 36
Mathematics
Step II: Finding P.I.

P.. =
( ,
f (x, y)
1. when F( ax +by ) =
, put [ D = a, = b]
2. when F( x, y) = sin (mx +ny), put ( =
,
3. when F(x, y) =
, P. = ( , )
=[ ( ,
4. when F(x, y) is any function of x and y. P. =
( ,
=
))
f (x, y) , resolve
( ,
into partial
fractions considering ( , ) as a function of D alone and operate each partial fraction

)
on f(x, y) remembering that
f(x, y) = ( ,
where c, is replaced by
(
y + mx after integration.
Page 37
Mathematics
1.6: Complex Variables

=
is a complex no., where x & y are real numbers called as real and imaginary part of z.
Modulus or absolute value = | | =
, Argument of
( )=
. /
1.6.1 Function of a Complex Variable: It is a rule by means of which it is possible to find one or
more complex numbers w for every value of z in a certain domain D, then w = f (z)
Where z = x + iy,
w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
1.6.2
Continuity of f (z):
( ) = ( ).
A function = f (z) is said to be continuous at = if
Further f (z) is said to be continuous in any region R of the z-plane, if it is continuous at
every point of that region.
Also if w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is continuous at = , then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are also
continuous at x= & y = .
1.6.3
Theorem on Differentiability:
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function f( ) to exist for all
values of in a region R.
i)
ii)
1.6.4
Analytic Functions (or Regular Function) or Holomorphic Functions
, are continuous functions of x and y in R.

=
Cauchy-Riemann equations (CR equations)
A single valued function which is defined and differentiable at each point of a domain D is
said to be analytic in that domain.
A point at which an analytic function ceases to possess a derivative is called Singular point.
Thus if u and v are real Single valued functions of x and y such that
, ,
,
are
continuous throughout a region R , then CR equations
=
=-
are both necessary and sufficient condition for the function f(z) = u
iv to be analytic in .
Real and imaginary part i.e. u, v of the function is called conjugate function.
An analytic function posses derivatives of all order and these are themselves analytic.
Page 38
1.6.5
Mathematics
Harmonic Functions:
If f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function in some region of the z plane then the C R equations are
satisfied.
=
Differentiating with respect to x and y respectively,

=
=0
(Laplace Equation)
Note:
(1) For a function to be regular, the first order partial derivations of u and v must be
continuous in addition to CR equations.
(2) Mean value of any harmonic function over a circle is equal to the value of the function at
the centre.
1.6.6
Methods of Constructing Analytic Functions:
1. If the real part of a function is given then,

( ) =
-i
Integrate with points at (z, 0)
f(z) = . /
dz - i . /
( , )
( , )
dz + c
Similarly in case v(x, y) is known, then

f (z) =
+i
f (z) = . /
( , )
dz + i . /
( , )
dz + c
2. If u (x, y) is known, then to find v(x, y) we have

dv =
dx + dy
dv =
dx +
dy
Integrate this equation to find v.

f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
3. If a real part of the analytic function f(z) is given which is harmonic function u (x, y), then
f(z) = 2u . , / - u(0, 0)
1.6.7
Complex Integration
Line integral = ( ) , C need not be closed path
Here, f(z) = integrand , curve C = path of integration
Contour integral = ( )
, if C is closed path
Page 39
Mathematics
If f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) and dz = dx + i dy
( )
=(
Theorem: f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain then
( )
= f( )
( ), i.e.
integration is independent of the path

Dependence on Path: In general Complex line integration depends not only on the end points
but also on the path (however analytic function in simple connected domain is independent of
path.)
1.6.8
Cauchys Integral Theorem:
If f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain D, then for every simple closed path C in D,
() = 0
Note: In other words, by Cauchys theorem if f(z) is analytic on a simple closed path C and
everywhere inside C (with no exception, not even a single point) then ( ) =
D
C
1.6.8.1 Cauchys Integral Formula:

If f(z) is analytic within and on a closed curve and if a is any point within C, then
( )=
( ) =
( ) =
( )
( )
(
)
( )
.
( )=
( )
(
Page 40
1.6.9 Moreras Theorem: If f(z) is continuous in a region and

simple closed C then f(z) is analytic in that region.
Mathematics
( )
= 0 around every
1.6.10 Taylors Series: If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a then for z inside C
f(z) = f(a)
f(z) =
where
( )
f(a) (z-a) +
(
=
(z-a) + - - - - - - -
( )
)
Other form, put z = a + h

f(a+h) = f(a) + h ( ) +
( ) + - - - - - - -
1.6.11 Laurents Series: If f(z) is analytic in the ring shaped region R bounded by two concentric
circles and of radii and (
) and with centre at a then for all z in R
(
f(z) =
where,
( )
)
If f(z) is analytic inside the curve then
= and Laurent series reduces to Taylors series.
1.6.12 Zeroes of Analytic Function:

The value of z for which f(z) = 0
If f(z) is analytic in the neighbourhood of a point z = a then by Taylors theorem.
where
if
f(z) =
=
=
( )
=------
= 0, then f(z) is said to have a zero of order n at z =a.
1.6.13 Singularities of an Analytic Function:

A singular point of a function as the point at which the function ceases to be analytic.
1. Isolated Singularity: If z =a is a singularity of f(z) such that f(z) is analytic at each point in its
neighbourhood (i.e. there exists a circle with centre a which has no other singularity 1, then
z =a is called an isolated singularity).
2. Removable Singularity: If all the negative powers of (z-a) in Laurent series are zero then
Page 41
Mathematics
f(z) =
(
)
singularity can be removed by defining f(z) at z = a is such a way that it becomes analytic at
z =a
( ) exists finitely, then z = a is a removable singularity.
Example: f(z) =
, then z = 0 is a removable singularity.
3. Essential singularity: If the numbers of negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series is infinite,
then z =a is called an essential singularity.
( ) does not exist in this case
4. Poles: If all the negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series after
singularity at z = a is called a pole of order n.
A pole of first order is called a simple pole.
are missing then. The
1.6.14 Residue Theorem

If f(z) is analytic in and on a closed curve C except at a finite number of singular point within C
then
f(z)dz = i (sum of the residue at the singular point within C)
Calculation of Residues
1. If f(x) has a simple pole at z=a , then
Res f(a) =
,(
) ( )( )
) ( ), ( )
2. If ( ) = ( ) where ( ) = (
Res ( ) =
( )
( )
3. If ( ) has a pole of order n at z=a , then

( )=(
,(
( )-3
Here n =order of singularity

Note: If an analytic function has singularities at a finite number of points, then the sum of
residues at these points along with infinity is zero.
Page 42
Network Theory
Part 2: Network Theory

2.1: Network Solution Methodology
Voltage current relation of network elements

Table. Voltage Current relation of network elements
SL.
No
Circuit
element
Resistance, R
Symbol in
electric circuit
Inductance, L
Capacitance, C
Units
Voltage
current
relation
Instantaneous
power , P = Vi
V= i R
( ohms law)
Energy stored /
dissipated
in [
]
i
(t
t )
Ohm
()
Henry
(H)
V=L
Li
L( i
i )
Farad
(F)
i=C
Cv
C( v
v )
i
V
Series and parallel connection of circuit elements

=
Page 43

L
Network Theory
L =L
L
L
L
C
=
C
C
C
Fig. Series and parallel connection of circuit elements

Kirchoff s Current Law (KCL)
The algebraic sum of currents at a node in an electrical circuit is equal to zero.
Kirchoff s Voltage Law (KVL)
In any closed loop electrical circuit, the algebraic sum of voltage drops across all the circuit
elements is equal to EMF rise in the same.
Mesh Analysis
In the mesh analysis, a current is assigned to each window of the network such that the currents
complete a closed loop. They are also referred to as loop currents. Each element and branch
therefore will have an independent current. When a branch has two of the mesh currents, the
actual current is given by their algebraic sum. Once the currents are assigned, Kirchhoffs voltage
law is written for each of the loops to obtain the necessary simultaneous equations. The
simultaneous equations obtained can be solved using matrix inversion method or crammers
rule.
Mesh Analysis (using super mesh)
When two of the loops have a common element as a current source, mesh analysis is not applied
to both loops separately. Instead both the loops are merged and a super mesh is formed. Now
KVL is applied to super mesh.
Nodal Analysis
Typically, electrical networks contain several nodes, where some are simple nodes and some are
principal nodes. In the node voltage method, one of the principal nodes is selected as the
reference and equations based on KCL are written at the other principal nodes with respect to
Page 44
Network Theory
the reference node. At each of these other principal nodes, a voltage is assigned, where it is
understood that this voltage is with respect to the reference node. These voltage are the
unknowns and are determined by nodal Analysis. When the node voltages to be found by nodal
analysis are more than one, the node voltages can be found from simultaneous equations by
matrix inversion method or Cramers rule
Nodal analysis (including super node)
When two of the nodes have a common element as a voltage source, nodal analysis is not applied
to both the nodes separately. Instead both the nodes are merged and a super node is formed.
Now KCL is applied to super node.
Voltage /Current Source
Ideal vs. Practical voltage source
Fig. Practical Voltage Source

Here E is the EMF of source and is the internal resistance of the source. For an ideal source,
is zero and for a practical source, is finite and small.
Ideal vs. Practical current source
Fig. Practical Current Source

Here I is the current of source and is internal resistance of source. For an ideal current source,
is infinite and for a practical source, is finite and large.
Dependent Sources
A source is called dependent if voltage / current of the source depends on voltage / current in
some other part of the network. Depending upon the nature of the source, dependent sources
can be classified as below.
Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS )

Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)
Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)
Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
Page 45
Network Theory
Superposition theorem
In a linear bilateral network, the current through or voltage across any element is equal to
algebraic sum of currents through (or voltages across) the elements when each of the
independent sources are acting alone, provided each of the independent sources are replaced by
corresponding internal resistances.
Source conversion theorem
Source conversion theorem states that a voltage source, E in series with resistance,
as seen
from terminals a and b is equivalent to a current source, I = E/ in parallel with resistance, .
A
E
b
B
Fig. Source conversion theorem

Thevenins and Nortons Theorems
Any linear/bilateral network as viewed from terminals A and B can be replaced by a voltage
source in series with resistance. The theorem is mainly helpful to draw the load characteristics
(output voltage v/s output current as load resistance is varied).
A
A
N /W
B
Fig Demonstration of Thevenins Theorem

In the figure shown above, V is Thevenins voltage as viewed from terminal A & B and
Thevenins resistance as viewed from terminals A & B
is
Nortons Theorem
Any linear / bilateral network, as viewed from terminals A and B, can be replaced by a current
source in parallel with resistance When source conversion theorem is applied for a Thevenins
equivalent circuit, Norton equivalent circuit is obtained and vice versa.
Let I = Norton current as between terminals A & B and
= Norton Resistance as viewed from terminals A & B
A
N/W
B
Fig Demonstration of Nortons Theorem
Page 46
Network Theory
Evaluation of Thevenins / Nortons equivalent circuit

Let V
open- circuit voltage between terminals A & B,
I = short circuit current between terminals A &B,
R = Resistance as viewed from terminals A & B,
S.
No
Table Evaluating of Thevenins and Nortons equivalent circuits

Quantity to be
Circuit containing Circuit containing
Circuit
evaluated
independent
both independent
containing
sources only
and dependent
dependent
sources
sources only
Where V
is the voltage for a current source, I
V
I
between the terminals A and B.
Maximum power transfer theorem (as applied to dc network)

Maximum power transfer theorem in a dc network states a condition on load resistance for
which the maximum power is transferred to the load resistance. In a dc network, maximum
power is transferred to the load when the load resistance is equal to Thevenins ( / Nortons)
resistance as viewed from load terminals.
A
N/W
AI
E
B
Fig. Demonstration of maximum power transfer theorem

For maximum power transfer,
Also, P
and I =
Total power consumed in the circuit =
Page 47
Network Theory
Star-Delta transformation
A
A
Fig. Star(Y) Delta( ) transformation
)
)
McMillan Theorem
McMillan theorem can be applied to the circuits of the form shown and is based on nodal
analysis.
V= ( E
I ) ( )
V
I
I
E
E
Fig. Mcmillan Theorem
Substitution theorem
Substitution theorem can be used to get incremental change in voltage/current of any circuit
element when a resistance R is changed by R and the same can be found by inserting a voltage
source I
in series with R.
I
N/W
N/W
-I
R
Fig. Demonstration of substitution theorem
Page 48
Network Theory
Reciprocity theorem
Reciprocity theorem states that in a linear bilateral network, voltage source and current sink can
be interchanged.
I
V
KI
N/W
N/W
KV
V
Fig. Demonstration of reciprocity theorem

Following are the conditions to be satisfied to apply reciprocity theorem
Only one source is present
No dependent sources are present
No initial conditions ( zero state )
Circuit which satisfies above conditions is called eciprocity network
Page 49
Network Theory
2.2: Transient/Steady State Analysis of RLC Circuits to dc Input

Transient response analysis of network elements
Transient analysis of a resistive circuit
Any change in voltage across a resistor at any instant t is instantaneously felt as corresponding
change in current at the same instant t. Consider the circuit below in which S is moved from
position 1 to 2 at t = 0.
t =0
2
S
Fig. Transient analysis in resistive circuit
V (
) =V ; V (
V (
V (
) = V and I (
) and I (
I (
) =
; I (
) =
Resistor allows abrupt changes in voltage and current.

Transient response of inductor
+
(t)
(t)
Fig. Symbol of inductor

The voltage across and current through an inductor are related by following equation
V (t) = L
& i (t)
i ( )
V (t)dt
V (t)dt
Also inductor doesnt allow abrupt change in current and for a abrupt change in current inductor
requires infinite voltage to be applied across it. Also at steady state, inductor acts as short.
i (t )
i (t ) at every instant t
Transient response of Capacitor
V
i
Fig. Symbol of Capacitor
Page 50
Network Theory
The voltage across or current through a capacitor are related by,

i (t)
and V =
i (t)dt = i (t)dt
V (
The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously unless infinite current (impulse)
is passed through it Hence capacitor doesnt allow abrupt change in voltage across it Also at
steady state, capacitor acts as open.
v (t ) v (t ) at every instant t
Transient response of a R-L circuit
Consider the R- L circuit shown below, in which switch S is moved from position 1 to 2 at t= 0.
1
t =0
S
+
+
()
V
()
Fig. R-L circuit

(
) = (
)=
;V (
) = 0; V (
) = V (
As V ( ) V ( ), inductor allows abrupt change in voltage. Also, ( ) = ( ) as inductor

does not allow abrupt change in current. Consider a R L circuit which contains only one
inductor and more than one resistor as shown.
t=0
S
()
+
Resistive
Network
()
R eq
Fig. R-L circuit

To find i (t) for t
0 in the circuit shown above,
(1) Find initial value of current through inductor, I

i (
(2) Find steady state value of current through inductor, I
(3) Find
as seen from terminals of inductor
(4) Use following equation to find i (t)
)
i ( )
Page 51
i (t) = I
(I
and V (t)
I )e
(I
I)
Network Theory
, where
Transient response of a R-C circuit

Consider the R C circuit shown below, in which switch S is moved from position1 to position 2
at t = 0.
t =0
s
+
+
-
V
V (t)
V (t)
Fig. R-C circuit

V(
) = V(
) = V ; (
) = 0; (
)=
(V
V )
As I ( ) I( ), capacitor allows abrupt change in current. Also, V ( ) V ( ) as capacitor

doesnt allows abrupt change in voltage Consider a R- C circuit which contains only one
capacitor and more than one resistor as shown.
S
i (t)
t=0
Resistive
Network
+
C
V (t)
R eq
Fig. R-C circuit

To find V (t) for t
(1) Find initial value of voltage across capacitor, V V (

(2) Find steady state value of voltage across capacitor, V
(3) Find
as seen from terminals of capacitor
(4) Use following equation to find V (t)
V (t) = V
(V
V)e
and i (t)
where
)
V ( )
Page 52
Network Theory
Transient response analysis of a source free series R-L-C circuit

i(t)
V(t)
C
L
V(
i(
)=
Fig. Series R-L-C circuit

Let
= R/2L,
S. No
1.
Condition
and a, b = -
Table. Different cases of series R-L-C circuit
Nature
of General form of i(t)
Graph
response of i (t)
Over-damped
A e
A e (a and b are
i(t)
negative, real and unequal)
t
2.
Critically
damped
(A
A t) e
(a is negative and real)
i(t)
t
3.
Under-damped
e (A cos t
where
A sin
t)
i(t)
Here A , A can be found using initial conditions.

Transient response analysis of a source free parallel R L C circuit
v(t)
I
R
Fig. Parallel R-L-C circuit
Page 53
Let =
S. No
1.
2.
and a ,b = -
Network Theory
Table Different cases of parallel R-L-C circuit

Condition Nature
of General form of v(t)
response of v (t)
Over-damped
A e
A e
(a and b are negative, real and
unequal)
Critically
damped
(A
A t) e
(a is negative and real)
Graph
v(t)
t
v(t)
t
3.
Under-damped
(A cos
where
A sin
t)
V(t)
Generalization of response f (t) for an excitation g (t)

In any general R-L-C circuit, let f(t) be the response for an excitation g(t). The response f(t) can
be generalized as below,
f(t)=f (t)
f (t)
Here, f (t) is called natural response and is found based on initial conditions assuming no source
is present and f (t) is called forced response which is derived based on source of excitation.
Page 54
Network Theory
2.3: Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis

Phasor representation
Any sinusoidal representation, V(t) = V sin( t
V V
) can be represented in phasor form as,
Reference
Fig. Phasor representation of sinusoidal signal V(t) of angular frequency
For phasor analysis of V (t) and V (t), following conditions should be satisfied,
(a) V (t) and V (t) should have same sign for V and V .
(b) Both V (t) and V (t) should be written as sine/cosine waves.
(c) Both V (t) and V (t) should have same frequency.
Impedance
S. No
1.
Table. Impedances of different a.c. circuit components

Component
Impedance
Z= R
Z=J L
2.
L
`
3.
Z=
C
`
4.
R
`
5.
R
`
C
`
6.
R
`
J L
L
`
L
`
Z
C
`
J
C
J C
J L
J C
J( L
Page 55
Network Theory
Sinusoidal excitation of different components

Excitation to resistor
I
R
I
V
Fig.
- phasor relation for resistor
Excitation to Inductor
L
Z
j L
Fig. V
I phasor relation for inductor
Sinusoidal excitation to Capacitor
Fig.
phasor relation for capacitor
Sinusoidal excitation to RL circuit
R
V
tan
Fig . Phasor relation in R-L circuit
Page 56
Network Theory
Excitation to R-C Circuit

I
tan
Fig. Phasor relation in a R-C circuit

Root mean square (rms) value of a periodic signal
The rms value of a periodic signal is defined as equivalent dc signal which will consume same
power as periodic signal. If V(t) is a periodic signal of period T ,
v (t)dt
Consider a signal, V(t) = V
= V
sin
sin
---------
Average value of a periodic signal

Average value of a periodic signal gives an idea about d.c. content of the signal. If V(t) is signal of
period T,
V
V(t) dt
Average power supplied by a.c. source
a . c.
Network
Fig . Demonstration of power supplied by a.c. source

Apparent power , S = V I * (in rms sense) = V
Active power, P =
Reactive power, Q =
cos ( - ) V
sin(- ) V
Cos (- ) J V
in(
)= P + JQ
cos ( - )
I
sin(
Active power is the power supplied to resistive part of the network and is measured in watt.
Reactive power is the power supplied to inductive or capacitive part of the network and is
measured in var. Power factor (PF) of circuit as seen from source is given as cos ( - ) Pf gives
an idea about part of VA supplied to resistive part of network.
Resonance
At resonance, voltage and current as seen from supply are in phase. Also at resonance,
impedance as seen from supply is completely resistive.
Page 57
Network Theory
Single phase Circuit analysis

Most of the analysis techniques used for dc networks can be used for ac networks also. However,
algebraic operations should be replaced by phasor operations and all the theorems can be
relevantly applied.
Maximum Power transfer theorem
Maximum power transfer theorem gives an idea about the maximum power consumed in Z
depending on the nature of Z . Consider an a c network and corresponding Thevenins
equivalent as seen from load terminals A and B as shown in figure below.
A
a.c
network
B
Fig. Demonstration of maximum power transfer theorem
Depending nature of Z and Z , following are the possible cases and corresponding conditions
for maximum power transfer,
(1) If Z
(2) If Z
(3) If Z
(4) If Z
(5) If Z
(6) If Z
and Z are resistive , Z

Z .
and Z are impedance , Z = Z .
is complex and Z is resisitive , Z
Z .
=
JX such that X is fixed and
is variable, then ,
Z
JX .
JX is such that
is fixed and X is variable, then X = Im(Z ).
JX is such that tan ( ) is constant and | Z is varied , then | Z | = |
Z |.
(7) For any arbitrary nature of Z and Z , appropriate value of Z can be found using Lagranges
optimization.
Star-delta transformation
A
ZA
Z1
Z2
B
Z3
ZC
ZB
B
Fig. Star-Delta equivalent transformation
Z
Z
(
(
; Z
;Z
; Z
;Z
Page 58
Network Theory
Polyphase Circuit Analysis

Single phase three wire system
a
~
n
~
b
Fig. Single phase 3 wire system

V =V
V =V
V
I =V Z
I =V Z
I
=I
= 2V
If the load is balanced, Z = Z

I
The wire nN is neutral wire. So if the load is balanced, current in neutral wire is zero. If the wires
aA and bB have same impedance, still current in neutral wire is 0. If loads are unbalanced and Nn
wire has some finite impedance, power dissipated in nN is finite.
Three phase source
A
a
~
c
Fig. Three phase balanced supply(in positive sequence)
Consider a balanced supply as shown,

|V |
|V |
|V |
Page 59
rms } Negative phase sequence
rms
Network Theory
rms
rms } Positive phase sequence
rms
rms
Three phase Y-Y Connection including neutral (for balanced
ZA
Z
N
supply)
Z
C
Fig. Y-Y connection

I
; I
Let V , I , V
;I
and I
stand for line voltage, line current, load voltage and load current.
If load is balanced, Z
I
and |I |
|I | = I =
|I |
Power consumed by load = 3 V I cos = V I cos

V
and I
If the load is balanced neutral wire can be removed as I

If load is not balanced, I
Z
Power consumed by load =
I
V
I
I
cos (if load is not balanced)
Three Phase Y Connection: (for balanced

I
; I
is zero.
supply)
Page 60
Network Theory
ZA
ZB
ZC
Fig. Y- Connection
Z
Z
Z
If the load is balanced, Z

I
Power consumed by load, P =

V
V I Cos
If the load is not balanced, Power consumed by load, P =
cos
Magnetically Coupled circuits

Two circuits are magnetically coupled, if operation of one circuit is effected by flux linkage due
to coil in another circuit In a magnetically coupled circuit Current entering dotted terminal of
one coil will produce a voltage which is sensed positive at the dotted terminals of another coil
and vice versa o voltage across one coil depends not only on self inductance but also on
mutual inductance which gives extent of flux linkage between the two coils. Please note that dot
convention doesnt make sense when its associated with single coil
m
i (t)
V (t)
-
V (t)
-
V (t)=m
m
i (t)
V (t)=L
V (t)
V (t)
V (t)
L
V (t)
m
+
V (t)
V (t)
L
V (t)
V (t)
i (t)
m
+
V (t)
-
V (t)
V (t)
L
i (t)
V (t)
Fig. Demonstration of dot convention

Page 61
Network Theory
As the flux linkage in coil 1 due to the coil 2 is same as flux linkage in coil 2 due to coil 1,
m
m =m
Also coefficient of coupling, K = m / L L ; Here K
m L L
Co efficient of coupling is in [0 , 1] as flux linkage in one coil due to current in other coil will
always be less than the flux produced by the same.
m
+
+
V (t)
i (t)
V (t)
-
i (t)
Fig. Demonstration of dot convention (Commutative connection)

V (t)
In frequency domain V
& V (t)
+m
( J L )I
(J m )I & V
Instantaneous energy stored = L i (t)

Total energy stored = L I
L I
L i (t)
(J m)I
(J L )I
m i (t)i (t)
mI I
m
+
i (t)
+
V (t)
V (t)
i (t)
Fig. Demonstration of dot convention (Differential Connection)

V (t) L
m & V (t)
L
( J L )I
In frequency domain, V
Instantaneously energy stored =

Total energy stored =
L I
-m
(J m )I & V
L i (t)
L I
L i (t)
(J m)I
(J L )I
m i (t)i (t)
mI I
Page 62
Network Theory
2.4: Transfer Function of an LTI System

Transfer function of a LTI system is defined as ratio of Laplace transform of output to the
Laplace transform of input assuming initial conditions are zero. (LTI means linear and timeinvariant)
h(t)
f(t)
g(t)=f(t)*h(t)
Fig. LTI system

If L{f(t)}=F(S), L{h(t)}=H(S) and L{g(t)}=G(S), G(S)=H(S) .F(S)
Transfer function of system, H(S) =
G( )
F( )
Output response of a LTI system of transfer function, H(s)

Let the output response of a LTI system be defined as g(t) for a input f(t),
g(t) = g (t)+g (t)
where g (t) is transient response of system and g (t) is steady state response of system.
Let H(S) has poles at p , i=1, --------n.
g (t) = L (F( ) H( )) and g (t)=
g(t)
Ae
Ae
L (F( ) G( ))
Here constant A can be found based on initial conditions. Above analysis can be used in R-L-C
circuits to get voltage/current response at any time t.
Locus of phasors
Given any response G( ) substitute J to get generalized phasor of G( ) Locus of G(S) can
be obtained by varying and
Thus the locus gives an idea about the phasor at different
frequencies.
Circuit analysis at a generalized frequency
Any circuit can be generalized to operate at a frequency
J For dc signals
and
and for ac signals
Let V(t) V e cos( t ) be the input to a network shown
below and let the response be i(t) I e cos( t ). We see that V and I have a frequency of
J In phasor form the circuit can be represented as below,
Page 63
Network Theory
a.c
at S=(
N
)
at
S=(
Fig. Circuit analysis of generalized frequency (S = ( + J )).
Page 64
Network Theory
2.5: Two Port Networks

Definitions
One port network is a network which has a pair of terminals across which voltage can be
applied and current can pass. Two port network is a network which has two pairs of terminals
of above type. Let V = [V V ] and I = [I I ] be the voltages across and the currents through
the two ports of the network.
+
+
N/W
Fig. Two port network

Z -Parameter (open circuit parameters or impedance parameters)
V
Z
Z
I
[ ]=[
] [ ] V = ZI
V
Z
I
Z
Y Parameters (admittance parameter or short circuit parameter)
I
Y
[ ] =[
I
Y
Y
V
][ ]
Y
V
V = YI; Also [
Z
Z
Z
]
Z
Y
Y
Y
]
Y
( Y
h - Parameters (hybrid parameters)

V
h
[ ]=[
I
h
h
I
][ ]
V
h
ABCD - Parameters (Transmission line or chain parameters)
2 port
N/W
Fig. Two port network (for ABCD parameters)

V
A B V
[ ]=*
+[
]
C D
I
I
Page 65
Network Theory
G-Parameters
g
*g
I
[ ]
V
g
V
g + [I ] G
Condition for reciprocity and symmetry

Table: Conditions for reciprocity and symmetry
S. NO
Parameter
Condition for passive network Condition for symmetry

or reciprocity
Z =Z
Z =Z
Y =Y
Y =Y
ABCD
A B
|
|=1
C D
A=D
= -h
h
h
h
|=1
h
For converting one type of parameters to any other type, write equations to express relation
between V I V & I in terms of given parameters and convert the same into the required form
to get the target parameters.
Inter-connection of two port networks:
If two 2-port networks A and B are connected in parallel, then Y-parameters of cumulative
network is equal to sum of individual Y-parameters. If two 2-port networks A and B are
connected in series, then Z parameters get added. If two 2-port networks A and B are connected
in cascade, then ABCD parameters of cumulative network are equal to product of individual
ABCD parameters.
Page 66
Network Theory
2.6: Network Topology

Definitions
Graph: A network in which all nodes and loops are retained, but its branches are represented by
lines.
i)
Voltage sources replaced by short circuit.
ii)
Current sources replaced by open circuit.
Sub-graph: A sub graph is a subset of the original set of graph branches along with their
corresponding nodes.
Tree: A connected sub-graph containing all nodes of a graph but no closed path. The branches of
tree are called Twigs.
Co-tree: Complement of Tree is called as Co-tree. The branches of co-tree are called as Links.
Formula: L = B-N+1, where
L = No. of links of co-tree,
B = No. of branches of graph,
N = Total no of nodes in graph
Nodal Incidence Matrix
Definition
It is defined as a matrix which completely defines which branches are incident at which nodes
and the corresponding orientation.
i) Anxb= {ahk} is a matrix of dimension n
b, n = no. of nodes, b = no. of branches
ii) Rank of Incidence Matrix is n -1.

iii) Sum of elements of any column is zero
A
= 1, if branch k is associated with node h and oriented away from node h

= - 1, if branch k is associated with node h and oriented towards node h
= 0, if branch k is not associated with node h
Page 67
Network Theory
Applications in Network Theory

We can write KCL, using the nodal incidence matrix as follows:
Anxb Ib = 0 where Ib = [i1,i2 ib] is branch current vector
No. of trees = Det |AAT|
Reduced Incidence Matrix
When any node is taken as reference, then the voltages of other nodes can be measured with
respect the assigned reference. In the Fig, taking node 4 as reference reduces the matrix, to
Reduced Incidence Matrix, dimensions being (n-1xb).
(3)
2
(2) ( (4)
1
(1)
(5)
(3)
3
(6)
(2)
(1)
(4)
(5)
(6)
+
- V
4
4
(A)
(B)
Fig. Demonstration of network topology

A = [ At
At]
Where A is a square matrix of order (n-1) (n- 1) and A is a matrix of order (n-1) (b n + 1)
whose columns correspond to the links.
Loop Incidence Matrix (Fundamental Tie-set Matrix)
Definition
It is defined as the matrix representation in which the loop orientation is to be the same as the
corresponding link direction.
Rank of B is b-n+1;
Steps to get this Matrix
1. Draw the oriented graph of network. Choose a tree.
2. Each link forms an independent loop & the direction of this loop is same as that of the
corresponding link. Choose each link in turn.
3. Prepare the tie-set matrix Blxb = {bhk}, l = no of loops, b = no of branches, defined as follows.
Page 68
Network Theory
To write a Tie Set Matrix for Fig 1, steps have been stated schematically.
b
= +1, if branch k is in loop h and their orientations coincide

= - 1, if branch k is in loop h and their orientations do not coincide
= 0, if branch k is not in loop

We can write KVL, using the loop incidence matrix as follows
BlxbVb = 0, where Vb = [v1, v2 vb] is branch voltage vector
=> Ib = [Blxb]T
, where
= [i1, i2 i ] is loop current vector
Fundamental Cut-Set Matrix

It is defined as a set of branches whose removal cuts the connected graph into two parts such
that the replacement of any one branch of the cutest renders the two part connected.
Rank of Q is n-1
Steps to get Cut-Set
1. Draw the oriented graph of a network and choose a tree.
2. For n-1 twigs, we will get n-1 cut sets will exist.
3. Direction of cut-set is same as twigs. Choose each twig in turn to obtain the matrix.
4. Prepare the cut set matrix Q(n-1)x b = {qij}, where n = no of nodes, b = no of branches as
follows,
q
= 1, if branch j is in the cut-set i, and the orientations coincide

= - 1, if branch j is in the cut-set i and the orientations do not coincide
= 0, if branch j is not in the cut-set i

From the cut-set matrix, we can write equations relating the branch voltages to the node
voltages as follows, [Q(n-1) x b]Ib = 0 => Vb = [Q(n-1) x b]TVn-1
where Vn-1 = [v1, v2 vn-1] is node voltage vector
Page 69
Signals & Systems
Part 3: Signals and Systems

3.1: Introduction to Signals & Systems
Introduction
Signal is defined as a function that conveys useful information about the state or behaviour of a
physical phenomenon. Signal is typically the variation with respect to an independent quantity
like time.
System
System is defined as an entity which extracts useful information from the signal or processes the
signal as per a specific function.
Classification of Signals
Continuous-Time vs Discrete-Time Signals
Continuous-time signal is defined as a signal which is defined for all instants of time. Discrete
time Signal is a signal which is defined at specific instants of time only and is obtained by
sampling a continuous time signal. Also discrete-time signals are defined only at integer
instants, is n z. Digital signal is obtained from discrete-time signal by quantization.
Conjugate Symmetric vs Skew Symmetric Signals
A continuous time signal x(t) is conjugate symmetric if x(t) = x*(-t); t. If x(t) = -x* (-t); t. Also,
x(t) is conjugate skew symmetric.
Any arbitrary signal x(t) can be considered to constitute 2 parts as below,
x(t) = x t + x t
where x t = conjugate symmetric part of signal =
x
t = conjugate skew symmetric part of signal =
)
(
and
)
Periodic vs Non-Periodic Signals

A continuous time signal is periodic if there exists T such that
x(t+T) = x(t),
t ;T R {0}
The smallest positive value of T that satisfies above condition is called fundamental period of
x(t).
A discrete-time signal is periodic if there exists N such that
x[n] = x[n+N],
n ; N Z {0}
The smallest positive N that satisfies above condition is called fundamental period of x[n]. If
x t and x t are periodic signals with periods T and T respectively, then x(t) = x t +
x t is periodic iff (if and only if)
is a rational number and period of x(t) is least common
Page 70
Signals & Systems
multiple (LCM) of T and T . If x n is periodic with fundamental period N and x n is periodic

with fundamental period M than x[n] = x n
x n is always periodic with fundamental
period equal to the least common multiple (LCM) of M and N.
Energy & Power Signals
The formulas for calculation of energy, E and power, P of a continuous/discrete-time signal are
given in table below,
Table. Formulae for calculation of energy and power
S. NO
1.
Nature of the signal

Continuous-time,
non-periodic
2.
Continuous-time,
periodic signal
with period T
Discrete-time, nonperiodic
Discrete-time,
periodic signal
with period (2N +
1)
3.
4.
Formulas for energy & power calculation

|x t |
lim
|x t | t
|x t |
t P=
lim
|x n |
lim
|x n |
|x t |
lim
|x n |
|x n |
Characteristics of systems
Linearity
A system is linear if it satisfies superposition principle; i.e, weighted sum of inputs when given to
a system should give a weighted sum of outputs. In general, for continuous time systems,
T {
}=
where
= T{
Time-Invariance
A system is time-invariant if delayed version of input leads to a delayed version of output by the
same amount. For continuous time system to be time-invariant, y(t .
Causality
A system is said to be causal if output at any instant depends upon past and present inputs only.
A system is called anti-causal, if output at any instant depends on future inputs only. A system is
called non-causal, if output at any instant depends upon future inputs also. From above anticausality implies non-causality, but the converse is not true.
Memoryless Property
A system is said to be memoryless if output at any instant depends on input at that instant,
otherwise the system is said to have memory.
Page 71
Signals & Systems
Stability
A system is said to be stable in bounded input bounded output sense if for any bounded input
the system gives bounded output, otherwise system is unstable.
For continuous time signals, |x t |
stability
Invertibility
A system is said to have inverse, if there exists another system so as to recover the original input
from the output of first system.
Page 72
Signals & Systems
3.2: Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems
Convolution Sum
Any arbitrary signal x[n] can be described as,
Discrete Time
LTI System
x[n]
y[n]
Fig. Discrete time LTI system

Consider a discrete-time LTI system described as,
For LTI system,

the system.
where h[n] is impulse response of
Properties/Characterization of LTI System Using Impulse Response

Memoryless System
If system is memoryless, y[n] depends on only input at that instant,
n where CR
Causal System
If system is causal, y[n] depends on past and present inputs, x m m n
h n
for n
, if system is c us l.
Stable System

| should be finite for BIBO stability
Invertible LTI System

For a continuous time LTI system of impulse response, h(t) if there exists a impulse response
h (t) such that,
, then
is called inverse LTI system and h(t) is called
invertible LTI system.
Representation of Continuous/Discrete-Time System
Transformation
Define a mapping related to input and output of system. y(t) = T{x(t)}
Representation of Continuous/Discrete-Time LTI System
Transformation
Define a mapping related to input and output of system.
Page 73
Signals & Systems
Impulse response
Impulse response uniquely represents a LTI system
LCCDE (Linear Constant Coefficient Difference Equation)
LCCDE represents the output at instant n, in terms of output and inputs.
System Function ( H(e
; Where
R.
/H(z))
From LCCDE, system functions H(e
.
.
H(z) can be derived as below.

.
.
where F h n
where
hn
Determining Impulse Response from Step Response

For a discrete-time LTI system, if y n is unit step response, impulse response h[n] is given as,
For a continuous-time LTI system, if y t is unit step response, h(t) is given as,
Response of LTI System to Sinusoidal Input

Figure shown below gives the response of a discrete-time LTI system to a sinusoidal input.
x[n] =
h[n]
y[n] = A |H(
|.
( (
)))
Fig. Sinusoidal response of a discrete-time LTI system

The above relation implies that a LTI system produces a sinusoid in response to a sinusoid, the
amplitude is multiplied by a factor |H(
)| and phase is changed by a factor rg(
).
The frequency response of a system gives information about how it affects sinusoidal input at a
particular frequency.
Page 74
Signals & Systems
3.3: Fourier Representation of Signals

Introduction
Here we represent signals as a linear combination of complex exponentials. The resulting
representations are known as the continuous time and discrete time Fourier series and
transform (depending on the nature of signal i.e. continuous/discrete and periodic/non
periodic).
Fourier Representations
S. No
Table: Fourier representation of signal

Nature of Signal
Representation
Continuous-time, Periodic
Fourier series
Nature of Frequency
Representation
Discrete, non-periodic
Discrete-time, Periodic
Discrete Time Fourier Series (DTFS)
Discrete, periodic
Continuous-time, Non
periodic
Discrete-time, Non
periodic
Continuous-Time Fourier Transform Continuous, non(CTFT)

periodic
Discrete Time Fourier Transform
Continuous, periodic
(DTFT)
From the above table, we see that continuous-time signals have non-periodic frequency
representation and discrete-time signals have periodic frequency representation. Also periodic
signals have discrete frequency representation and non-periodic signals have frequency
representation which is continuous in nature.
Fourier series (FS) for Continuous Time Periodic Signals
Complex FS representation
Let x(t) be continuous time periodic signal with period T,
X(k) =
x(t) =
where T is period of x(t) and
F S,
x(t)
X(k)
Alternate Fourier Series Representation
If f(x) is a signal of period 2T,
cos
Here
sin
where
is the dc component of f(x),
. cos
and
If f(x) is even,
cos
If f(x) is odd,
Page 75
Signals & Systems
Discrete Time Fourier Series(DTFS)

Let x n is be discrete time signal of period N,
DTF S,
k
x n
x n =
where
k =
x n
k is also periodic with period N and is discrete in nature.
Fourier Transform (FT) for Continuous Time Non-Periodic Signals
Let x(t) be a continuous-time non-periodic signal,
F.T.
x(t)
j
j is continuous with respect to
n is non-periodic
j
x t
x(t) =
The Fourier Transform X(j m y not exist for ll functions x t . For the Fourier tr nsform to
exist, x(t) must satisfy the Dirchlet conditions given below,
The signal x(t) must be absolutely integrable, i.e | x t |
.
The signal x(t) must have finite number of local maxima and minima and discontinuities in
any finite interval.
The size of each discontinuity must be finite.
Discrete Time Non Periodic Signals: Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT)
Let x[n] be a discrete-time non-periodic signal,
DTFT
x[n]
X(
)=
x[n] =
X(
If the sequence, x[n] is absolutely summable, i.e.

x[n] exists.
, then DTFT of the sequence,
Properties of Fourier Representation

Symmetry Property - Real & Imaginary signals
If x(t) is real, Im x t
n x t
Re x t ,
FT is conjugate symmetric
magnitude spectrum is symmetric.
If x(t) is imaginary,
FT is conjug te skew-symmetric magnitude spectrum is symmetric.

If x(t) is conjugate symmetric,
x
t
x t
Page 76
FT is re l
(
If x(t) is conjugate anti-symmetric
x
t
x t
FT is im gin ry (
Signals & Systems
Table. Comments on CTFT based on signal properties

Signal Property
Comments on F. T.
Real
Conjugate symmetric
Imaginary
Conjugate anti-symmetric
Conjugate symmetric
Real
Conjugate anti-symmetric
Imaginary
SL. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Scaling Property
x(a t)
CTFT
| |
a) Linear scaling in domain corresponds to a linear scaling in frequency domain.

b) Whenever a signal is compressed in time domain (a>1), it leads to expansion in frequency
and vice versa.
Convolution Property
For continuous-time signals,
x t
y t
x t
y t
Convolution in time domain results in multiplication in frequency domain.

Parseval Theorem
Energy or power in the time domain representation is equal to energy or power in frequency
domain representation.
|
|
|
|
,
|
Page 77
Signals & Systems
3.4: Z-Transform
Introduction
ZT is a generalization of frequency response for discrete-time signals.
Two sided ZT/Bilateral ZT,
One sided ZT/Unilateral ZT,

.
For |z|
or z e , T is equal to DTFT. Therefore ZT evaluated along unit circle reduces to
DTFT. For any given sequence, the set of values of Z for which the Z transform converges is
called the region of convergence (ROC).
Rational Representation of Z.T. (X(z))
Consider the class of Z transform where in X(z) can be expressed as,
X(z) =
where P(z) is numerator polynomial and Q(z) is denominator
polynomial
Values of z for which P(z)=0 are called the zeroes of X(z).Values of z for which Q(z) = 0 are
called the poles of X(z). Location of poles of X(z) is related to the ROC and ROC is bounded by
poles. To uniquely specify a discrete time signal, one needs to specify both X(z) and ROC.
x [n] = an u[n]
Z.T
x [n] = -an u(-n-1) Z.T
(z) =
(z) =
; ROC : |z| > |a|

; ROC : |z| < |a|
From above we see that two different signals x n and x [n] have same Z-transform but
different ROCs.
Properties of ROC
(1) ROC of X(z) consists of a ring in the z-plane centered about the origin.
(2) ROC does not contain any poles, but is bounded by poles.
(3) If x[n] is a finite duration sequence, then ROC is the entire z plane except possibly z = 0 or
z
.
(4) If x1[n] is a right sided sequence, then ROC extends outward from the outermost pole to
possi ly inclu ing z
. As c us l sequences re right si e , RO of those sequences is
outside a circle.
(5) If x2[n] is a left sided sequence, the ROC extends inward, from the innermost non-zero pole
to possibly including z = 0. As anti-causal sequences are left sided, ROC of those sequences is
inside a circle.
(6) If x3[n] is two sided sequence, the ROC will consist of a ring in the z plane bounded on the
interior and exterior by a pole.
(7) If
is a finite duration sequence, ROC is entire z-pl ne except possi ly z
or z
.
Page 78
Signals & Systems
Properties of Z Transform
Linearity
Z.T a X1(z) + b X2(z); ROC (R1 R2)
a x1[n] + b x2[n]
ROC in the current case is at least ( R
R ). If there is no poles zero cancellation, ROC will be
(R
R ). If there is a pole-zero cancellation, ROC may be more than R
R . If R
R
,
then Z{ax n
x n
oesnt exist.
Time Shifting
.
X[n no]
. (z)
If no>0, ROC is R except z = 0. If no< 0, ROC is R except z =
Modulation
.
an x[n]
X(
; ROC: |a| r1 < |z| < |a| r2
If |a|>1, Z transform gets shrinked in Z-domain and vice versa. If a = e

Multiplication in time domain by
.
r.e
results in frequency shift in frequency domain by
Differentiation in Z- domain
.
nx n
z
z
RO
Conjugate property
x
RO
Time Reversal property

x
( ) RO
z
Convolution property
x n
x n
RO
Initial Value Theorem

x[0] = lim
If X(z) is expressed as ratio of polynomials P(z) and Q(z), order of P(z) should be less than that
of Q(z) for initial value theorem to be applied to X(z).
Final Value Theorem
lim
x n = x[ ] = lim
Page 79
Signals & Systems
Necessary condition for applying final value theorem is that poles of (1-z
strictly inside the unit cycle.
X(z) should be
Characterization of LTI System from H(z) and ROC

h[n]
x[n]
ZT
h[n]
y[n]
H(z) ; ROC
Fig. LTI System

A LTI system can be characterized for causality, stability and memoryless properties based on
ROC of the system function, H(z).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
If ROC includes unit circle, then system is stable.

If ROC is outside a circle, then system is causal.
If ROC is inside a circle, then system is anti-causal.
If ROC is all z, then system is memoryless.
If ROC is strictly a ring, then system is non-causal.
If ROC includes unit-circle, then the systems impulse response is
hence DTFT of the sequence exists.
solutely summ
le n
Finding Inverse Z.T. given X(z) and ROC

By Inspection and Partial Fraction
Given X(z) in rational form, split it into partial fractions and based on ROC, find x[n] by
inspection.
By Division
Given X(z) in rational form, perform the division based on the condition that x[n] is causal or
anti-causal and find X(z) in expansion form.
By Power Series Expansion
Given X(z) in a standard form, find the expansion of X(z), then x[n]
Page 80
Signals & Systems
3.5: Laplace Transform

Introduction
Laplace Transform (LT) is a method to get generalized frequency domain representation of a
continuous time signal and is generalization of CTFT (Continuous Time Fourier Transform).
Definition of Laplace Transform
f t
F s
f t
F s =
. f t t : One sided/ unilateral LT where S
. f t t : Two sided/ bilateral LT
Properties of Laplace transform

Frequency shift
[e-at f(t) ] = F(s + a) and
[eat f(t) ] = F(s - a)
Time shift
[f(t to)] = e
. F(s)
Differentiation in Time domain

[
f t ] = s F(s) f(0) where f(0) is initial value of f(t).
If initial conditions are zero (i.e, f(0) = 0),differentiating in time domain is equivalent to
multiplying by s in frequency domain.
Similarly,
f t ] = s F(s) s f(0) - f (0) where f (0) is the value of [
f t ] at t = 0
Integration in Time Domain

* f t t+
and
f t t-
f t t
Integration in time domain is equivalent to division by s in frequency domain, if f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
Differentiation in Frequency Domain
[ t f(t) ] =
and
t f t
(F(s))
Differentiation in frequency domain is equal to multiplication by t in time domain.

Integration in Frequency Domain
*
+ = F s
Integration in frequency domain is equal to division by t in time domain.

Initial Value Theorem
If f(t) and its derivative f t are Laplace transformable, then
Page 81
lim
f t
lim
Signals & Systems
sF s
This theorem does not apply to the rational function F(s) in which the order of numerator
polynomial is equal to or greater than the order of denominator polynomial.
Final Value Theorem
If f(t) and its derivative f (t) are Laplace transformable,
lim
f t
lim
then
sF s
For applying final value theorem, it is required that all the poles of
plane (strictly) i.e. poles on
axis also not allowed.
be in the left half of s-
Convolution theorem
.
.
Laplace transform of the periodic function
If f(t) is periodic function with period T, then
f t
. F (s) where F (s) = e
f t t
Laplace transform of standard functions

Table: Laplace transform of standard functions
S. No
Function, f(t)
Laplace transform of f(t), L{f(t) = F(s)
1.
2.
u(t)
3.
4.
u(t)
5.
e .u t
6.
t.u(t)
7.
t .u t
8.
f(t).e u t
F(s-a)
9.
Sin at. u(t)
Page 82
10.
Cos at. u(t)
s
s
11.
sinhat. u(t)
12.
coshat. u(t)
s
s
13.
f (t)
s.F(s)-f(o )
14.
f (t)
s .F s
15.
16.
Signals & Systems
s. f o ) f (o )
s F(s)
.
17.
f(t-a).u(t-a)
18.
t .F t
19.
f(t )
20.
f(at)
.F s
.
f t
f t =
22
. cos
23
sin t
24
25
26
.f t
| |. F s
| |
21.
F s
F s . F s where * is convolution operator

.
t
s
F s s
Applications
1. LT is generalization of CTFT for continuous-time signals and hence signal can be
characterized at any generalized frequency.
2. LT is helpful to perform transient and steady state analysis of any LTI system for any
arbitrary input and initial conditions.
Page 83
Signals & Systems
3.6: Frequency response of LTI systems and Diversified Topics

Frequency response of a LTI system
Consider a LTI system of impulse response h[n] as shown in figure below. For any arbitrary
input x[n], output y[n] can be found by convolution, as below,
y[n]= x[n] * h[n]
h[n]
x[n]
y[n]
Fig. LTI System

If F{x[n]} = e
and Z{x[n]} = X(z),
and Y(z) = H(z). X(z)
(e )
(e ). e
Here
is called transfer function of LTI system and
is called system function.
Amplitude Response
Plot of
| e | with respect to is c lle the mplitu e response. It gives n i e
frequency content of the signal and can be used to characterize the system.
out
Phase Response
Plot of
(e ) with respect to
is called the phase response. Similar to magnitude
response, this can also be used to characterize the system.

Group Delay Response
Plot of
with respect to
is c lle the group el y response.
Minimum Phase System

Minimum phase system is the system for which phase variation and energy variation are
minimum with respect to . Also if minimum ph se system is c us l, poles n zeroes re insi e
the unit circle.
Linear Phase System
The system for which phase variation with respect to
If
) is a linear phase system,
(e )
is line r is c lle line r ph se system.

and hence
. Also
group delay is constant for linear phase system. For a linear phase system with real impulse
response, zeroes form complex conjug te reciproc l p irs. So if there is zero t for line r
phase system, then other zeroes are at
. For a linear phase system with complex
impulse response, if there is zero t , then its ssure th t there is zero at
Page 84
Signals & Systems
All pass system

System which passes all the frequencies is called all-pass system
| e | K;
where K is a constant.
For a all-pass filter, system function can be generalized as
(
For a all-pass system, poles and zeroes form a conjugate reciprocal pairs. Therefore for a all-pass
system with complex impulse response, if there is zero t , then there is pole t
and vice
versa. For an all-pass system with real impulse response, if there is a zero at a, then there is a
zero at and there are poles at and .
Magnitude transfer function
A system function
z is c lle m gnitu e tr nsfer function, if its of form,
( )
Therefore, for magnitude transfer function, poles form conjugate reciprocal pairs. Hence if there
.
is pole t , there is pole t . Same applies for zeroes also.

Sampling
To get discrete-time signal from analog signal, sampling is performed on analog signal. Let x(t)
be analog signal & S(t) be impulse train,
S(t) =
T where T is desired sampling interval
Sampled signal, x (t) = x(t) . s(t) =
T .
After sampling, signal obtained above is still in time-domain. To get FT in discrete time domain,
put
T, which is c lle time norm liz tion
X(e
( (
))
From above we see that X(e

is perio ic with perio
any intervention between frequency bands.
theorem)
As X(e
where
is signal BW
. To voi
li sing, there should not be
to avoid aliasing (Nyquist sampling
is periodic, DTFT is described as one period of CTFT, if there is no aliasing.
To get x t from x[n], use low pass filter of impulse response h t = sin c(t/T) as in figure
below.
Page 85
Signals & Systems
Fig. Low-pass filter

x t =
x k sin c
= X(e
t
where
where sin c(x) =

T
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)

DFT is a sampled version of DTFT of a non-periodic signal x[n] in the range of (- , . This is
mainly required for processing by computers. Consider a signal x[n] of length N, then its DFT,
X[k] is given as,
{
{
where
Also, DFT is obtained by sampling DTFT with a period of
where
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

For evaluating DFT of x[n], number of multiplications and additions required are
. To
reduce the computational complexity, another implementation of DFT is used, which is called
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Number of multiplications required for FFT is
. log
. FFT
uses butterfly architecture with in place computation to save the processing time and memory
requirements.
Filters
Filters are typically used to extract any useful information from a signal or to process a signal.
FIR Filters
Here output at any instant n, depends on only input and impulse response of FIR filter has finite
length.
IIR Filter
Here output at any instant n, depends on input and past/future output and impulse response of
IIR filter has infinite length.
Page 86
Signals & Systems
Correlation and Covariance

If x is a real and stationary signal, then auto-correlation and covariance functions can be
defined as below,
Auto-correlation function, R m
x
.x
Auto-covariance function,
m
x
m . x
m
Here m
x and x
is advanced version of x by m samples.
Power spectral density of x is given as (e ) F R n
e
(e ) R
R
(e ). e
Page 87
Control System
Part 4: Control System

4.1: Basics of Control System
Definition of Control system (CS)
It is a system by means of which any quantity of interest in a machine or mechanism is
controlled (maintained or altered) in accordance with the desired manner. Control systems can
be characterized mathematically by Transfer function or State model. Transfer function is
defined as the ratio of Laplace Transform (LT) of output to that of input assuming that initial
conditions are zero. Transfer function is also obtained as Laplace transform of the impulse
response of the system.
pl
tr ns orm o output
Tr ns r un tion
|
pl
tr ns orm o input
[ t ]
S
T s
|
[r t ]
R S
For any arbitrary input r(t), output c(t) of control system can be obtained as below,
r(t) =
(R (s)) =
(T (s) . R (s))
(T(s)) * r(t)
Where L and
are forward and inverse Laplace transform operators and * is convolution
operator.
Classification of Control Systems

Open-Loop Control System
Reference input
Controller
Output
Process
The reference input controls the output through a control action process. Here output has no
effect on the control action, as the output is not fed-back for comparison with the input.
Due to the absence of feedback path, the systems are generally stable
Closed-Loop Control System (Feedback Control Systems):
Closed-Loop control systems can be classified as positive and negative feedback (f/b) control
systems. In a closed-loop control system, the output has an effect on control action through a
feedback.
G(s)
Reference input r(t)
Controller
Process
Output c(t)
Feedback signal, f(t)
Feedback, H(s)
Network
Block diagram of closed loop control system
Let T(s) be the overall transfer function of the closed-loop control system, then
Page 88
T(s) =
Control System
Here negative sign in denominator is considered for positive feedback and vice versa.
S
S Op n loop tr ns r function
Error transfer function =

Effect of Feedback
1. Effect of Feedback on Stability
Stability is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input
command.
A system is said to be unstable, if its output is out of control or increases without bound.
2. Effect of Feedback on overall gain
Negative feedback decreases the gain of the system and positive feedback increase the
gain of the system.
3. Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity
The sensitivity of the gain of the overall system T to the variation in G is defined as
S =
Similarly,
4.
5.
6.
7.
S =
=
=
Negative feedback makes the system less sensitive to the parameter variation.
Negative feedback improves the dynamic response of the system
Negative feedback reduces the effect of disturbance signal or noise.
Negative feedback improves the bandwidth of the system.
Signal Flow Graphs (SFG)

A signal flow graph is a graphical representation of portraying the input-output relationships
between the variables of a set of linear algebraic equations. Also following are the basic
properties of signal flow graphs.
1. A signal flow graph applies to only linear systems.
2. The equations based on which a signal flow graph is drawn must be algebraic equation in
the form of effects as functions of causes.
3. Signals travel along branches only in the direction described by the arrows of the
branches.
4. The branch directing from node y to y represents the dependence of the variable yk upon
yj, but not the dependence of y upon y
5. A signal y travelling along a branch between nodes y and y is multiplied by the gain of
the branch, , so that signal
y is delivered at node y .
M sons
in Formula
The general gain formula is, T=
Where T = Overall gain between yin and yout

yout = output node variable
Page 89
Control System
yin = input node variable

N = total number of forward paths
Pk = gain of the kth forward path
= determinant of the graph= 1 - Pm1 + Pm2 - Pm3
..
= 1 (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of two non- touching loops) (sum of the gain products of all possible
combinations of three non- tou hing loops
.
= gain product of the mth possibl
ombin tion o r non-touching loops
= that part of the signal flow graph which is non-touching with the kth forward path
Page 90
Control System
4.2: Time Domain Analysis

Introduction
Whenever an input signal or excitation is given to a system, the response or output of the system
with respect to time is known as time response of the system. The time response of a control
system is divided into two parts namely, transient and steady state response.
Total response of a system = transient response + steady state response (or C (t) = C tr (t) +
Css(t))
Where
t is overall response of the system,

t is transient response component of the system and
t is steady state response component of the system
Following are salient characteristics of transient response of a control system.
This part of the time response which goes to zero after a large interval of time.
It reveals the nature of response (e.g. oscillatory or over damped)
It gives an indication about the speed of response.
It does not depend on the input signal, rather depends on nature of the system.
Following are the salient properties of steady state response of a control system.
The part of the time response that remains even after the transients have died out is
said to be steady state response.
The steady state part of time response reveals the accuracy of a control system.
Steady state error is observed if the actual output does not exactly match with the input.
It depends on the input signal applied.
Time Response of a First Order Control System

A first ord r ontrol syst m is on or whi h th high st pow r o s in th d nomin tor o its
transfer function is equal to 1. Thus a first order control system is expressed by a transfer
function,
=
.
Time Response of a First Order Control System Subjected to Unit Step Input Function
As the input is a unit step function, r(t) = u(t) and R(s) = 1/s
Output is given by
c(t) = (1
The error is given by
e(t) = r(t) c(t) =
The steady state error
) u(t)
. u(t)
= im e(t) = im
. u(t) = 0
Time Response of a First Order Control System Subjected to Unit Ramp Input Function
As the input is a unit ramp function, r(t) = t.u(t) and R(s) = 1 / s
Output is given as c(t) = ( t
The error is given by e(t) = r(t)
) u(t)
c(t) = ( T
) u(t)
Page 91
The steady state error is
= im ( T
Control System
) u(t) = T
From above we see that the output velocity matches with the input velocity but lags behind the
input by time T and a positional error of T units exists in the system.
Time Response of A First Order Control System Subjected to Unit Impulse Input Function
As R(s) = 1, C(s) =
c(t) = (
The error is given by e(t) = r(t)

c(t)
= im s E(s) = 0
Time Response of Second Order Control System

A s ond ord r ontrol syst m is on or whi h th high st pow r s in th d nomin tor o its
transfer function is equal to 2. A general expression for the T.F. of a second order control system
is given by,
=
Characteristic Equation
The characteristic equation of a second order control system is given by
s
The roots are
s
j
=0
==
Here
is called natural frequency of oscillations,
=
is called damped frequency of oscillations,
is called damping ratio and affects damping and
is called damping factor or damping coefficient.
Based on roots of characteristic equation, following can be highlighted.
The real part of the roots denotes the damping

Imaginary part denotes the damped frequency of oscillation
Sustained oscillations are observed if the roots are lying on imaginary axis (j
As increases, system becomes less oscillatory and more sluggish.
axis).
Table: Nature of system response based on

S. No
Range of values of System
Nature
response
1.
Undamped
Sustained/undamped
Purly imaginary
2.
0< <
Underdamped
Oscillatory
Complex
Critically
damped
Non-oscillatory
Real and equal
Overdamped
Non-oscillatory
Real and different
3.
4.
>
of
system Nature
of
characteristic
equation
roots
Page 92
Control System
Time Response of a Second Order Control System Subjected to Unit Step Input Function
c(t) = (
sin
) u t where
= im
sin [(
Here the time constant T= (1 /
nd
)t
[t n
) and Speed of the system
t n
]] u(t) = 0
Transient Response Specification of Second Order Under-Damped Control System

The time response of an under damped control system exhibits damped oscillations prior to
reaching steady state.
C(t)
Max. overshoot
2%
1
0.5
100%
td
tr
tp
ts
Fig. Unit step response of second order underdamped control system

(1) Delay Time (td)
It is the time required for the response to rise to 50% of the final value from zero, in first
.
attempt.
td =
(2) Rise Time (tr)
The time needed for the response to reach from 10% to 90% (for overdamped system) or 0 to
100% (for underdamped systems) of the desired value of the output at the very first instant.
tr =
; wh r
t n-1 (
(3) Peak Time (tp)

It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value at the first instant.
tp =
Also the response exhibits overshoot and undershoot at the instants,

Page 93
Control System
where n
The local overshoots occur for n =1, 3, . . . . . . . and local undershoots occur for n =2, 4, . . . . .
Hence the first undershoot occurs at the instant,
.
(4) Maximum Overshoot (Mp)

The maximum positive deviation of the output with respect to its desired value/ steady state
value is called Maximum overshoot.
Percentage overshoot =
100 =
% Mp = exp (-
100%
) 100
(5) Settling Time (ts)

For 2% tolerance band, the settling time is given by, ts = 4.
For 5% tolerance band, the settling time is given by, ts = 3.
Time Response of The Higher Order System And Error Constants
Steady state error,
= im
Using Final value theorem,

But C(s) = E(s) G(s)
= im
= im
E(s) =
= im
Type and Order of System

For the open-loop transfer function,
The type indicates the number of poles at the origin and the order indicates the total
number of poles.
The type of the system determines steady state response and the order of the system
determines transient response.
Let
= im
Let
= im
Let
= im
= Position error constant
= Velocity error constant

= Acceleration error constant
Table. Steady state error as a variation of type of the system
Type
Step
Ramp
Parabolic
0
A(
k )
A/
A/
Page 94
Control System
4.3: Stability & Routh Hurwitz Criterion

Introduction
Any system is said to be a stable system, if the output of the system is bounded for a bounded
input (stability in BIBO sense) and also in the absence of the input, output should tend to zero
(asymptotic stability).
Based on above discussion, systems are classified as below,
1)
2)
3)
4)
Absolutely stable systems

Unstable systems
Marginally stable or limitedly stable systems
Conditionally stable systems
Depending on the location of poles for a control system, stability of the system can be
characterized in following ways.
Stability of any system depends only on the location of poles but not on the location of zeros.
If the poles are located in left side of s-plane, then the system is stable.
If any of the poles is located in right half of s-plane, then the system is unstable.
If the repeated roots are located on imaginary axis including the origin, the system is
unstable.
When non-repeated roots are located on imaginary axis, then the system is marginally
stable.
As a pole approaches origin, stability decreases.
The pole which is closest to the origin is called dominant pole.
If the variable parameter is varied from 0 to
and the poles are always located on left side
of s-plane, then the system is absolutely stable.
When variable parameter is varied from 0 to , if some point onwards, there is a pole in
right half of S-plane. Then system is called conditionally stable and typically stability is
conditioned on variable parameter.
Absolute Stability Analysis
Absolute stability analysis is by the qualitative analysis of stability and is determined by location
of roots of characteristic equation in s-plane.
Relative Stability Analysis
The relative stability can be specified by requiring that all the roots of the characteristic
equation be more negative than a certain value, i.e. all the roots must lie to the left of the line;
s = - 1, ( 1 > 0). The characteristic equation of the system under study is modified by shifting
the origin of the s plane to s = - 1, i.e. by substitution s = z 1. If the new characteristic
equation in z satisfies the Routh criterion, it implies that all the roots of the original
characteristic equation are more negative than 1.
Also if it is required to find out number of roots of characteristic equation between the lines
S
and S
, perform Routh analysis by putting S z 1, and find out number of roots
to right of S
. Similarly find out number of roots to the right of S
. The difference
between above two numbers gives the number of roots of characteristic equation between
and
.
Page 95
Control System
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion represents a method of determining the location of poles of
polynomial with constant real coefficient with respect to the left half and the right half of the splane. Routh Hurwitz criterion mainly gives a flexibility to determine the stability of the closed
loop control system without actually solving for poles.
s
..
b =
b =
S
S
1
=
=
d =
=
If any power of s is missing in the characteristic equation, it indicates that there is at least one
root with positive real part, hence the system is unstable. If the characteristic equation contains
only odd or even powers of s, then roots are purely imaginary. Thus, the system will have
sustained oscillations in output response. Also when Routh Hurwitz criterion is applied,
following difficulties can be faced.
Difficulty 1: When the first term in any row of the Routh array is zero while rest of the row has at
least one non-zero term.
Th di i ulty is solv d i z ro o th irst olumn is r pl d by sm ll positiv numb r
and Routh array is formed as usual. Then as 0 from positive side, elements in the first
column of Routh array are found out and stability analysis is done as usual.
Difficulty 2: When all the elements in any one row of the Routh array are zero.
This situation is overcome by replacing the row of zeros in the Routh array by a row of
coefficients of the polynomial generated by taking the first derivative of the auxiliary
polynomi l nd Rouths t st is p r orm d s usu l.
Page 96
Control System
4.4: Root Locus Technique

Introduction
Root locus is a locus of poles of transfer function of a closed loop control system when the
variable parameter is varied from 0 to . Depending on nature of variable parameter and range
of variation, root locus can be classified as below.
Root Locus (RL)

Complementary RL
Complete RL
Root counter
(K is varied from 0 to
)
(K is varied from 0 to
)
(K is varied from
to
)
(Multiple parameter variation )
Characteristic equation of above system is 1 + G(S) H(S) = 0. Usually while plotting root locus, a
forward path gain, K which is inherently present in G(S) is considered as independent variable
and roots of characteristic equation are considered as dependent variables. Any root of
0 satisfies following two conditions,
|
a) |
b)
0 wh r K 0, , ,
Rules for the Construction of Root Locus (RL)
Let P be the number of open-loop poles and Z be the number of open loop zeroes of a control
system. Then the following are the salient features for construction of root locus plot.
1. The root locus is always symmetrical about the real axis.
2. The root locus always starts from open-loop poles for K=0 and ends at either finite open
loop zeroes or infinity for K .
3. The number of branches of root locus terminating at infinity is equal to (P-Z) .
4. The number of separate branches of the root locus equals either the number of open
loop poles or the number of open-loop zeroes, whichever is greater.
N = max(P, Z)
5. A section of root locus lies on the real axis, if the total number of open-loop poles and
zeroes to the right of the section is odd and is helpful in determining presence of root
locus at any point on real axis.
6. If P >Z, (Pbr n h s will t rmin t t long str ight lin symptot s whose
angles are
as given below,
; q
0, , , ..P-Z-1
If Z > P, (Z-P br n h s will st rt t long str ight lin

as given below,
; q = 0, 1, 2 . . . . . . . . . . . (Z-P-1)
7. The asymptotes meet the real axis at centroid s
Sum o r l p rts o pol s
P
symptot s whos
ngl s r
as given below
Sum o r l p rts o z ros
8. Break away point is calculated when root locus lies between two poles and break in
point is calculated when root locus lies between two zeros. Break away / Break in
Page 97
Control System
points are determined from the roots of the equation
0. Also r branches of the root
locus which meet at a point, break away at an angle of
9. Angle of departure is calculated when there are complex poles. Also, angle of departure
from an open loop pole is given as below
0
; q= 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . .
Where is the net contribution at the pole of all other open loop poles and zeros. Also,
angle of departure is tangent to root locus at complex pole.
10. Angle of arrival is calculated when there are complex zeroes. Also, angle of arrival at the
open loop zero is given as below
0
, q= 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . .
Also, angle of arrival is tangent to root locus of complex zero.
11. Th v lu o K nd th point t whi h root lo us br n h ross s th im gin ry xis is
determined by applying Routh criterion to the characteristic equation. The roots at the
intersection point are imaginary. Also the points of intersection are conjugate, if all the
coefficients of S are real in the characteristic equation.
12. Th v lu o op n loop g in K t ny point on the root locus can be calculated by
using the magnitude criteria,
Produ t o ph sor l ngth rom s to op n loop pol s
K
Produ t o ph sor l ngth rom s to op n loop z ros
Page 98
Control System
4.5: Frequency Response Analysis Using Nyquist plot

Frequency Domain Specifications
Consider a closed loop control system of open loop transfer function G(S) and feed back
transfer function, H(S). If the system has negative feedback, the overall transfer function is given
by M(S) =
Put S = J ,
.
| M(J
The plot of |M(J
|=|
|
|
| with respect to
|
is shown in figure below.
3db
0
BANDWIDTH
Fig. Closed-loop frequency response of a control system

The response falls by 3 dB at frequency , from its low frequency value, called cut-off frequency
and the frequency range 0 to
is called the bandwidth of the system. The resonant peak, M
occurs at resonance frequency, . The bandwidth is defined as the frequency at which the
magnitude gain of frequency response plot reduces to 1/ = 0.707 (i.e. 3 db) of its low
frequency value.
For a second order control system,
M(s) =
B.W. =
M j
=
|M j
M =
Polar Plot
onsid r
ontrol syst m o tr ns r un tion
complex function which is given as,
s . Th sinusoid l tr ns r un tion
is
Page 99
j
| nd
R [
j m[
or
Control System
=M
Where M =
j m y b r pr s nt d s ph sor o m gnitud M nd ph s ngl . As the input frequency

is v ri d rom 0 to , the magnitude M and phase angle change and hence the tip of the
ph sor j
tr s lo us in th ompl x pl n , which is known as polar plot.
Consider a transfer function which consists of P poles and Z zeroes.
tr ns r un tion do snt ont in pol s t origin, th n th pol r plot st rts rom 0 with
non-zero magnitude and terminates at 90
P
with zero magnitude.
If the transfer function consists of poles at origin, then the polar plot starts from
0 with
m gnitud nd nds t
0
P
with zero magnitude.
Special Cases of LTI Control Systems

Minimum Phase System
If G(S) has no poles and zeroes in the R.H.S of S-pl n , th n th syst m is ll d minimum ph s
syst m. As z ro s r lso on l t h l on s-plane, inverse system of a minimum phase system is
also stable.
Non Minimum Phase System
If G(S) has at least one pole or zero in the R.H.S of S plane, then system is called non-minimum
phase system. Also the inverse system of a non-minimum phase system is unstable.
All Pass System
If G(S) has symmetric poles and zeroes about the about the imaginary axis, then system is called
All p ss syst m.
Also |G(
| = K;
Linear Phase System

A system is called linear phase if plot of
;
with r sp t to
is lin r.
Nyquist Plot & Nyquist Stability Criteria

Nyquist criterion is helpful to identify the presence of roots in a specified region based on polar
plot of G(S).H(S). Thus, Nyquist stability analysis is more generalized than Routh criterion. By
inspection of polar plot of G(S).H(S) more information is obtained than the stability of the
control system.
If N is the number of encirclements of G(s).H(s) around (
then
J0) in counter-clockwise direction,
Page 100
Where
Control System
is number of open loop poles with +ve real part and
is number of close-loop poles with +ve real part

Tips for Getting Nyquist Plot
1. Nyquist plot is symmetric with respect to real axis. So the plot from
0
the plot from
0 is ( .
2. If the system is type N system, the angle subtended by the plot at origin as
0
0 is - N in clockwise direction.
is M(
varies from
Gain Margin
The gain margin is a factor by which the gain of a stable system can be increased to bring the
system on the verge of instability. If the phase cross-over frequency is denoted by , and the
m gnitud o
j
j
t
is |G(j
|. The gain margin is given by
G.M = 20 log
Phase Margin:
The phase margin of a stable system is the amount of additional phase lag required to bring the
system to the point of instability. Phase margin is given as,
PM =
where
is gain crossover frequency
Page 101
Control System
4.6: Frequency Response Analysis Using Bode Plot

Bode Plots
Given open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system as G(S) H(S), the stability of
the control system can also be determined based on its sinusoidal frequency response (obtained
by substituting S = J . The quantities, M = 20
|G(J H(J | (in dB) and phase,
(in degrees) are plotted with respect to frequency on logarithmic scale
(
in r t ngul r x s. Th plot obt in d bov is ll d od plot. .M nd PM n b
found out from Bode plots, thus relative stability of closed loop control system can be assessed.
Bode Plots of K
M
Fig. Bode plots of constant
Bode Plots of
:
M
-20Ndb/decade
Fig. Bode plots of Nth order pole at 0.
Page 102
Control System
Bode Magnitude Plot of

M
T
0
log
-20NdB/decade
T
log
Fig. Bode plots of G(s) H(s) =
Bode Plot of (1 + ST)
Fig. Bode-Plots of G(S) H(S) = (1+ST)

Bode Magnitude Plot of Second Order Control System
M
-40 dB/dec
Fig. Bode magnitude plot of II order control system
Page 103
Control System
Bode magnitude plot of any open-loop transfer function G(s) H(s) can be found out by
superimposing individual magnitude plots of basic pole and zero terms. However phase
response can be found out as usual by substituting S = J .
M & N Circles
Constant Magnitude Loci: M-Circles
The constant magnitude contours are known as M-circles. M-circles are used to determine the
magnitude response of a close-loop system using open-loop transfer function. It is applicable
only for unity feedback systems.
[x
y =[
The above Eq. represents a family of circles with center at (
, 0 and radius as |
| . On a
particular circle the value of M (magnitude of close-loop transfer function) is constant, therefore
these circles are called M-circles.
Constant Phase Angles Loci: N-Circles
The constant phase angle contours are known as N-circles. N-circles are used to determine the
phase response of a close-loop system using open-loop transfer function.
[x
[y
For different values of N, above equation represents a family of circles with center at x = - , y =
1/2N and radius as
. On a particular circle, the value of N or the value of phase angle of
the closed-loop transfer function is constant; therefore, these circles are called N-circles.
Ni hols h rt
The transformation of constant M and constant N circles to log-magnitude and phase angle
coordinates is known as the Nichols chart.
Page 104
Control System
4.7: Compensators & Controllers

Introduction
Many a times, performance of a control system may not be upto the expectation, in which case
the performance of the same can be improved by controllers or compensating networks.
1. Insertion of compensating network is nothing but addition of poles and zeros.
2. We can reduce the steady state error by increasing the forward path gain, but it makes the
system unstable and oscillatory.
3. Addition of a pole to the open loop transfer function will lead the system towards
instability. The speed of the response slows down. But the accuracy of the system
increases.
4. Addition of a zero to the open loop transfer function will lead the system towards
stability. The speed of the response becomes faster. But the accuracy of the system is
reduced.
Compensating Network
1. Cascade Compensation: The compensating network is introduced in forward path in this
case. Phase lag/ lead compensators fall into this category.
2. Feedback Compensation: The compensating network is introduced in feedback path in
this case.
Phase Lag Compensator
A compensator having the characteristic of a lag network is called a lag compensator. Hence, the
poles of this network should be closer to origin than zeroes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Results in a large improvement in steady sate response (i.e. steady state error is reduced).
Results in a sluggish response due to reduced bandwidth.
It is low pass filter and so high frequency noise signals are attenuated.
Acts as an Integrator.
Settling time increases.
Gain of the system decreases.
+
1/ sC
_
_
Fig. Electric lag compensator
Page 105
Control System
Fig. Pole-zero plot of lag compensator

General form of lag compensator,
s =
Approximate
magnitude plot
|
j |
in dB
-20 dB/decade
Phase plot
log
Fig. Bode plot of lag compensator

Frequency of maximum phase lag,
Maximum lag angle, = t n
=
[
] = sin
T .
Phase Lead compensator

A compensator having the characteristics of a lead network is called a lead compensator. Lead
compensator has zero placed more closer to origin than a pole.
1. Lead compensation appreciably improves the transient response.
2. The lead compensation increases the bandwidth, which improves the speed of the
response and also reduces the amount of overshoot.
3. A lead compensator is basically a high pass filter and so it amplifies high frequency noise
signals.
4. Acts as a differentiator.
5. Settling time decreases.
6. Gain of the system increases.
7. There is no improvement in steady state response.
Page 106
Control System
1/ sC
+
_
Fig. Electrical lead network
j
Fig. Pole-zero plot of a lead network

General form of transfer function of lead compensator,
s =
Approximate magnitude plot

+ 20 dB/decade
|
20
20
)
1/T
log
Fig. Bode plot for lead compensator
Frequency of maximum phase lead,

Also, = t n
+ = sin
=
+
T .
T =
Page 107
Control System
Comparison of Phase Lag And Phase Lead Compensators

Table. Comparison of characteristics of lead and lag compensators
Characteristics
Phase-Lead
1. Circuit
Differentiator
2.
n r s s
3. w
n r s s
4. T rise , t settling
D r s s
5. Phase shift
Increases
6. Phase Margin
mprov
7. Gain
cross
over n r s s
frequency (w )
8. Band width
Increases
9. Over shoot
Decreases
10. Gain
Decreases
11. Steady state error
Increases
12. Constant
( <
Phase-Lag
Integrator
n r s s
D r s s
n r s s
Decreases
R du
D r s s
13. Pole zero

14. Wmax
|P|>|Z|
|Z|>|P|
Decreases
Decreases
Increases
Decreases
>
15. sin m)
16. Time constant
Phase Lag Lead Compensator

A compensator having the characteristics of lag lead network is called a lag lead compensator.
1. A lag lead compensator improves both transient and steady state response.
2. Bandwidth of the system is increased.
The transfer function of lag lead compensator,
<
s =
; wh r
> ,0<
nd
j
Fig. Pole- zero plot of lag-lead compensator
Page 108
0
|
j |
in dB
0 log
+ 20 dB/dec
- 20 dB/dec
Control System
00
j
log
T
Fig. Bode plot of lag lead compensator
Feedback Compensation
In this method, the compensating element is introduced in feedback path of a control system as
shown.
G(S)
Fig. Block diagram of compensated system with tacho generator feedback.

After compensation, overall open-loop transfer function
Depending on nature of G(S) and K , damping of response can be controlled.
Controllers
A closed loop control system tries to achieve the target output because of the feedback signal.
Many a times, the output response achieved is not smooth and also may have steady state error.
Thus, the transient and steady state response can be improved by using a control action of
transfer function
as shown in figure below.
Gc(s)
r(t)
G(s)
c(t)
e(t)
Fig. Usage of controller in a closed loop control system
Page 109
Control System
Proportional Controller
Transfer function of a proportional controller is given as,
s = K . Proportional controller is
usually an amplifier with gain K . It is used to vary the transient response of the control system.
One cannot determine the steady state response by changing K . Steady state response depends
on the type of the system. However, maximum overshoot is increased in this case.
Integral Controller
Transfer function of a Integral controller is given as,
s = K / s. It is used to decrease the
steady state error by increasing the type of the system. However, stability decreases in this case.
Derivative Controller
Transfer function of a derivative controller is given as,
s = K . s. It is used to increase the
stability of the system by adding zeros. steady state error increases, as type of the system
decreases in this case.
Proportional + Integral (PI) Controller
Transfer function of PI controller is given as,
s = (K + K / s). It is used to decrease the
steady state error without effecting stability, as a pole at origin and a zero are added. In P+I
controller, order of a system increases, i.e. it converts a second order system to third order.
Proportional + Derivative (PD) Controller
Transfer function of a PD controller is given as,
s = (K . s + K ). It is used to increase the
stability without effecting the steady state error. Here type of the system is not changed and a
zero is added.
Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID) Controller
Transfer function of a PID controller is given as,
s = (K + K / s + K . s) = (
).
It is used to decrease the steady state error and to increase the stability as one pole at origin and
two zeros are added. One zero compensates the pole and other zero will increase the stability.
Hence response is faster and highly accurate.
Page 110
Control System
4.8: State Variable Analysis

Introduction
The analysis of control system, carried out till now using transfer function approach etc,
assumes that system is initially at rest and system is single input single output (SISO) type.
Hence the state-space approach is used to overcome above disadvantages and this approach is
performed by writing differential equation in time domain and by suitably choosing state
variables.
Advantages of State Variable Analysis
1. This method along with the output gives the information about the state of the system at
some predetermined point along the flow of the state in state space.
2. Used for linear as well as non-linear, time invariant or time varying systems.
3. Analysis of multi-input-multi-output systems is less complex.
4. Analysis is done by considering initial conditions.
5. More accurate than transfer function.
6. Organization of the state variables is easily amendable to the solution through digital
computers.
7. Can be used both for continuous time systems as well as discrete time systems with the
same formulation.
Here u t
nd u t are inputs, x t and x t are state variables, y t and y t are outputs.
System
Fig. State variable analysis

State Space Representation
Consider a differential equation,
d x
State-space representation of above is obtained as below,

Let
and
and x
In matrix form,
0
x
[ ] [
]* +
0
]
Page 111
Control System
Here x t and x t are called state variables. The n dimensional state variables are elements of
n dimensional space called state space.
State Variable: The smallest set of variables, which determine the state of the dynamic system,
are called the state variables.
State: It is the smallest set of state variables, the knowledge of these variable at t =
with the input completely determines the behavior of the system for any time t > .
together
State Equation
Consider a system described as below,
(x t ) = x t =
x t
x t
b u t
b u t
(x t ) = x
x t
x t
b u t
b u t
t =
State space model can be described as below based on above state equation.
x t
[
] =[
][
x t
x t
] + [
b
u t
] [
u t
(t) = AX(t) + BU(t)

Where X(t) = State vector,
= Rate of change of state vector,
U(t) = Input vector,
A = System matrix or Evolution matrix
B = Control matrix
Output Equation
For the system described above, let the output equations be
y t =
y t =
x t
x t
x t
x t
d u t
d u t
d u t
d u t
By representing these in matrix form,

y t
[
y t
x t
] =[
][
x t
d
] + [
d
d
u t
] [
u t
Y(t) = CX(t) + DU(t)

Where
y(t) is output vector,

C is observation matrix
D is transmission matrix
Page 112
Control System
Different State Space Representations

Direct Decomposition
n dir t d omposition, th m trix A is o ushs ph s v ri bl orm s b low,
0
.
0
0
0
0
.
0
0
0
.
0
0
0
0
0
If
[
, ,
..
0
]
.
are eigen values of A, eigen vector matrix, P can be represented as.
0
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Cascade Decomposition
Here given system is converted into multiple systems in cascade and direct decomposition is
performed to each of these sub-systems.
Parallel Decomposition
Here the given system transfer function is split into partial fractions first and by considering
direct decomposition of each of the sub-system (partial fraction terms) in parallel, parallel
decomposition can be performed.
State Transition Matrix
The transition matrix is defined as a matrix that satisfies the linear homogeneous state equation.
A t
For t
0,
X(t) =
[ Sl
t
Here
t =
] (0)
s .
0 =
t .
0 where
s = S
is called state transition matrix.
Properties of the State Transition Matrix

Th st t tr nsition m trix t poss ss s th
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ollowing prop rti s
0
th id ntity m trix
t
-t)
[ t ]
nt
t -t t -t
t -t
or any t , t , t
t
t
t t
Page 113
Control System
Time Response
Given a state space representation of a control system, the time response for any generic input
and initial conditions contains the following.
Zero Input Response
Only initial conditions are considered and input is considered to be zero.
t
Zero State Response

Only input functions are considered and initial conditions are zero.
t
B U(s)]
Total Response
Total response can be described as,
t
t x 0
( S . U S )
Transfer Matrix of System
Consider a MIMO described by,
Transfer matrix of system is given as G(s) = C

Controllability of Linear Systems
A system is said to be controllable, if there exists an input to transfer the state of system from
any given initial state X(t to any final state X(t ) in a finite time (t
t ) 0. The condition of
controllability depends on the coefficient matrices A and B of the system.
Kalman Test for Controllability
For the system to be completely state controllable, it is necessary and sufficient that the
following matrix Qc has a rank n, where n is order of A.
Q = [ B : AB : A B: . . . . . . . . A
B]
For the system to be controllable, rank of Q should be n or |Q |
0.
Observability of Linear Systems

A system is said to be observ bl i its possibl to g t in orm tion bout st t v ri bl s rom th
measurements of the output and input
Kalman Test for Observability
For the system to be completely observable, it is necessary and sufficient that the following
composite matrix Q0 has a rank of n, where n is order of A.
Q0 = [
...... A
].
For the system to be observable, rank of Q0 should be n or |Q |
0.
Page 114
Digital Circuits
Part 5: Digital Circuits

5.1: Number Systems & Code Conversions
Characteristics of any number system are:
1. Base or radix is equal to the number of possible symbols in the system
2. The largest value of digit is one (1) less than the radix
Decimal to Binary Conversion:
(a) Integer number: Divide the given decimal integer number repeatedly by 2 and collect the
remainders. This must continue until the integer quotient becomes zero.
(b) Fractional Number: Multiply by 2 to give an integer and a fraction. The new fraction is
multiplied by 2 to give a new integer and a new fraction. This process is continued until the
fraction becomes 0 or until the numbers of digits have sufficient accuracy.
Note: To convert a decimal fraction to a number expressed in base r, a similar procedure is used.
Multiplication is by r instead of 2 and the coefficients found from the integers any range in value
from 0 to (r-1).
The conversion of decimal number with both integer and fraction parts separately and then
combining the answers together.
Dont care values or unused states in BCD code are 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111.
Dont care values or unused state in excess 3 codes are 0000, 0001, 0010, 1101, 1110,
1111.
The binary equivalent of a given decimal number is not equivalent to its BCD value. Eg.
Binary equivalent of 2510 is equal to 110012 while BCD equivalent is 00100101.
In signed binary numbers,MSB is always sign bit and the remaining bits are used for
magnitude.
A7
A6
Sign Bit
A5
A4
A3 A2
A1
A0
Magnitude
For positive and negative binary number, the sign is respectively 0 and 1.
Negative numbers can be represented in one of three possible ways.
1. Signed magnitude representation.
2. Signed 1s complement representation.
3. Signed 2s complement representation.
Page 115
Example:
Signed magnitude
+9
0 0001001
Digital Circuits
-9
(a) 1 000 1001 signed magnitude
(b) 1 111 0110 signed 1s complement
(c) 1 111 0111 signed 2s complement
Subtraction using 2s complement: Represent the negative numbers in signed 2s

complement form, add the two numbers, including their sign bit and discard any carry out of
the most significant bit.
Since negative numbers are represented in 2s complement form, negative results also
obtained in signed 2s complement form.
The range of binary integer number of n-bits using signed 1s complement form is given by
+(2
1) to (2
1),which includes both types of zeros i.e., +0 and -0.
The range of integer binary numbers of n-bits length by using signed 2s complement
representation is given by + (2
1) to 2n-1 which includes only one type of zero i.e. + 0.
In weighted codes, each position of the number has specific weight. The decimal value of a
weighted code number is the algebraic sum of the weights of those positions in which 1s
appears.
Most frequently used weighted codes are 8421, 2421 code, 5211 code and 84 21 code.
Page 116
Digital Circuits
5.2: Boolean Algebra & Karnaugh Maps

Boolean properties:
a) Properties of AND function
1. X . 0 = 0
3. X . 1 = X
2. 0 . X = 0
4 .1.X = X
b) Properties of OR function
5. X + 0 = X
6. 0 + X = X
7. X + 1 = 1
8. 1 + X = 1
c) Combining a variable with itself or its complement

9. X .X = 0
10. X . X = X
11. X + X = X
12. X + X = 1
13. (X) = X
d)
e)
f)
g)
Commutative laws:
Distributive laws:
Associative laws:
Absorption laws:
h) Demorgans laws:
14.
16.
18.
20.
x. y = y. x
x(y +z) = x.y + x.z
x(y.z) = (x. y) z
x + xy= x
15.
17.
19.
21.
x+y=y+x
x + y. z = ( x+y) (x + z)
x + ( y + z) = (x + y) +z
x(x + y) = x
22. x + xy = x+ y
23. x(x + y) = xy
24. (x + y) = x .y
25. (x . y) = x + y
Duality principle: It states that every algebraic expression deducible from theorems of
Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identify elements are interchanged.
To get dual of an algebraic function, we simply exchange AND with OR and exchange 1
with 0.
The dual of the exclusive OR is equal to its complement.
To find the complement of a function is take the dual of the function and complement
each literal.
Maxterm is the compliment of its corresponding minterm and vice versa.
Sum of all the minterms of a given Boolean function is equal to 1.
Product of all the maxterms of a given Boolean function is equal to 0
Boolean Algebraic Theorems
Theorem No.
Theorem
) =
( + B). ( + B
1.
2.
B + C = ( + C)( + B)
( + B)( + C) = C + B
3.
4.
B + C + BC = B + C
( + B)( + C)(B + C) = ( + B)( + C)

5.
+ C +
6.
. B. C. = + B
. C
7.
+ B + C + = . B
Page 117
Digital Circuits
Karnaugh Maps (K maps)

A map is a diagram made up of squares. Each square represents either a minterm or a
maxterms.
The number of squares in the karnaugh map is given by 2 where n = number of variable.
Gray code sequence is used in K map so that any two adjacent cells will differ by only one
bit.
No. of cells
Number of
No. of variables No. of literals present
containing 1s
variables
eliminated
in the resulting term
grouped
4
2
0
2
1
1
2
1
0
2
8
3
0
4
2
1
3
2
1
2
1
0
3
16
4
0
8
3
1
4
2
2
4
2
1
3
1
0
4
Page 118
Digital Circuits
5.3: Logic Gates

OR, AND, NOT are basic gates
NAND and NOR gates are called Universal gates because, by using only NAND gates or by
using only NOR gates we can realize any gate or any circuit.
EXOR, EXNOR are arithmetic gates.
There are two types of logic systems
1) Positive level logic system (PLLS) : Out of the given two voltage levels, the more positive
value is assumed as logic 1 and the other as logic 0.
2) Negative level logic system (NLLS):out of the given two voltage levels, the more negative
value is assumed as logic 1 and the other as logic 0.
NOT gate:Truth Table
A
Y
0
+VCC
Symbol
A
Y=
AND gate:
Truth Table
A
B
Y
0
0 0
0
1 0
1
0 0
1
1 1
VCC
A
B
Y = AB
A
B
OR gate:
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
Y
0
1
1
1
Y=
A
Y = A+B
A
Y
B
NAND gate:
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
Y
1
1
1
0
A
B
Y =
B
Page 119
Digital Circuits
NOR gate:
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
Y
1
0
0
0
A
Y =
+B
The circuit, which is working as AND gate with positive level logic system, will work as OR
gate with negative level logic system and vice-versa.
The circuit which is behaving as NAND gate with positive level logic system will behave as
NOR gate with negative level logic system and vice versa.
Exclusive
inputs.
A
0
0
1
1
OR gate (X OR): The output of an X OR gate is high for odd number of high
B
0
1
0
1
Y
0
1
1
0
A
Y = AB= B + B
Exclusive NOR gate (XNOR): The output is high for odd number of low inputs. (OR) The
output is high for even number of high inputs.
A
B
Y A
0
0
1
Y = AB= B + B
0
1
0
B
1
0
0
1
1
1
Realization of Basic gates using NAND and NOR gates:
1. NOT gate
A
NAND
Y=
A
A
1
NOR
Y = ( . ) A
=
Y = ( .1) A
0
=
( + ) =
Y = ( + 0)
=
2. AND gate
A
A
B
A
Y =AB
Y =AB
Y =AB
3. OR gate:
A
A
B
A
Y =A+B
B
Y = A+B B
Y = A+ B
Page 120
Digital Circuits
Realization of NAND gate using NOR gates:

A
A
B
Y = ( B)
Y = ( B)
B
Realization of NOR gate using NAND gates:

A
A
Y = ( + B)
Y = ( + B)
Realization of X OR gate using NAND and NOR gates:

A
Y = B+ B
B
A
Y = B + B
B
A
`
Y = B +
B
The minimum number of NAND gates required to realize X OR gate is four.
The minimum number of NOR gates required to realize X OR gate is five.
Equivalence Properties:
1. (X Y) = XY + XY = X
2. X 0 = X
3. X 1 = X
4. X X = 1
5. X X= 0
6. X Y = Y X
7. (X Y) = X Y
Page 121
Digital Circuits
Alternate Logic Gate Symbols

4. A bubbled NAND gate is equivalent to OR gate
A
`
A
Y=( B)
B
`
=A+B
Y = A+B
5. A bubbled NOR gate is equivalent to AND gate

A
Y=(
A
`
+ B ) =AB
B
`
Y= B
6. A bubbled AND gate is equivalent to NOR gate

A
`
B
`
A
Y=
B = ( + B)
Y = ( + B)
7. A bubbled OR gate is equivalent to NAND gate

A
B
Y=
+ B =( B)
A
`
B
`
Y = ( B)
Page 122
Digital Circuits
5.4: Logic Gate Families

Fan- Out: The number of standard loads that the output of the gate can drive without
disturbing its normal operation.
Fan-In: The maximum number of inputs that can be applied to the logic gate.
Noise Margin: It is the limit of a noise voltage which may be present without impairing the
proper operation of the circuit NM =
and NM =
.
Figure of Merit: The product of propagation delay time and power dissipation.
Saturation Logic: A form of logic gates in which one output state is the saturation voltage
level of the transistor. Example: RTL, DTL, TTL.
Unsaturated Logic or Current Mode Logic: A form of logic with transistors operated outside
the saturation region. Example: CML or ECL.
Voltage Parameters of the Digital IC:
: This is the minimum input voltage which is recognized by the gate as logic 1.
: This is the maximum input voltage which is recognized by the gate as logic 0.
: This is the minimum voltage available at the output corresponding to the logic 1.
VOL: This is the maximum voltage available at the output corresponding to logic 0.
Passive Pull- up: In a bipolar logic circuit, a resistance
output transistor is known as passive pull-up.
used in the collector circuit of the
Active Pull-up: In a bipolar logic circuit, a BJT and diode circuit used in the collector circuit of
the output transistor instead of
is known as active pull-up. This facility is available is TTL
family.
The advantages of active pull- up over passive- pull up are increased speed of operation and
reduced power dissipation.
In TTL logic gate family, three different types of output type configurations are available:
they are open collector output type, Totem-pole output type and tri-state output type.
The advantages of open-collector output are wired-logic can be performed and loads other
than the normal gates can be used.
The tri- state logic devices are used in bus oriented systems.
If any input of TTL circuit is left floating, it will function as if it is connected to logic 1 level.
If any unused input terminal of a MOS gate is left unconnected, a large voltage may get
induced at the unconnected input which may damage the gate.
Comparison of Different Logic Gate families
DTL
TTL
ECL
CMOS
PMOS
Fan-out
10
25
50
20
Propagation Delay
30n sec
10nsec.
4nsec.
70 nsec.
300 sec
Power Dissipation
8mW
10mW
40mW
0.01mW
0.2 -10mW
Noise Margin(min.)
700mV
400mV
200mV
300mV
150mV
Page 123
Gates with open collector output can be used for wired

VCC
Digital Circuits
AND operation
. =
+
B
C
D
Open emitter output is available in ECL. Wired OR operation is possible with ECL circuits.
A
B
(
)=(
+ )( + )
C
D
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Page 124
Digital Circuits
5.5: Combinational Digital Circuits

Digital circuits can be classified into two types:
o Combinational digital circuits and
o Sequential digital circuits.
Combinational Digital Circuits: In these circuits the outputs at any instant of time depends
on the inputs present at that instant only.
For the design of Combinational digital circuits, basic gates (AND, OR, NOT) or universal
gates (NAND, NOR) are used. Examples for combinational digital circuits are adder, decoder
etc.
Sequential Digital Circuits: The outputs at any instant of time not only depend on the present
inputs but also on the previous inputs or outputs. For the design of these circuits in addition
to gates we need one more element called flip-flop. Examples for sequential digital circuits
are Registers, Shift register, Counters etc.
Half Adder: A combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits is called a halfadder.
Sum = X Y = XY + X Y
Carry = XY
Half Subtractor: It is a Combinational circuit that subtracts two bits and produces their
difference.
Diff. = X Y = XY + XY Borrow = X Y
Half adder can be converted into half subtractor with an additional inverter.
Full Adder: It performs sum of three bits (two significant bits and a previous carry) and
generates sum and carry.
Sum=X Z
Carry = XY + YZ + ZX
Full adder can be implemented by using two half adders and an OR gate.
X
Y
H.A.
H.A.
Sum
Carry
Full subtractor: It subtracts one bit from the other by taking pervious borrow into account
and generates difference and borrow.
Diff.=X Z
Borrow = XY + YZ + ZX
Full subtractor can be implemented by using two half- subtractors and an OR gate.
X
Y
Z
H.S.
H.S.
Diff.
Borr.
Page 125
Digital Circuits
Multiplexers (MUX)
It selects binary information from one of many input lines and directs it to a single output
line
The selection of a particular input line is controlled by a set of selection lines
There are 2 input lines where n is the select lines i/p then n = log M
2 : 1 MUX
I
2:1
MUX
Y=SI + SI
S
4 : 1 MUX
I
I
I
I
4:1
MUX
S1
S1
0
0
1
1
S0
0
1
0
1
Y
I
I
I
I
S0
Y=S S I + S S I + S S I + S S I
Decoder:
Decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from n input lines to a
maximum of 2 unique output lines.
Truth table of active high output type of decoder.
X
2
Page 126
Digital Circuits
Encoder
Encoder is a combinational circuit which has many inputs and many outputs
It is used to convert other codes to binary such as octal to binary, hexadecimal to binary
etc.
Clocked S-R Flip-flop: It is called set reset flip-flop.
No change
Reset set
Forbidden
Pr
S
Clk
R
Cr
Q
= S +R Q
PRESET
S
Clk
R
CLEAR
S and R inputs are called synchronous inputs. Preset (pr) and Clear (Cr) inputs are called
direct inputs or asynchronous inputs.
The output of the flip-flop changes only during the clock pulse. In between clock pulses the
output of the flip flop does not change.
During normal operation of the flip flop, preset and clear inputs must be always high.
The disadvantage of S-R flip-flop is S=1, R=1 output cannotbe determined. This can be
eliminated in J-K flip-flop.
S-R flip flop can be converted to J-K flip-flop by using the two equation S=JQ and R= KQ.
Pr
J
Q
Clk
Clk
Q
R
Cr
Q
K
Q
= JQ + K Q
Page 127
Digital Circuits
Truth table
Race around problem is present in the J-K flip flop, when both J=K=1.
Toggling the output more than one time during the clock pulse is called Race around
Problem.
The race around problem in J-K flip-flop can be eliminated by using edge triggered flip-flop
or master slave J-K flip flop or by the clock signal whose pulse width is less than or equal to
the propagation delay of flip-flop.
Master-slave flip-flop is a cascading of two J-K flip-flops Positive or direct clock pulses are
applied to master and these are inverted and applied to the slave flip-flop.
D-Flip-Flop: It is also called a Delay flip-flop. By connecting an inverter in between J and K input
terminals. D flip-flop is obtained.
Truth table
Q
Clk
T Flip-flop: J K flip-flop can be converted into T- Flip-flop by connecting J and K input terminals
to a common point. If T=1, then Q n+1 = Q . This unit changes state of the output with each clock
pulse and hence it acts as a toggle switch.
Truth table
T
0
1
Q
Q
Q
Q
Clk
Ring Counter: Shift register can be used as ring counter when Q0 output terminal is
connected to serial input terminal.
An n-bit ring counter can have n different output states. It can count n-clock pulses.
Twisted Ring counter: It is also called Johnsons Ring counter. It is formed when Q output
terminal is connected to the serial input terminal of the shift register.
Page 128
Digital Circuits
An n-bit twisted ring counter can have maximum of 2n different output states.
Counters: The counter is driven by a clock signal and can be used to count the number of clock
cycles counter is nothing but a frequency divider circuit.
Two types of counters are there:
(i) Synchronous
(ii) Asynchronous
Synchronous counters are also called parallel counters. In this type clock pulses are
applied simultaneously to all the flip flops
Asynchronous counters are also called ripple or serial counter. In this type of counters
the output of one flip flop is connected to the clock input of next flip flop and soon.
Page 129
Digital Circuits
5.6: AD /DA Convertor

There are two types of DACs available
a) Binary weighted resistor type of DAC and
b) R 2 R ladder type of DAC
The advantage of R 2R ladder type of DAC over Binary weighted type of DAC
a) Better linearity and
b) It requires only two different types of resistors with values R and 2R.
The percentage resolution of n bit DAC is given by
100
The resolution of an n bit DAC with a range of output from 0 to V volts is given by
Volts
Different types of DCs are available:
Simultaneous ADC or parallel comparator of Flash type of ADC
Counter type ADC or pulse width type of ADC
Integrator type of ADC or single slope of ADC
Dual slope integrator ADC
Successive approximation type ADC etc.
Flash type of ADC is the faster type of ADC, An n bit Flash type ADC requires 2 1
comparators.
Dual slope ADC is more accurate.
Page 130
Digital Circuits
5.7: Semiconductor Memory

The capacity of a memory IC is represented by 2
m, where 2 represents number of
memory locations available and m represents number of bits stored in each memory
location.
Example:- 2
8 = 1024 8
To increase the bit capacity or length of each memory location, the memory ICs are
connected in parallel and the corresponding memory location of each IC must be selected
simultaneously. Eg. 1024 8 memory capacity can be obtained by using 4 ICs of memory
capacity 10242.
Types of Memories:
Memories
Semiconductor Memories
Magnetic Memories
Drum
Read/Write Memory (RAM or

user memory)
Disk
Bubble
Core
Read Only Memory (ROM)
PROM
Static RAM
Tape
EPROM
EEPROM
Dynamic RAM
Volatile Memory: The stores information is dependent on power supply i.e., the stored
information will remain as long as power is applied. Eg. RAM
Non- Volatile Memory: The stored information is independent of power supply i.e., the stored
information will present even if the power fails. Eg: ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM etc.
Static RAM (SRAM): The binary information is stored in terms of voltage. SRAMs stores ones
and zeros using conventional Flip-flops.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM): The binary information is stored in terms of charge on the capacitor.
The memory cells of DRAMs are basically charge storage capacitors with driver transistors.
Because of the leakage property of the capacitor, DRAMs require periodic charge refreshing
to maintain data storage.
The package density is more in the case of DRAMs. But additional hardware is required for
memory refresh operation.
SRAMs consume more power when compared to DRAMs. SRAMS are faster than DRAMs.
Page 131
Digital Circuits
5.8: Introduction to Microprocessors
8085 Microprocessor is a 40 pin IC, requires +5V single power supply.

Address Bus width of 8085 is 16-bit. Its addressing capacity is 216=65,536=64K (1K=1024)
Low order address Bus A0-A7 is multiplexed with data bus D0-D7
Maximum clock frequency of 8085 microprocessor is 3.07 MHz.
Crystal frequency of 8085 processor is 6.144 MHz. It is always double to that of clock
frequency.
It supports five hardware Interrupts and eight software Interrupts.
8085 supports five status flags: Sign (S), Zero (Z), Auxiliary Carry (Ac), Parity (P) and Carry
(Cy).
It consists of two 16-bit address registers: Program Counter (PC) and Stack Pointer register
(SP).
PC always holds address of next memory location to be accessed.
SP always holds address of the top of the stack.
8085 consists of six 8-bit general purpose registers which are accessible to the programmer:
B, C, D, E, H and L. They can also be used as three register pairs: BC, DE and HL.
ALE (Address Latch Enable) signal is used to latch low order 8 bit address present on AD0
AD7 into external latches
HOLD and HLDA signals are used for DMA (Direct Memory Access) operation.
READY signal is used by the microprocessor to communicate with slow operating
peripherals.
RESET IN is chip reset which is active low signal

8085 uses S0 and S1 signals to indicate the current status of the processor.
S1
S0
Status
0
0
Halt
0
1
Write
1
0
Read
1
1
Fetch
with control signals RD
and
By Combining the status signal IO/M
R we can generate four
different signals
Operation
IO/M
RD
R
0
0
1
MEMR
0
1
0
MEM
1
0
1
IOR
1
1
1
IO
DMA is having highest priority over all the interrupts
Interrupts
Type
Instruction
Hardware
Trigger
Vector
TRAP
Nonmaskable
Maskable
No external
Hardware
No external
Hardware
Level & Edge

sensitive
Edge
sensitive
0024
RST 7.5
RST 6.5
Maskable
Independent
of EI & DI
Controlled by
EI & DI;
Unmasked by
SIM
Controlled by
EI & DI;
Unmasked by
SIM
No external
Hardware
Level
sensitive
0034
003C
Page 132
RST 5.5
Maskable
INTR
Maskable
Controlled by
EI & DI;
Unmasked by
SIM
Controlled by
EI & DI
No external
Hardware
Digital Circuits
Level
sensitive
002C
RST Code
Level
0000 to 0038
from external sensitive
Hardware
Accumulator register content and status register content together is called PSW (Program
Status Word or Processor Status Word) with Accumulator as Upper byte.
Data Transfer Instructions: These instructions are used to transfer data from register to
register, register to memory or from memory to register. No flags will be affected for these
instructions. r1, r2 r can be any one out of B, C, D, E, H, L, A and rp can be any one of 3 register
pairs BC, DE & HL.
MOV r1, r2
( r1 ) ( r2 )
( r ) (M) or ( r ) ((HL))
MOV r, M
( M ) ( r ) or ((HL)) ( r)
MOV M, r
( r/M ) ( 8 bit data ) d8
MVI ( r/M ), d8
Rp 16 bit rp = BC, DE,
L XI rp, 16 bit
HL or SP
LDA 16 bit address
STA 16 bit address
LHLD 16 bit address
SHLD 16 bit address
LD Xr
} rp can be either BC or DE pair
ST Xr
XCHG
PCHL
(HL) (DE)
(PC) (HL)
Arithmetic Instructions: This group consists of addition, subtraction, increment and

decrement operations. 8085 microprocessor does not support multiplication and division
instructions
ADD r
(A)(A)+(A)
ADD M
(A)(A)+(M)
ADI d8
(A)(A)+d8
ADC r
(A)(A)+(r)+Cy
Page 133
Digital Circuits
ADC M
(A)(A)+(M)+Cy
ACI d8
(A)(A)+d8+Cy
SUB r
(A)(A)-(r)
SUB M
(A)(A)-(M)
SUI d8
(A)(A)-d8
SBB r
(A)(A)-(r)-Cy
SBB M
(A)(A)-(M)-Cy
SBI d8
(A)(A)-d8-Cy
INR r
(r)(r)+1
INR M
(M)(M)+1
INX rP
(rP)(rP)+1 (rp=BC, DE, HL or SP)
DCR r
(r)(r)-1
DCR M
(M)(M)-1
DCX rp
(rp)(rp)-1
DAD rP
(HL)(HL)+(rP) (rP=BC, DE, HL or SP)
(rp=BC, DE, HL or SP)
DAA
In 8085, the service of AC flag is used by only one instruction. It is DAA.
For INX and DCX instructions, no flags is affected
Following table shows the list of flags affected for different instructions
Instruction
S
Z
Ac
P
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
INR, DCR
No
No
No
No
DAD
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ADD, ADC, SUB, SBB, DAA
Cy
No
Yes
Yes
Logical Instructions: This group consists of AND, OR, NOT, XOR, Compare and Rotate
operations
ORA r
(A)(A) V (r)
ORA M
(A)(A) V (M)
ORI d8
(A)(A) V d8
Page 134
Digital Circuits
ANA r
(A)( ) (r)
ANA M
(A)( ) (M)
ANI d8
(A)( ) (d8)
XRA r
(A)( ) (r)
XRA M
(A)( ) (M)
XRI d8
(A)( ) d8
CMP r
( ) (r)
CMP M
( ) (M)
CPI d8
( ) d8
CMA
(A)( )
CMC
Cy
STC
Cy1
RLC
Rotate accumulator left
RAL
Rotate accumulator left through carry
RRC
Rotate accumulator right
RAR
Rotate accumulator right through carry
Following table shows how flags affected for different logical instructions
Instruction
Ac
Cy
ANA
Yes
Yes
Yes
ORA, XRA
Yes
Yes
Yes
RLC, RRC, RAL, RAR, STC, CMC
No
No
No
No
Yes
CMP, CPI
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Branch Instructions: These are also called program control transfer instruction. These are
two types: Un conditional branch and Conditional branch instructions
No flags will be affected for branch instructions
Unconditional Branch Instructions
JMP
16-bit address
CALL
16-bit address
RET
RST n
(n=0 to 7)
Page 135
Digital Circuits
Conditional branch instruction

Jump Instructions
Call Instructions
Return Instruction
Condition
J Z 16 Bit addr
CZ 16 bit addr
RZ
If Z =1
JNZ 16 bit addr
CNZ 16 bit addr
RNZ
If Z = 0
JC 16 bit addr
CC 16 bit addr
RC
If Cy = 1
JNC 16 bit addr
CNC 16 bit addr
RNC
If Cy = 0
JP 16 bit addr
Cp 16 - bit addr
RP
If S = 0
JM 16 bit addr
CM 16 bit addr
RM
If S = 1
JPO 16 bit addr
CPO 16 bit addr
RPO
If P = 0
JPE 16 bit addr
CPE 16 bit addr
RPE
If P = 1
Machine Control, Stack and IO related Instructions: No Flags affected for these instructions.
Machine Control: EI, DI, SIM, RIM , NOP, HLT
Stack related : PUSH rp (rp = BC<DE<HL )
PUSH PSW
POP rp
POP PSW
LXI SP, 16 bit addr
SPHL
IO Related: IN 8 IN 8 bit Port address
OUT 8 bit Port address
Whenever PUSH instruction is executed SP register content is decremented by 2.
Whenever POP instruction is executed SP register content is incremented by 2.
When CALL instruction (conditional or unconditional) or RST instruction is executed, SP
register content is decremented by 2,
When RET instruction (Conditional or Unconditional ) is executed, SP register content is
incremented by 2, because it retrieves top two locations of the stack and load into PC
Addressing Modes: The way in which the operand information is specified in the instruction code
is called addressing mode. The 8085 microprocessor supports five addressing modes.
1. Implied or Implicit or Inherent Addressing Mode: There are certain instructions which
operate on the content of the accumulator. Such instructions do not require the address of
the operand. Eg: CMA, STC, RLC, RRC, RAL, RAR etc.
2. Direct Addressing Mode: In this mode the address of the operand (data) is given in the
instruction itself. Eg: STA, LDA, SHLD, LHLD, IN, OUT etc.
Page 136
Digital Circuits
3. Register Addressing Mode: In this mode the operands are in the general purpose registers.
The operation code specifies the address of the register in addition to the operation to the
performed. Eg: MOV A,B; ADDB; SUB C; ORA B ; etc.
4. Register Indirect Addressing Mode: In this mode the address of the operand is specified by a
register pair. Eg: LXI, STAZ, LDAX etc.
5. Immediate Addressing Mode: In this mode the operand is specified in the instructions itself.
Eg: MVI, ADI, LXI, ORI, SUI, SBI, ACI, XRI,ANI etc
Each instruction cycle of the 8085 microprocessor can be divided into a few basic operations
called machine cycles, and each machine cycle can be divided into T-states.
Machine Cycle: It is defined as the time required completing the operation of accessing either
memory or I/O. In the 8085, the machine cycle may consist of three to six T-states.
T-state is defined as one sub-division of the operation performed in one clock-period.
The time required to complete the execution of an instruction is called instruction cycle.
The first machine cycle of 8085 consists of four to six T-states and all other subsequent
machine cycles consist of three T-states only.
Types of machine cycle of 8085: Op code fetch cycle, memory read cycle, memory write
cycle, I/O read cycle, I/O write cycle, Interrupt acknowledge machine cycle and Bus idle
machine cycle.
The first machine cycle of each instruction cycle is always Op Code fetch machine cycle.
In 8085, CALL instruction is the lengthy instruction which takes 18-T states and the shortest
instruction takes only 4-T states (Ex: MOV A,B)
Memory Mapping: Assigning address to memory locations is called memory mapping.
Absolute Decoding: In this decoding all the address lines which are not used for memory
chip to identify a memory register must be decoded.
Linear Decoding: In this decoding technique there is one address line for CS. This technique
reduces hardware, but generates multiple addresses resulting in fold memory space.
I/O Devices Can be Connected to Microprocessor in Two Different Techniques.
1 Memory mapped I/O technique and
2 I/O mapped or peripheral mapped I/O technique
Memory Mapped I/O Technique
In memory mapped I/O, the I/O devices are also treated as memory locations , under that
assumption they will be given 16- bit address.
In memory mapped I/O, microprocessor uses memory related instructions to communicate
with I/O devices Eg: STA, LDA , MOV A,M; MOV B, M etc,
In memory mapped I/O , MEMR and MEM control signals are used to activate I/O devices.
In memory mapped I/O the entire memory map is shared by memory locations and I/O
devices one address can be used only once. This technique is used in a system where the
number of I/O devices are less.
The maximum numbers of I/O devices that can be connected to microprocessor in this
technique are 65536.
Page 137
Digital Circuits
I/O Mapped I/O Technique

In this technique the I/O devices are identified by the microprocessor with separate 8-bit
port address.
This technique uses separate control signals (IOR and IO ) to activate I/O devices and
separate (IN and OUT) to communicate with I/O devices.
In the technique I/O mapping is independent of memory mapping, same address can be used
to identify input device and output device.
This technique is used in a system where number of I/O devices are more by using this
method a maximum of 256 input devices and 256 output devices can be connected to the
processor (total of 512I/O devices).
Page 138
Analog Circuits
Part 6: Analog Circuits

6.1: Diode Circuits - Analysis and Application
C
High Pass Circuit
+
R
Vi
Vo
(a) Step Input
( )
()
)e
here Vf = 0, Vi = V, Vo(t) = Ve
Where
0
()
()
(b) Pulse Input:

1)
2)
[ ()
)]
e
(
(c) Square Wave Input

Case 1:
The I/P and O/P are shown below.
(a)
Average voltage
Zero voltage
Page 139
Analog Circuits
(b)
V0
A1
Zero voltage
A2
T1
T2
T1
Fig: (a) Square wave input; (b) Output voltage if the time constant is very large (compared with
T). The dc component V d c of the output is always zero. Area A1 equals area A2.
Case 2:
he e
ei
V0
Input
t
V
T1
T2
T
Fig: Peaking of a square wave resulting from a time constant small compared with T.
Page 140
More generally the response to a square

wave must have the appearance shown
below:
Analog Circuits
The four levels V1, V1 2,V2 can be

determined from figure (a)
t
e
e
For symmetrical square wave:

fig ( )
T1 = T2 = T/2
Output
V1 = -V2, V1
in figure (b)
Pe ce
figInput
( )
-V2 and the response is shown

t
ge i P i defi ed y
P=
100
100 %
100 %
Where f1 =
and = 1 / T
fig ( )
Fig: Linear tilt of a square wave when RC/T > > 1

(d) Ramp Input
Vi(t) = t u (t) and Vo(t) =
Signal
(1 e
), are shown below,
Input =
Output
Deviation from Linearity

Output
0
Fig (a)
T
Fig (b)
Fig. (a) Response of a high pass RC circuit to a ramp voltage for RC / T >> 1;
(b)Response to a ramp voltage for RC / T << 1.
For t<< departure from linearity, transmission error, et is e
Page 141
Analog Circuits
Low Pass Filter

(a) Step Input
R
()
()
()
(
),
(b) Pulse Input
Fig. Pulse response of the low pass RC circuits.
Fig. Pulse response for the case
(c) Square Wave Input

(
)e
(
(A)
)e
T
T1
T2
V
0
Average voltage
Vd-c
t
Page 142
(B)
Analog Circuits
0.9V
0.1V
Vd-c
Tr
t
(C)
V2
V01
V2
V02
V1
Vd-c
V1
(D)
V2
V2
V1
Vd-c
V1
Fig. (a) Square wave input; (b - d) output of the low pass RC circuit. The time constant is
smallest for (b) and largest for (d).
(d) Ramp Input
Vi =
Vi
RC
Vo
Vo
(a)
(b)
t
T
Fig. Response of a low pass RC circuit to a ramp voltage (a) RC /T < < 1; (b) RC / T > > 1.
(
)e
Page 143
Analog Circuits
Clamping Networks:
V0
vi
V
+
T
C
R
V0
t
2V
-V
-2V
+
V0
C
R
Vi
V0
2V
0
Vi
V0
V0
V0
Vi
t
2V
V
10
0
-Vi
2V
V0
+
Vi
-
C
V1
V0
-
2V
0
-V1
Page 144
Analog Circuits
Parameter
Ripple frequency
(f )
Half-Wave
fs
Full-Wave
2fs
Bridge
2fs
PIV
Vm
2Vm
Vm
Im
Vm/(Rf +RL)
Vm/(Rf +RL)
Vm/(2Rf +RL)
Average
current(Idc)
Im
2Im
2Im
R.M.S value (Irms)
Im/2
Im/
Im/
D.C. voltage (Vdc)
Vm
Form factor(F)
1.57
1.11
1.11
Ripple factor(r)
1.21
0.482
0.482
RL
RL
RL
Pdc
- Idc Rf
Pi
2Vm
(Rf + RL)
Efficiency( r)
- Idc Rf
2Vm
(Rf + RL)
(
-2 Idc Rf
(Rf + RL)
Regulation
fs = a.c input supply frequency, PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)=the maximum voltage to which the
diode is subjected in a rectifier circuit
(
d
(
d )
Vdc = Idc RL, Form factor, F = Irm/Idc )

(
ef c
= RMS value of the ac components of current =
)0.5
rms / Idc
rms / Vdc =
= Efficiency of Rectification = P
/ Pi, Regulation =
Page 145
Analog Circuits
6.2: DC Biasing-BJTs
VBE: decreases about 7.5 mV per degree Celsius (0C) increase temperature.
ICO (reverse saturation current): doubles in value for every 100C increase in temperature.
IC = f (ICO, VBE )
Biasing Type
Operating Point
Stability
Factor
Fixed Bias Circuit
Fixed Bias Circuit With Emitter

Resistor
( + )
Page 146
Collector To Base Biasing

Circuit
Self Bias Circuit
Type
Analog Circuits
Symbol
Basic Relationships
Input Resistance
and Capacitance
JFET
(n-channel)
>
M
Ci: (1-10)
D
G
S
(
Page 147
MOSFET
Depletion-type
(n-channel)
Analog Circuits
D
R>
Ci: (1-10)
G
S
(
MOSFET
Enhancement-type
(n-channel)
R>
M
Ci: (1-10)
G
S
(
K=
Type
JFET
Fixed-bias
(
(
Configuration
))
)
(
))
Pertinent Equations
JFET
Self-bias
(
JFET
Voltage-divider bias
Page 148
Analog Circuits
JFET
Common-gate
(
JFET
(
JFET
(
(
(
)
)
Depletion-type
MOSFET
*(All configurations above
plus cases where
+voltage) Fixed-bias
Depletion-type
MOSFET
Voltage-divider Bias
(
Enhancement-type
MOSFET
Feedback
configuration
Page 149
Analog Circuits
Enhancement-type
MOSFET
Voltage-divider bias
Page 150
Analog Circuits
6.3: Small Signal Modeling Of BJT and FET

Configuration
Fixed-bias (JFET or D-MOSFET)
=
High (
M)
Medi m ( k)
=
Medium (-10)
g (
g
(
Port
System
Self-bias bypassed
(JFET or D-MOSFET)
High(
M)
Medi m ( k)
=
Medium (-10)
= g (
)
= g
(
)
=
(
Port
g (
System
Self-bias unbypassed Rs (JFET or D-MOSFET)
High(
=
M)
Medi m ( k)
Low(-2)
g
=
(
Voltage-divider bias(JFET or D MOSFET)
High (
M)
=
(
))
Medi m ( k)
))
Medium (-10)
g (
)
(
Page 151

Source Follower(JFET or D-MOSFET)
High(
=
M)
L
=
=
(
Analog Circuits
M)
g
g
)
Low (<1)
g (
g (
)
)
=
(
Common Gate
Medi m ( k)
Medium (+10)
g
= g
Drain Feedback bias E-MOSFET
Medi m ( M)
g (
Medi m ( k)
=
Medium (-10)
g (
g
(
Voltage Divider bias E-MOSFET
)
(
Medi m ( M)
Medi m ( M)
=
Medium (-10)
g (
g
(
Page 152
Configuration
=
(
h
(
h
Including
+
Analog Circuits
Including
(
1
1
Including
( +
(
(h h
+
-
( +
h
h
Page 153
Analog Circuits
+
~
-
Including
(
( +
)
+
-
(h +
h
Including
(
( +
)
+
-
( +
(h +
)
~
Including
(
( +
Page 154
Analog Circuits
Including
(
)
(
~
-
Including
(
Page 155
Analog Circuits
6.4: Operational Amplifiers and Their Applications

An ideal op amp circuit would have infinite input impedance, zero output impedance and an
infinite voltage gain.
~
=
Above equation for gain is valid only if open loop gain is infinity, if gain is not infinite always use
exact equation. Above equation is valid only if output is feedback to negative terminal at the
input.
If output is feedback to positive terminal, then output will go to saturation and above equation
f g i d e
y
The fact that io
e d
he c ce
h
he m ifie i
he e exi
i
h
circuit or virtual ground. The concept of a virtual short implies that although the voltage is
nearly 0V, there is no current through that amplifier input to ground. Current only goes through
resistors and
io
tends to zero as gain tends to infinity.
io
will be small if gain is finite.
Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out of phase
components, the resulting output can be expressed as
=
+
Where
= different voltage
= common voltage
= differential gain of the amplifier
= common-mode gain of the amplifier
Page 156
Analog Circuits
Inverting Amplifier
Feedback
circuit
The output is obtained by multiplying the input by a fixed or constant gain, set by the input
resistor( ) and feedback resistor ( ) this output also being inverted from the input.
=
Non-Inverting Amplifier
=
=1+
Offset Currents and Voltages

The output offset voltage can be affected by two separate circuit conditions. These are: (1) an
input offset voltage,
and (2) an offset current due to the difference in currents resulting at
the plus(+) and minus(-) inputs.
(
Page 157
Analog Circuits
Feedback
circuit
Input Bias Current,

A parameter related to
current defined as
and the separate input bias currents
and
is the average bias
>
Gain Band Width: Because of the compensation circuits included in an op amp, the voltage gain
drops off as frequency increases. A frequency of interest is where the gain drops by 3dB, this
being the cutoff frequency of the op-amp, f . The unity gain frequency f and cutoff frequency are
related by
f =
f = gain x BW
where
is differential voltage gain
It should be noted that gain bandwidth product of op-amp remains constant whether it is open
loop or feedback amplifier. If gain is decreased, bandwidth increases and vice-versa.
e cy ( g c e)
Page 158
Analog Circuits
Maximum Signal Frequency: Let

= K sin2 ft. The maximum voltage rate of change can be
shown to be signal maximum rate of change 2 fK V/s. To prevent distortion at the output the
rate of change must also be less than the slew rate, i.e,
2 fK
SR
rad/sec
Slew Rate, SR is maximum rate at which amplifier output can change in volts per s.
SR =
V/s
Differential Inputs: when separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, resulting difference signal is
the difference between the two points.
=
Common Inputs: When both input signals are the same a common signal element due to the two
inputs can be defined as the average of the sum of the two signals.
= (
Output Voltage: Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out of
phase components, the resulting output can be expressed as
=
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio:

CMRR =
, CMRR(log) = 20 log10
Negative feedback creates a condition of equilibrium (balance). Positive feedback creates a

condition of hysteresis (the tendency to "latch" in one of two extreme states).
Page 159
Analog Circuits
6.5: Feedback and Oscillator Circuits Feedback Amplifiers

Signal or
Ratio
Parameter
Type of Feedback
Voltage Series
Current Series
Current Shunt
Voltage Shunt
Voltage
Voltage
Current
Voltage
Current
Current
Voltage
Current
Type of Feedback (Effect of ve Feedback)

Voltage Series
Current Series
Current Shunt
Voltage Shunt
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Decreases
Voltage
amplifier
Transconductance
amplifier
Current amplifier
Transresistance
amplifier
Bandwidth
Increases
Increases
Increases
Increases
Nonlinear
distortion
Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
Improve
characteristics of.
Desensitizes
Parameter
Current Shunt
Voltage Shunt
Current Series
1.Output signal
Voltage
Series
Voltage
Current
Voltage
Current
2.Input signal
Voltage
Current
Current
Voltage
3.Basic amplifier
Voltage
Current
Trans resistance Transconductance
4.A(with out feedback) AV=V0/Vi
AI =I0/Ii
Rm=V0/Ii
Gm=I0/VI
5.
Vf/V0
If / I0
If / V 0
Vf/I0
6.D=1+A
1+AV
1+AI
1+Rm
1+Gm
7.Af
AV/D
AI/D
Rm/D
Gm/D
8.Rif
RiD
Ri/D
Ri/D
RiD
Page 160
Analog Circuits
9.Rof
RO/D
RO.D
RO/D
ROD
10.f1f
f1/D
f1/D
f1/D
f1/D
11.f2f
f2.D
f2.D
f2.D
f2.D
13.df(distortion)
=d/D
=d/D
=d/D
=d/D
14.Noise
Decreases Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
12.BWf
Page 161
Analog Circuits
6.6: Power Amplifiers
Parameter
Amplifier Type
Current
Trans
Conductance
0
Voltage
Trans resistance
0
0
Transfer characteristic
Class A: The output signal varies for a full 3600 of the cycle this requires the Q- point to be
biased at a level so that at least half the signal swing of the output may vary up and swing down
without going to a high enough voltage to be approach the lower supply level.
Class B: A class B circuit provides an output signal varying over one-half the output signal cycle,
or for 1800. Here the dc bias is at cut off (zero current) so, the output is not a faithful
reproduction of the input as only half cycle is present. Two class B operations, one to provide
output on the positive-output half cycle and another output to provide operation on the
negative-output half cycle are necessary. This type of connection is referred to as push-pull
operation.
Class AB: An amplifier may be biased at a dc level above the zero base current level of class B and
above one half the supply voltage level of class. This bias condition is class AB. For class AB
operation the output signal swing occurs between 1800 and 3600 and is neither class A nor class
B operation.
Class C: The output of a class C amplifier is biased for operation at less than 180 0 of the cycle and
will operate only with a tuned (resonant) circuit which provides a full cycle of operation for the
tuned or resonant frequency
Class D: This operating class is a form of amplifier operation using pulse signals which are on for
a short interval and off for a longer interval. The major advantage of class D operation is that
amplifier is on only for short intervals and the overall efficiency can practically be very high.
Amplifier Efficiency: defined as the ratio of o/p power to i/p power , improves (gets higher)
going from class A to class D.
P (
P(
P
Where
)
)
(rms) (rms) =
(rms) =
(rms)
(rms)/
(peak)/
Peak to Peak Signals : The ac power delivered to the load may be expressed using
P
The maximum efficiency of a class A circuit, occurring for the largest output voltage and current
swings, is only 25% with a direct or series fed load connection and 50% with a transformer
connection to the load. Class B operation, with no dc bias power for no input signal, reaches
78.5%. Class D operation can achieve power efficiency over 90% and provide the most efficient
operation of all the operating classes. Since class AB falls between class A and class B in bias, it
also falls between their efficiency rating between 25% (or 50%) and 78.5%
Page 162
Analog Circuits
Amplifier Distortion
%THD = D =
. . . . . . . . 100%
The total power can also be expressed in terms of THD, i.e.,

P = (1
. . . . . . .)
= (1 +
) P1
Page 163
Analog Circuits
6.7: BJT and JFET Frequency Response
At low frequencies we shall find that the coupling and bypass capacitors can no longer be
replaced by the short circuit approximation because of the increase in reactance of these
elements. The frequency dependent parameters of the small signal equivalent circuits and the
stray capacitive elements associated with the active device and the network will limit the high
frequency response of the system.
Miller Effect Capacitance
A V= /
Miller Input Capacitance

c
(1-
Miller output Capacitance
=(
Multistage Frequenct Effects, For n stages

Lower cut-off frequency is
Upper cut-off frequency is
=
(
Page 164
Phase Shift Oscillator
Transistor Hartley oscillator
C
+
+
G
Analog Circuits
)
L
f =
Wien Bridge oscillator

=
where:
i
=
Ring oscillator
f= 1/(no. of inverters*inverter del)
i Oscillator
)
Low Pass Filters
Page 165
Analog Circuits
High Pass Filters
Band Pass Filters
>
Page 166
Analog Circuits
Sinusoidal Oscillators
Amplifier A
Frequency
selective
network
Fig. Basic structure of sinusoidal oscillator
( )
( ) ( )
( )
Gain with feedback
An Oscillator should have finite output for zero input signal at a particular frequency.
So condition for feedback loop to provide sinusoidal oscillations of frequency
is
(
) (
)
L(j )
Here, L is Loop gain =
So at , the phase of the loop gain should be zero and magnitude of loop gain should be
unity. This is shown as Bakhausen Criterion
OP Amp RC Oscillators Circuits

I.
Wien Bride Oscillator
Magnitude of loop gain should be
Ph e f
g i
g i
d e ze
+
i y
Page 167
Analog Circuits
II. Phase Shift Oscillator
C
k
It consist of three section (3rd order) RC ladder network in feedback.

Amplifier is of ve gain ( k)
For phase shift of loop gain to be 0 (or 3600), RC network should have phase shift of
180 as A have 180 phase shift.
Minimum three section of RC network (3rd order) is required to get 180 shift at a finite
frequency.
LC Tuned Oscillators
(a) Colpitts
For Colpitts oscillator,

Oscillation frequency
g
(b) Hartley
for oscillation to start
For Hartley oscillator.

L )
(L
g
>
L
L
ci
Page 168
Analog Circuits
Crystal Oscillator
Series capacitance
Parallel capacitance
Series resonant frequency
Parallel resonant frequency

(
Bistable Multivibrators
Has two stable states.

Circuit can remain in either state and it moves to other stable state only when
appropriately triggered.
(A) Inverting
L
Page 169
Analog Circuits
Transfer Characteristics
From transfer characteristics, we see that for input voltage in
either be L or L depending on state the circuit is already in.
, o/p can
(B) Non Inverting
L ( )
L ( )
Page 170
Measurements
Part 7: Measurements
7.1: Basics of Measurements and Error Analysis
(Static & Dynamic characteristics of measuring Instrument)
Fundamental Units: These include the following along with dimension and unit symbol.
M Kg
Mass
L
m
Length
T
Sec
Time
K
Temperature
I
A
Electric Current
Cd
Luminous
Intensity
Performance Characteristics
The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:
1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamic characteristics
Set of criteria defined for the measurements, which are used to measure the quantities,
which are slowly varying with time or almost constant, i,e do not vary with time, are called
static characteristics
When the quantity under measurement changes rapidly with time, the relation existing
between input and output are generally expressed with the help of differential equations and
are called dynamic characteristics
The various performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a process
called calibration
Static Characteristics
1. Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the
true value of the quantity.
2. Static error: It is the difference between the measured value and true value of the quantity
Mathematically
A=
----------- eq (1.1)
A : absolute static error
: Measured value of the quantity.
: True value of the quantity.
Relative error: ( ) =
=
Page 171
Percentage relative error: %
=( )
100.
From relative percentage error, accuracy is expressed as A = 1 - |

Where A: relative accuracy and a = A 100%
where a = percentage Accuracy.
Measurements
error can also be expressed as percentage of full scale reading (FSD) as,
=
100
3. Precision: It is the measure of degree of agreement within a group of measurements.

High degree of precision does not guarantee accuracy.
Precision is composed of two characteristics
1. Conformity.
2. Number of significant figures.
4. Significant Figures
Precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which
the reading is expressed.
Significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude and measurement
precision of the quantity.
5. Sensitivity
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the
instrument responds.
It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the
value of the quantity to be measured.
Mathematically it is expressed as,
Sensitivity =
Sensitivity =
Deflection factor =
6. Resolution
Resolution is the smallest measurable input change.
7. Threshold
If the input quantity is slowly varied from zero onwards, the output does not change until
some minimum value of the input is exceeded. This minimum value of the input is called
threshold.
Resolution is the smallest measurable input change while the threshold is the smallest
measurable input.
Page 172
Measurements
8. Linearity
Linearity is the ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically and linearly.
Graphically such relationship between input and output is represented by a straight line.
The graph of output against the input is called the calibration curve.
The linearity property indicates the straight line nature of the calibration curve.
Thus, the linearity is defined as,
% Linearity =
100
9. Zero Drift
The drift is the gradual shift of the instrument indication, over an extended period during
which the value of the input variable does not change.
10. Reproducibility
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It may be
specified interms of units for a given period of time.
11. Repeatability: Repeatability is defined as variation of scale reading and is random in nature.
Both reproducibility and the repeatability are a measure of the closeness with which a given
input may be measured again and again. The Fig shows the input and output relationship
with positive and negative repeatability.
Repeatability
Output
Fig.
Input
12. Stability
The ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout its specified operating life
and the storage life is defined as its stability.
13. Tolerance:
The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified interms of some value which
is called tolerance. This is closely related to the accuracy.
14. Range or Span
The minimum and maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to
measure is called its range or span. Sometimes the accuracy is specified interms of range or
span of an instrument.
Page 173
Measurements
Limiting Errors/ Relative Limiting Error

Guarantee Errors: The limits of deviations from the specified value are defined as limiting errors
or guarantee errors.
Actual value of quantity = A= An a; a: limiting error or tolerance
An: specified or rated value
It is also called as fractional error. It is the ratio of the error to the specified magnitude of a
quantity.
e=
e
Relative limiting error.
Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors

1. Sum of the Two Quantities: Let a and a be the two quantities which are to be added to
obtain the result as .
*
Where
and
and
2. Difference of the Two Quantities

*
3. Product of the Two Quantities
4. Division of the Two Quantities
5. Power of a factor
Page 174
Measurements
Types of Errors
The static error may arise due to number of reasons. The static errors are classified as
1. Gross errors
2. Systematic errors
3. Random errors
A.u(t)
A
Time Domain test signals
Input , r(t)
1. Step input
R(s) =
Time, t
= A/S
2. Ramp input
R(s) =
At
= A/
Input , r(t)
Time, t
3. Parabolic input
R(s) =
= 2A/
A
Input , r(t)
Time, t
4. Impulse input
A/
R(s) =
=1
Input , r(t)
Time, t
Response of First Order System to a Unit Step Input
C(t) =
= i
Page 175
Measurements
Ramp Response of a First Order System

C(t) =
=
=
Impulse Response of a First Order System
C(t) =
Page 176
Measurements
7.2: Measurements of Basic Electrical Quantities 1

(Current Voltage, Resistance)
Indicating Instruments
Analog Instruments
Analog instruments are classified in one way as
a) Indicating
b) Recording
c) Integrating Instruments.
Essential Requirements of an Instrument:

For satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument, following systems must be present in an
instrument.
1. Deflecting system producing deflecting toque
2. Controlling system producing controlling torque
3. Damping system producing damping torque.
The deflecting system uses one of the following effects produced by current or voltage, to
produce deflecting torque.
1. Magnetic Effect: When a current carrying conductor is placed in uniform magnetic field, it
experiences a force which causes it to move. This effect is mostly used in many instruments
like moving iron attraction and repulsion type, permanent magnet moving coil instruments
etc.
2. Thermal Effect: The current to be measured is passed through a small element which heats it
to cause rise in temperature which is converted to an e.m.f. by a thermocouple attached to it.
When two dissimilar metals are connected end to end, to form a closed loop and the two
junctions formed are maintained at different temperatures, then e.m.f. is induced which
causes the flow of current through the closed circuit which is called a thermocouple.
3. Electrostatic Effect: When two plates are charged, there is a force exerted between them,
which moves one of the plates. This effect is used in electrostatic instruments which are
normally voltmeters.
4. Induction Effect: When a non-magnetic conducting disc is placed in a magnetic field produced
by electromagnets which are excited by alternating currents, an e.m.f. is induced in it.
If a closed path is provided, there is a flow of current in the disc. The interaction between
induced currents and the alternating magnetic fields exerts a force on the disc which causes
to move it. This interaction is called an induction effect. This principle is mainly used in
energymeters.
5. Hall Effect: If a semiconductor material is placed in uniform magnetic field and if it carries
Page 177
Measurements
current, then an e.m.f. is produced between two edges of conductor. The magnitude of this
e.m.f. depends on flux density of magnetic field, current passing through the conducing bar
and hall effect co-efficient which is constant for a given semiconductor. This effect is mainly
used in flux-meters.
Controlling System
It produces a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force in order to make the deflection of
pointer at a definite magnitude.
Damping System
The quickness with which the moving system settles to the final steady position depends on
relative damping.
Three types of damping exists
1. Critically damped
2. Under damped
3. Over damped
Deflection
Under damped
Over damped
Steady final
position
Critically damped
Time
0
Fig. Effect of damping on deflection
The following methods are used to produce damping torque.
1. Air friction damping
2. Fluid friction damping
3. Eddy current damping.
Page 178
Measurements
Measurement of Voltage and Current

Analog Ammeter and Voltmeters
The Instruments used for measurement of voltage and current can be classified as:
a) Moving coil instruments
(i) Permanent magnet type
(ii) dynamometer type
b) Moving iron instruments
c) Electrostatic Instruments
d) Rectifier instruments
e) Induction instruments
f) Thermal instruments
(i) Hot - wire type
(ii) Thermocouple type
a) Moving Coil Instruments
(i) Permanent Magnet Type: It works on the principle of magnetic effect
Torque equation:
The deflecting torque
is given by
= NBAI
Where
deflecting torque in N m
B Flux density in air gap
N Numbers of turns of the coil

A effective coil area
length; b breadth of the coil

I current in the moving coil, amperes
The controlling torque is provided by springs and is proportional to angular deflection of the
pointer
Page 179
Measurements
Where
= controlling torque
K = spring constant,
or
= Angular deflection.
For the final steady state position,
I=( )
G = NBA
Thus we get a linear relation between current and deflection angle.
Damping used in this type of instrument is eddy current damping.
(ii) Dynamometer Type
Dynamometer instrument uses the current under measurement to produce the magnetic
field.
Deflecting Torque
Torque equation:
T=
Where
instantaneous value of current in fixed coils; A
= Instantaneous value of current in moving coil; A

M = Mutual inductance between fixed and moving coil; H
Operation with D.C
=(
Operation with A.C

=
Page 180
Measurements
T = time period for one complete cycle.

Electrodynamometer Ammeters
=
Range: upto 100 mA.
Electrodynamometer Voltmeter
=
Moving Iron Instruments

Moving iron instruments depend for their indication upon the movement of a piece of soft iron
in the field of a coil produced by the current to be measured.
Td = (1/2)I2( ). Where I is the current through the coil and L is the inductance.
Linearization of Scale: Compensation towards frequency errors can be done by connecting a
capacitor across a part of series resistance in MI voltmeter, C = 0.41 (L/R2)
Electrostatic Instruments
For linear motion: F = (1/2) V2 ( )
For angular motion: Td = (1/2) V2 ( )
Rectifier Instruments
Half wave Rectifier type Instruments
Full wave rectifier type instruments:
Shunts and Multipliers

Shunts and multipliers are the resistance connected in shunt or series with ammeter and
voltmeters to enhance their measuring capacity.
Page 181
Measurements
Shunt with ammeter

I=
Instrument constant, m = I =
Multiplier with Voltmeter
R
I
Load
m=
R=
Shunt for a.c. instruments
Instrument
V
of shunt
Multiplication factor =
Page 182
Measurements
Multipliers for Moving Iron Instruments

(Multiplier)
(R, L) resistance and inductance

of the instrument
voltage multiplying factor (m) =
Measurement of Resistance
Measurement of Low Resistance
Kelvin's Double Bridge is used for the measurement of low resistance as shown in fig
R=
+
b
P
p
R
a
S
n
E
Measurement of Medium Resistance
Two wires are required to represent a medium resistance:
Page 183
This can be measured by:
Measurements
a) Ammeter voltmeter method

b) Wheatstone bridge method
c) Ohm meter
a) Voltmeter - Ammeter Method

Ra
From fig
Measured value of resistance,
V
RV
Va
IR
R
VR
Where R is the true value of the resistance.

Error= Ra
% Error = (Ra/R)
This method is suitable for measurement of high resistance, among the range.
I
IR
Iv
RV V
VR
Ammeter - Voltmeter Method

% error =
This method is suitable for measurement of low resistance among the range.
The resistance where both the methods give same error is obtained by equating the two errors.
R=
b) Wheat stone Bridge
=
Sensitivity of the galvanometer,
Where
= deflection of the galvanometer
e = emf across galvanometer

e=
Sensitivity of galvanometer,
Sensitivity of the Bridge
Page 184
Measurements
Measurement of High Resistance

Loss of charge method
S1
+
V
-
S2
R=
Page 185
Measurements
7.3: Measurements of Basic Electrical Quantities 2

(Power and Energy, Instrument Transformers)
1. Power In D.C. Circuits
In case of fig (a)
IR
Ra
L
O
A
D
V
RV
VR
Fig.(a)
Power measured (Pmi) =VRIR + Ra
True value = Measured power - power loss in ammeter
In case of fig (b)
Ra
IR
A
IV
V
RV
L
O
A
D
VR
Fig.(b)
Power measured (Pm2 ) = VR IR + (V2R / Rv)
True power = Measured power power loss in voltmeter
2. Power In A.C. Circuits
Instantaneous power = VI
Average power = VI cos ()
Where V and I are r.m.s values of voltage and current and cos is the power factor of the
load.
3. Electro Dynamometer Wattmeter: This type of wattmeter is mostly used to measure power.
The deflecting torque in electrodynamometer instruments is given by,
Page 186
( )
Measurements
Many watt meters are compensated for errors caused by inductance of pressure coil by
means of a capacitor connected in parallel with a portion of multiplier.
Capacitance C = ( )
4. Low Power Factor Wattmeter

T d = ip i c
Average deflection torque = Ip I cos (
= (V / Rp). I cos (
Td
V I cos
w r, if
M
M
5. Errors in Electro Dynamometer Wattmeter

True Power for lagging pf loads =
actual wattmeter reading
True Power for leading pf loads =
actual wattmeter reading
ERROR = tan a x true power ,
fa g ,
tan-1 (XP / Rp) = V I sin a
% ERROR = tan a
> is the angle between PC current and voltage.
6. Measurement of Power in Three Phase Circuits
a) Three watt meter Method: The figure depicts three wattmeter method to determine the
power in 3 - , 4 wire system.
P1
1
P3
P2
Sum of the instantaneous readings of watt meters

Page 187
Measurements
= P =P1+P2 + P3
= V1i1 + V2 i2 + V3 i3
i3 Instantaneous power of load = V 1 i 1 + V2 i2 + V3 i3
Hence the summation of readings of three watt meters gives the total power of load.
b) Two Wattmeter Method
P1
V1
i1
V13
i3
i1
-V3
V23
i1
i2
I2
V2
V3
Sum of reading of two watt meters = 3 VI cos

Difference of readings of two watt meters = VI sin
Reactive power consumed by load = (Difference of two wattmeter readings) = (P1 P2)
Power factor cos =
(a
7. Measurement of Reactive Power in Three Phase Circuits

Reading of wattmeter = v23 i1 cos (angle between i1 and V23)
= v23 i1 cos (90 - )
= V I sin
Total reactive power of the circuit
= (watt meter reading).
Page 188
Measurements
7.4: Electronic Measuring Instruments 1

(Analog, Digital Meters & Bridges, ADC type DVM)
The general ac bridge circuit is as follows
B
Under balanced condition
Equating the magnitudes and angles,

Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3
Measurement of Self Inductance

1. Hay Bri g
Used for measurement of high Q coils, shown in figure.
Page 189
Measurements
At balance
=
Q=
2. Ow Bri g
Used for measurement of inductance in terms of capacitance, shown in figure.
,
D
Under balance condition:

=
=
3. Maxwell Inductance Bridge
This bridge measures inductance by comparison with a variable standard self inductance,
shown in figure
Page 190
Measurements
At balance
=
=
4. Maxw
u a
Capacitance Bridge
Here inductance is measured by comparison with standard variable capacitance, shown in
figure.
At balance:
=
=
.
Useful for measurement of low Q coils (1 < Q < 10)
5.
r Bri g :
In this method, self Inductance is measured in terms of a standard capacitor, shown in fig
below
Applicable for precise measurement of self inductance over a very wide range of values,
Page 191
Measurements
At balance
= (
)
=C
Measurement of Capacitance
1. D au y Bri g
It measures the unknown capacitance by comparing with a standard capacitor, shown in
figure
At balance:
=
2. M
ifi
au y Bri g
Page 192
Measurements
At balance
=
=
Dissipation factor, D = tan =
= tan =
=
(
)
3. Schering Bridge
At balance condition
=
=
Dissipation factors
= tan
Digital Voltmeters
Type of DVM's
1. Ramp Type DVM
The operating principle is to measure the time that a linear ramp voltage takes to change
from level of input voltage to zero voltage or vice - versa.
2. Integrating Type Digital Voltmeter:
The frequency of the saw tooth wave (Eo) is a function of the value of Ei, the voltage being
measured. The number of pulses produced in a given time interval and hence the frequency
of saw tooth wave is an indication of the value of voltage being measured.
3. Potentiometric Type DVM
A potentiometric type of DVM, employs voltage comparison technique. In this DVM the
unknown voltage is compared with a reference voltage whose value is fixed by the setting of
the calibrated potentiometer.
Page 193
Measurements
7.5: Electronic Measuring Instruments 2

(C.R.O., RF Meters, Special Meters, Q meter)
Cathode Ray Tube(CRO)
For electrostatic deflection
Deflection D =
D Deflection, m
L distance from centre of deflection plates to screen, m
Ld effective length of deflection plates, m
Ed deflection voltage, volts
d separation between the plates, m
Ea accelerating voltage, volts

Deflection sensitivity is
S=
= m/v
Deflection factor G is
G=
Oscilloscope Specifications
1. Sensitivity: It means the vertical sensitivity. It refers to smallest deflection factor G = (1 / s)
and expressed, as mv / div. The alternator of the vertical amplifier is calibrated in mv / div.
2. Band width: It is the range of frequencies between 3 dB of centre frequency.
3. Rise Time: Rise time is the time taken by the pulse to rise from 10% to 90% of its amplitude.
BW =
= band width in MHz
90% of amplitude is normally reached in 2.2 RC or 2.2 time constants.

BW =
= rise time in second
Synchronization means the frequency of vertical signal input as an integral multiple of the sweep
frequency.
Fin = nFs
Measurement Of Phase Difference And Frequency

If Vx and VY be the instantaneous values and of voltages applied to the deflection plates x and y
and let them be expressed as
Page 194
V x = VX i
By a ju i g h
screen.
Vy = Vy i
au
x,
y,
Measurements
t - )
Vx, VY and suitably, various patterns may De obtained on the
1. Wh
x
y
, = 0, then (Vx / Vy) = (Vx / Vy) = K is an equation of straight line
passing through origin and making an angle of
tan = (Vy / Vx) with horizontal.
2.
> a
i
wh
aj r axi ha a
f x / Vy)
x
y
y, ,
3.
, ,
2 ra ia
> a ir
x
y
4. Wh
2 y, we get Fig (i). When
2
we get Fig (ii).
x
Q Meter
The Q meter is an instrument which is designed to measure the value of the circuit Q directly
and as such is very useful in measuring the characteristics of coil and capacitors.
The storage factor Q of a Q network is equal to
Q=
where,
= resonant angular freq

L = inductance of coil
R = effective resistance of coil
Shielding
Electromagnetic shielding is the process of limiting the penetration of electromagnetic fields into
a space, by blocking them with a barrier made of conductive material.
Grounding
Grounding electrically interconnects conductive objects to keep voltages between them safe,
even if equipment fails.
Page 195
Communication System
Part 8: Communication Systems

8.1: Basics of Communication Signals
Typical frequency range for audio and video signals are given below:
Voice -----------
300 3.5KHz
Audio -----------
20Hz 20KHz
Video -----------
0 4.5 MHz
Modulation:
Modulation is defined as the process in which some characteristic parameter of a high
frequency carrier is varied linearly with the amplitude of the message signal.
Modulator converts (1) low frequency signal to a high frequency signal, (2) a wide band signal
into narrowband signal, (3) a baseband signal into band pass signal
Need for Modulation:

(1) To reduce the antenna height.
(2) For multiplexing of signals.
(3) To reduce noise and interference.
Page 196
8.2: Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In A.M. the amplitude of the carrier is varied linearly with the amplitude of message signal.
S(t)
Ac[1+]
m(t)
0< 1
Ac
Ac[1-]
0
-Ac[1-]
-Ac
-Ac[1+]
S(t)=
cos(2f t)+
m(t) cos(2f t) =
where
=Amplitude Sensitivity
S(f)= [(f-f )+(f+f ) ] +
[1+
m(t)]cos2f t,
[M(f-f )+M(f+f )]
S(f)
( )
M(f)
/2
f
-W
USB
LSB
-fc-w
-fc
-fc+w
where
The maximum and minimum value of the positive envelope is
cos 2f t +
Carrier
fc
fc+w
2w
Single Tone Modulation of A.M

S(t)= [1+ cos (2f t)]cos (2f t),
S(t) =
fc-w
cos 2(f +f ) t +
USB
= = modulation index
[1+] and
[1-] respectively.
cos 2(f -f ) t
LSB
B.W =2f =2Highest frequency of message signal
Page 197
Power Calculations of AM
Power of carrier
=* + =
Power of USB
Total Power
=
=
Power of LSB
Modulation Efficiency
ower in side ands

=
Total ower
2+
(1 + )
2
Multi Tone Modulation: If the message contains n frequencies, = + +

=
ower in side ands

=
Total ower
=
(1 + 2) 2 +
For an input of Ac[1+Kam(t)]cos2fct, the output of envelop detector is Ac+AcKam(t). The

envelope of the input must be positive to get the exact message signal.
An overmodulated signal cant e demodulated y a square law demodulator and envelope
detector.
Page 198
8.3: DSBSC and SSB Modulation

To increase the modulation efficiency, the carrier is suppressed and only the sidebands are
transmitted.
S(t)=Acm(t) cos 2fct [Time domain equation of DSB, carrier is suppressed]
S(f)=
[M(f
f ) + M(f + f )] [Frequency domain equation]
M(f)
S(f
)
-W
+fc fc+
W
Power required to transmit a DSB wave is very less compared to AM, but the bandwidth is same
as AM.
0
-fc
fc-W
Single-Tone Modulation of DSBSC

S(t) =
[cos 2(fc-fm) t + cos 2(fc+fm)t]
PLSB=PUSB=
Pt=
=1
% Power Saving compare to AM =
100 =
=1
Demodulation of DSB signals

Coherent Detection
If there is phase difference of
coherent detector is,
(t) =
()
in oscillator carrier in receiver and transmitter, then o/p of
cos
()
=0
(t) =
= 0
v (t) = 0 (Quadrature Null effect)
Synchronization circuits are necessary are to overcome the Quadrature null effect. So the
complexity of the receiver is increased.
Page 199
Single Sideband (SSB) Modulation

In order to reduce the bandwidth and power required to transmit the signal only one sideband is
transmitted (either USB or LSB).
S(f)
SSB-USB
USB
-fc-w
SSB-LSB
USB
-fc
LSB
fc
fc+w
-fc
LSB
-fc-w
S(t) =
cos 2 (f + f )t
(If USB is transmitted)
S(t) =
cos 2 (f
(If LSB is transmitted)
f )t
fc-w
fc
The generalized equation is

[m(t) cos 2f t
S(t) =
m
(t) sin 2f t] -ve sign means USB, +ve sign means LSB
Total ower required to transmit

Power saving =
=
(
)
)
(
(
)
)
Demodulation of SSB Signals: Coherent Detection

Consider the locally generated signal as Ac cos(2f t + ), then o/p of detector is,
V2(t) =
[m(t). cos
= 0 , V2(t) =
=
0 , V2(t) =
m
(t). sin ]
m
(t)
m
(t)
[ So no Quadrature null effect in the case of SSB, which is a major advantage over DSB].
Page 200
8.4: Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation

This is mainly used for the transmission of video signal. Power required to transmit a VSB signal
is same as SSB (ideal) but BW is more.
B.W = W + fv
SSB
VSB
Generation of VSB signal:

m(t)
Product
Modulator
DSBSC
v(t)
BPF
H(f)
s(t)
VSB Signal
Ac cos 2fct
S(f + f ) =
[M(f + 2f ) + M(f)] (f + f )
To get the exact message signal at receiver H(f-fc) + H(f + fc) should be a constant (K).
Page 201
8.5: Angle Modulation

Angle Modulation is defined as the process in which the angle of the carrier (either frequency or
phase) is varied linearly according to the message signal and is called respectively FM and PM.
Phase Modulation: Changing the phase according to the message signal is called Phase
Modulation.
S(t) =
cos[2f t +
(t) =
m(t)]
m(t) ,
=Phase sensitivity of the modulator (radians/volt)

()
Instantaneous Frequency f =
(t) = 2 f (t) dt
For single-Tone modulation:

(t) =
f =
cos 2f t
sin 2f t f
= Maximum hase Deviation
= Maximum Frequency Deviation
Frequency Modulation: Changing the frequency of the carrier according to the message signal is
called Frequency Modulation.
S(t) = AC cos [2fc t +2
Instantaneous frequency f (t) = f +
hase of FM wave
(t) = 2f t + 2
m(t)dt ]
m(t) where
=Frequency sensitivity (hertz/Volt)
m(t) dt
For Single-Tone Modulation: f (t) = f +
f=
f,
=f +
f,
=f
cos 2f t
=Frequency deviation
Peak-to-peak frequency variation or total variation of carrier frequency = 2 f

S(t) =
[cos(2f t +
Modulation index of FM =
sin 2f t)]
1, Narrow band FM
1, Wide band FM
Narrow Band FM: S(t) =
=
cos(2f t + sin 2f t)
[cos 2f t. cos( sin 2f t)
cos 2f t
cos 2f t
sin 2f t . sin( sin 2f t)]
sin 2f t sin(2f t) , for

[cos 2(f
f )t
cos 2(f + f )t]
Page 202

S(f)
Ac/2
Ac
fc-fm
fm
-Ac
Spectrum of NBFM
fc+fm
The spectrum of AM and FM are identical except that the spectral component at f
180o out of phase.
=
Wideband FM: S(t) =
2)
is
2)
cos[2f t + sin 2f t]
( ) = ( )e (
Bessel function of order n is:

Properties: 1)
(1 +
( ) = ( 1)
( )
( )=1
WBFM equation: S(t) =
( ) cos[2(f + nf )t]
S(t) =
( ) cos 2f t +
( ) cos 2(f + f )t +
( ) cos 2(f
+
2f ) t +
S(t) =
( ) cos 2f t +
( )[cos 2(f + f )t cos 2(f
f ) t]
( )[cos 2(f + 2f ) t + cos 2(f
+
2f ) t]
S(f)
( ) cos 2(f
n = 0, 1, 2,
f )+
( ) cos 2(f + 2f ) t
( )
( )
( )
( )
fc-fm
0
fc-2fm
fc
fc+fm
fc+2fm
( )
Fig. Spectrum of WBFM
Characteristics of a WBFM Signal
(1) WBFM spectrum consists of carrier and infinite number of sidebands, each separated by f
(2) The amplitudes of the spectral components depend on the Bessel function coefficients ( )
which decease as n increases. So the amplitudes of the spectral components also decrease
on both sides of the carrier.
(3) In WBFM spectrum amplitude of carrier component depends on
( ) and hence on
modulation index .
Page 203
J0( )
8.6
2.4
5.5
( ) = 0, when
The Bessel function coefficient
11.8
= 2.4, . , . , 11. ,
For these values of , the amplitude of the carrier component in the spectrum is zero and the
modulation efficiency is 1.
( )
=
,
order sideband =
order sideband =
order sideband =
Total Power =
=
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )+
( )+
( )=
( )+
( )+
= Unmodulated carrier power
The total power is independent of modulation index. AM takes more power compared to FM for
the same message and carrier.
ractical B.W of WBFM using Carsons Rule: Carson has proved that the number of sidebands
having significant amplitudes containing % of the total power is +1. So Bandwidth of FM is,
B. W = 2( + 1)f
= 2*
+ 1+ f = 2 f + 2f
Generation of WBFM signal

1) Direct Method
2) Indirect Method (or) Armstrong Method
Direct Method: A voltage controlled oscillator is used to generate FM signal.
Indirect Method: In this method, NBFM signal is converted into WBFM signal.
m(t)
NBFM
Modulator
NBFM
S1(t)
Frequency
multiplier
WBFM
S(t)
Ac cos2fct
BFM S(t) =
cos[2f t +
sin 2f t]
Page 204
o/p of frequency multiplier, WBFM S(t) =

=
cos[n2f t + n
cos[2f t +
sin 2f t]
sin 2f t] where f
= nf
=n
FM can be generated using Phase Modulator by prior integration of m(t)

m(t)
PM
modulator
INT
Ac cos [2fc t +2 f m ( t) dt]

FM wave
PM can be generated using FM signal by prior differentiating message signal m(t).

m(t)
Differentiator
dm(t)
dt
FM
Modulator
Ac cos [2fc t +Kp m ( t) ]

PM wave
Page 205
8.6: Superhetrodyne Receivers
Image Frequency: fsi=fS+2IF

Image section can be suppressed using a tuned circuit. Image frequency should be removed
before the mixer stage.
Image (Frequency) Rejection Ratio:
IRR =
; Gain at fsi << 1
By increasing the Intermediate frequency, IRR can be increased. By increasing the bandwidth,
the gain at fSi can be decreased so that IRR increases.
IRR
IRR Q
IRR = 1 +
Where =
IRR should be as high as possible. If two tuned circuits are cascaded then the overall IRR is
= 1 +
2
1
. 1 +
2
2
Page 206
8.7: Noise in Analog Modulation

Thermal noise is white noise. It effects all frequencies equally.
temperature
P =K Te B
KT=PSD
Te =(F-1)T0
F=Noise figure
KTe=
of
thermal
noise,
Te=Noise
equivalent
Noise Power = Mean square Value
fX(x) dX
( )
= Auto Correlation at origin RX(0) =
Figure of Merit:
So
Si
Receiver
Ni
(Si
i) =
No
ower of the modulated signal

ower of noise in message andwidth
Figure of Merit =
)
( )
(So
o) =
ower of the demodulated signal

ower of noise at output
(S/N)o depends mainly on modulation scheme and receiver characteristics.

Figure of Merit of DSB system:
Figure of Merit of SSB system:
=1
Figure of Merit of AM system:

Figure of Merit of FM system:
=1
=
=
= [modulation efficiency]
(For single-tone modulation)
Page 207
8.8: Digital Communications

Advantages of Digital communication over Analog communications:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
More rugged because it can withstand channel noise and distortion much better,
Viability of regenerative repeaters
Digital signals can be coded to yield extremely low error rates and high fidelity,
It is easier and more efficient to multiplex several digital signals.
More efficient than analog in realizing the exchange of SNR for bandwidth.
Sampling Theorem: It sates that if the highest frequency in the signal spectrum is B, the signal
can e reconstructed from its samples, ta en at a rate not less than 2B samples per second.
Ts
fs 2 W
fs=2W is called the Nyquist rate

Pulse Digital Communications: There are four types of pulse digital communication techniques.
1. PCM
2. DPCM
3. DM
4. ADM
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

For n- bit PCM,
Number of quantization levels L=2
Step size =
Bit rate(r ) = sampling rate n=
Bit duration (T ) =
Minimum BW =
n=
=
=
f(qe)
Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio:
1/
m(t) = Amcos 2fmt

qe
Signal Power =
Quantization Noise Power =
SNR=
/2
x f(x)dx =
/2
-/2
q .(1 e) dqe
=(3/2)L2=(3/2)22n , where =
SNRdB =1.8 + 6n
Page 208
Differential Encoding
1-previous state
0-previous level is complemented
T
Input
Output
For NRZ signaling, the probability of error is minimum. Thus for PCM, NRZ signaling is generally
used.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
Number of signals transmitted simultaneously = N
If n-bit PCM is used, Number of bits in frame
= nN
For each frame some extra bits are added for synchronization purpose.
In Ts duration, we get n N + a bits, where a = No. of bits used for synchronization
Bit duration Tb =
without multiplexing
with multiplexing
with multiplexing & synchronization
DPCM (Differential Pulse Code Modulation):

In place of sampled value, the difference between present sample and its predicted value is sent.
So compare to PCM, for same SNR, BW of the system can be reduced or for same BW SNR can be
improved.
Delta Modulation (DM):
The message is sampled at very high frequency compared to NR. Here the difference between
present and previous sample is found and sent in the form of only one bit. In DM system, bit rate
is equal to sampling rate.
1) Slope overload error slope overload error occurs when the step size is very low.
2) Granular Noise: It occurs when the step size is high.
<
= m(t)
Slope Overload error
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Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM): ADM involves additional hardware designed to provide
variable step size, thereby reducing slope-overload effects without increasing the granular noise.
Digital Carrier Modulation
Bandwidth required for ASK = PSK < FSK
ASK and FSK can be demodulated non-coherently but not PSK.
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
Binary data
On-off
Amplitude level
shifter
NRZ
DPSK signal
Multiplier
Delay Tb
1800
1800
00
00
00
1800
Advantage of DPSK over PSK is, DPSK can be non-coherently demodulated.

Matched filter impulse response : h (t) = s(T - t)
Probability of Error
ASK signal: Pe = 0.5 Q[ ]
FSK signal: Pe = 0.5 Q[ ]
PSK signal:
= 0.5 Q [
Pe, PSK < Pe, ASK, Pe, FSK

So, PSK is preferred compared to ASK and FSK because it has less Pe.
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Part 9: Analytical, Optical and Biomedical instrumentation

9.1: U.V, Visible and IR spectrometry
Analytical Instrumentation
Analytical instruments are primarily used to obtained qualitative and quantitative information
regarding the composition of a given unknown sample.
The basic building blocks are
Chemical
information
source
Analytical
instrument
Signal
conditioner
Display
system
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is a type of energy that is transmitted through space at a speed of 3
m/sec.
These radiations do not require a medium of propagation and can also travel through vacuum.
Relation between the energy of electromagnetic radiation (normally called as photons) and
frequency of its propagation is given by
h
where E: energy
h: Plancks constant
ergs-s (or)
Joules-s
: frequency
If is the wavelength (interval between successive maxima and minima of the wave), then
C
where C: velocity of propagation of radiant energy in vacuum.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Fig (1.1) shows the various regions of electromagnetic spectrum which are normally used in
spectroscopic works.
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UV VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY
2.5 M 2400
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE
20 100 MHz (~ 300 MHz IN

SUPERCONDUCTING INSTRUMENTS)
MICROWAVE SPECTROSCOPY
2000 MHz 300 GHz
300 m
10 m
0.67 m
30 m
3 cm
7000
30 3
3000
7000 4000
MICROWAVES
FREQUENCY RANGE
OF HUMAN EYE
EXTRA HIGH
VERY LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
VERY HIGH ULTRA HIGH SUPER HIGH
LOW
FREQUENCY INFRARED
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
10 kHz
100 kHz
30 MHz
1 MHz
0 15 kHz; FREQUENCY RANGE

OF AVERAGE HUMAN EAR
450 MHz
NUCLEAR QUADRUPOLE
RESONANCE 2 1000 MHz
1 GHz
10 GHz
ELECTRON SPIN
RESONANCE; X-BAND
9.46 GHz
300 GHz
4.3
VISIBLE
ULTRAVIOLET
X-RAY
INFRARED
SPECTROSCOPY 1 MM2.5 M 10 4000 cm
RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY
Electromagnetic spectrum from DC to X-ray

In the following sections, we discuss the various methods employed (by the analytical
instruments) for detection of the composition of the analyte sample in the different regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
Absorbed
Radiation
Transmitted Radiation
Incident
Radiation
Sample
Absorption spectroscopy is based on the principle that the amount of absorption that occurs is
dependent on the number of molecules present in the sample.
Here the analysis is done by studying the intensity of the radiant power leaving the substance,
i.e., the transmitted radiation which is an indication of concentration of the sample.
The absorbance is calculated as
Transmittance (T)
where p: energy transmitted p : Incident energy
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log ( )
Optical density
log (
log
AOB
p
)
p
Beer Lamberts Law

This law gives a relation between energy absorbed by the sample and the energy transmitted.
Absorbance (A) = abc
where: a is the absorptivity of the sample (constant)
b os the thickness of the absorbing material
c is the concentration of the sample
p
As we known, A log ( ) and T
p
log ( )
a c
log ( ) and T =
Resolving Power (R)

The term resolving power is applied to spectrum producing devices and means as the ability of
the instrument to form separate images of two closely adjacent spectral lines.
It is defined generally by the equation
where R: resolving power

: wavelength
d : smallest wavelength separation, which is separa le with the instrument
d
and
For prism, the resolving power is given by the expression

t
d
d
where d is the difference of refractive index

t : base of the prism.
Dispersion
The amount by which the radiant energy (spectrum) spreads out into constituent colors
depends on how rapidly the refractive index ) of the prism material varies with wavelength
of the radiation
i, e
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This quantity is called the dispersion and is of prime importance in spectroscopy, since if the
dispersion is small, radiation slightly differing wavelengths cannot be resolved into separate and
distinct spectral lines.
Diffraction Grating
They are useful for accurately measuring the wavelength of light
It consists of series of parallel grooves reeled on a highly polished reflecting surface
xpression relating the wavelength of the radiation and the angle ) at which it is reflected is
m
d sin
where d: distance of speration of the grooves known as grating constant

m : order of interference.
Resolving power for diffraction grating is given as
R = mN
where N is the total number of grooves or lines on the grating
ie
m .
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9.2: Mass Spectrometer

Equipment which produces a beam of gaseous ions from a sample and separates the ions
according to their mass to charge ratio, thus recording individual masses are called Mass
spectrometers.
Advantages
High sensitivity (even nanograms).
Can analyze low to high molecular not gas mixes.
Impurities present in sample does not effect the result.
Inlet
system
Ion
source
Mass
analyses
Display
system
Inlet system normally holds the sample generally in gaseous form.

The molecules of the gas sample are ionized by the ion source normally electron bombardment
is employed for ionization .
These ions, after ionization are qualitatively separated in mass analysis unit.
Finally they are ejected out of the mass analyzers and ionic current corresponding to each mass
is plotted as histogram, which results in a spectrum.
Types
Different methods of mass analysis are employed which use different techniques for detection.
Principal difference lies in the means of separation of ions according to their mass to charge
ratio.
1. Magnetic deflection mass spectrometer
2. Time of flight mass spectrometer.
Magnetic Deflection Mass Spectrometer
Here ionization of sample is done by electronic bombardment. So it uses tungsten filament for
this purpose.
These ionized particles are accelerated by an externally applied electric filed resulting in an ion
motion with a velocity v which can be expressed in terms of applied potential (V) as
mv
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Then these ions enters magnetic field of intensity h, which is applied at right angles to their
motion, resulting in the circular motion of ions.
hev
ions
Radius of curvature (r) =

Substituting v from eq (1)
r
m
e
(or)
m h r
e
Collector
From the above equation for the given radius of Deflection cone (r), to get a spectrum
(histogram) either h (or) v is varied. Normally v is varied.
Time of Flight Mass Spectrometer
In time of flight mass spectrometer, ions of different mass to charge ratio are separated by the
difference in time taken by them to travel over an identical path from ion source to collector.
If L is the length of path (or drift tube) and t is the transit time taken by an ion to reach collector,
then for a singly charged ions of mass m and constant energy ev,
m
e
e charge of an electron : 1.6
v applied voltage
Resolution =
.
t
coulombs.
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9.3: X ray and Nuclear Radiation Measurements

Origin of X Rays
X rays are produced when high velocity electrons strike the target materials of high atomic
number. It is generated due to inner shell electronic transitions.
X ray Spectrum
In X ray tube anode (target) is placed at high potential difference than cathode the emitted X
rays have cut off wavelength depending on source potential applied.
The limiting frequency (
h
) is directly proportional to applied voltage V
e .
e .
where
: shortest wavelength of X-rays radiated
Substituting h
e
J-sec
C; C
m/sec
m
max
min
They are electro magnetic waves having wavelength of
to
m.
For analytical purpose the range of X ray used is from 70 to 200 pm i.e. 0.7 to 2 0A
X ray Absorption
When X rays propagate through a sample the attenuations happened to the X ray strength is
measured by the equation as follows
I = I e
I : intensity transmitted.
x : distance through which X-rays have travelled.
I : intensity incident.
: absorption coeff (cm2 /g) of the material.
= Fractional decrease in intensity of X-rays/unit thickness of absorber material.
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Crystal Monochromators
X-ray Diffraction Braggs Law
When crystals placed and X rays made to fall on these X rays diffracted into specific angles based
on its wavelength thus following Braggs equation
Constructive interference occurs when the path difference is equal to a whole number of
wavelengths.
n
n
d sin Braggs law

order
d
atomic spacing
incident
X-ray beam
Reflected
X-ray beam
Lattice
spacing
Crystal
plane
Crystal
plane
Crystal
plane
Diffraction of X rays from a set of crystal planes.

Moseleys Law
Relation between X-ray frequency (f) and atomic number (Z) of target material is given by
f
Graph of Z Vs f is a straight line
f
f
)
)
Where f is the frequency with target material of atomic number

f is the frequency with target material of atomic number
In other form,
) (
Where R : Rydbergs constant
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tomic um er
Correction factor
n are principal quantum numbers of energy levels between which transaction occurs.
Comptons Scattering
Due to Compton scattering, change in wavelength of scattered X-rays is given as
cos )
Scattered Xrays
Incident
X-rays
photon
(E = hf)
Nuclear Radiation Measurement

Nuclear emission means spontaneous emission of
disintegration
rays due to atomic nucleus
Nuclear Stability: Stability of nucleus mainly depends on n/p ratio . If ratio exceeds 1.56 it
becomes unstable and spontaneously disintegrate to become more stable.
Properties of
rays
Helium double
fast moving
electromagnetic
Ionized nucleus
electron
radiation
+ ve
ve
neutral
Basic laws of radioactive disintegration

=
After time t
: initial material qty
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: disintegration constant
t : time
: Remaining material
Half Life Period:
original quantity
Time period taken by the radioactive material to disintegrate to half of its
=
Average life = = 1.44
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9.4: Optical Sources and Detectors

Introduction
1. Optical sources are light emitting sources which emit as well as guide light.
eg: LED, LASER.
2. Detector are those on which some light is incident some internal potential difference or
current is generated.
eg: Photodiode, Photo resistor, Photovoltaic, Photo Conductive
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
1. The LED is perhaps the most important of the display devices available today for use in
Instrumentation system. The LED is a PN junction device which emits light when a current
passes through it in the forward direction.
2. Semi conductor materials used for manufacture of LED are gallium arsenide phosphide (Ga
As P) which emits red or yellow light of gallium arsenide (Ga As) which gives green or red
light emission.
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER)
Definition It is a device to produce strong, monochromatic, collimated and highly coherent
eam of light and depends upon the phenomenon of Stimulated emission
Laser light is different from the ordinary light source in the following ways
1. Laser beam produces coherent light, i.e. in same phase and that of same frequency.
2. Laser beam is highly monochromatic, while ordinary light sources spread over a wavelength
range 100 to 1000
3. Laser beam is extremely intensive or intense, while the intensity of ordinary light sources
decreases rapidly with distance.
4. Laser beam does not diverge while ordinary light sources are highly divergent.
Basic parts of Laser are
1. Active material
2. Exciting or pumping chamber
3. Resonant system
Active Materials: The basic material used to get the laser output
Eg : Ruby , Nd YAG
semiconductors
Gas
Ga As
Arsenic , Helium neon , argon ions
Liquid
dye lasers
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Types of Lasers
(A) Ruby Laser
1. Ruby laser is based on 3 energy laser levels and this laser consists of a pink ruby
cylindrical rod whose ends are optically flat and parallel.
(B) Nd: YAG Laser
1. Nd: YAG laser is also a type of solid state laser. This is a four level laser.
2. In this Nd stands for neodymium glass and YAG for Yittrium luminium Garnet
(
). YAG is an optically isotropic crystal. In this laser some of the
ions in the
crystal are replaced by neodymium ions
.
(C) Helium Neon Laser
1. In this laser population inversion is achieved by electric discharge. An electric discharge
is produced in the gas by means of electrodes outside the tube connected to a source of
high frequency alternating current.
2. A He-Ne laser operates in continuous wave mode. The narrow red beam of this laser in
used in supermarkets to read the bar codes.
(D) Carbon di Oxide Laser
1. C
laser is a four level molecular laser which uses the transitions that occurred
between different vibrational states of the carbon di oxide molecule.
2. This laser works in continuous mode and has efficiency up to 45%, C lasers are used
in surgery as they seal small blood vessels.
Photo Detectors
(A) Photo Voltaic Cell
1. The photovoltaic cell or solar cell as it some times called, produces an electrical current
when connected to a load. Both silicon (Si) and selenium types are used. Photo voltaic cells
may be used in a number of applications multiple units silicon voltaic devices may be used
for sensing light as a means of reading punched cards in the data processing industry.
(B) Photo Conductive Cell:
1. Another photo electric effect that has proved useful is the photo conductive effect which
is used in photo conductive cells, or photo cells.
2. In this type of device, the electrical resistance of the material varies with the amount of
light energy striking it.
Photo detectors (Photo Diode)
Reversed biased semiconductor diode, made from photosensitive materials such as cadmium
sulphide, minority carriers are responsible for current flow i.e. when light is incident on a diode
junction i.e. reverse biased due to the minority charge carriers migration causes a reverse
saturation current flow
Reverse saturation Current
f [Temperature, Light]
Two Important Characteristics

1. Quantum efficiency ( )
=
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=
I photo current
q electronic charge
P incident power
= c/ frequency
2. Sensitivity (S)
S =
=
ntensit
y
I
I
I
I
Reverse saturation characteristics of photo diode
Photo Resistor
Photo resistors are also known to be light dependent resistors (LDR), it is made from
semiconductor materials like cadmium sulphide (Cd S) or cadmium Selinide (Cd Se), when light
fall on the surface the conductive property of the material increases and thus automatically the
resistance decreases for a particular material the efficiency to be used as a photo resistor to be
characterized from its dark resistance
Dark resistance
It is the max value of resistance when no light is falling on to the substrate [ ( 10
value ]
Sensitivity =
) apt
Wm-2
I is change in intensity of light

resistance change
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9.5: Interferometer, Applications in Metrology

Introduction
Interferometer is a device that separates a beam of light into two beams and brings them
together to produce either constructive or destructive interference of light beams according to
the phase difference between two interfering beams
Michelsons Interferometer
The Michelson interferometer is a device that splits a beam of radiation into two beams of nearly
equal power and then recombines them in such a way that intensity variations of the combined
beam can be measured as a function of differences in the lengths of the paths of the two beams.
Application in Metrology
1. Determination of wavelength
n = 2 x = 2(x
x )
n no of fringes
wavelength
x , x Initial and final positions of mirror screw movement
2. To find refractive index or thickness of various thin transparent sheet
n = 2 x = 2t ( - 1 )
t thickness of film
refractive index of film
3. Difference is two neighbouring wavelengths
being average of two wavelengths
4. To measure the frequency range of a modulated signal from the interference setup using
mirror velocity.
f =
mirror velocity
wavelength
5. To measure flatness, straightness of polished small surfaces by comparing to optical flat the
interference pattern of the light reflected at the surface of optical flat and one reflected at
testing surface is observed
Plane surface indicated by straight bands
Non plane curved bands
Spherical
circular fringes
6. Testing parallelism of any surface
B
A
Interference pattern at both A and B are noticed

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(1) If parallel = 1
(2) If not parallel

(A) 1
(B)
Note:
ny other interferometer arrangement other than Michelsons uses the formula
n = t ( -1)
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9.6: Basics of Fibre Optics

Introduction
Fibre optics deals with the transmission of light through fibres of glass, plastic or other
transparent materials and works on the principle of total internal reflection.
Construction
1. Optical fibre consists of essentially 3 regions. The central region is known as the core. The
middle region is called as cladding. The outer region is a protective sheath.
2. The refractive index of cladding is always lower than that of the core. (Thus cladding keeps
the light waves within the core). The cladding also provides some strength to the core. The
outer protective sheath protects the cladding and core from abrassions, contamination and
moisture.
Acceptance Angle
It may be defined as the maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis of the fibre
and propagates down the fibre
sin
Or
= sin n
Fractional Refractive Index Change

This parameter is defined as the ratio of difference between the refractive indices of the core and
the cladding to the refractive index of core. It is denoted by and expressed as
is always positive because refractive index of core is always greater than the refractive index
of cladding for the total internal reflection condition.
Numerical Aperture
The numerical aperture (N.A.) is defined as the sine of acceptance angle. This angle is the
measure of the light gathering power of the fibre. It is expressed as
NA = Sin m = n
n
NA = n
n =n
Because n
n = (n
)
)
=
2n
Let
n
n ) (n
n )
= n
n = 2n
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Index Profile
An index profile is a plot of refractive index drawn on the horizontal axis versus the distance
from the core axis drawn on the vertical axis. The index profile of a multimode fibre can be:
1. Step index
2. Graded index.
1. Step index: In the step index type fibre the refractive index is constant throughout the core.
In such a fibre the refractive index profile abruptly changes at the junction of the core and
the cladding. Because of this abrupt change they are called step index fibres.
2. Graded Index: In the graded index fibre the highest index is at the centre and decreases
gradually until it reaches the index number of the cladding, that is near the surface.
Multimode step index fibre
n(r
)
2
a
Multimode graded index fibre

Number
An optical fibre is characterized by one more important parameter, known as number which is
more generally called normalized frequency of fibre. It is given by the relation.
=
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Where a is the radius of core

is free space wavelength
In terms of Numerical Aperture, it is given as
=
(N.A.)
The maximum number of modes supported by a step index fibre is given by
For single mode fiber, < 2.405 and for Multi mode fibre, >2.405
The wavelength corresponding to the value of = 2.405 is known as cut off wavelength ( c) of
the fibre.
c=
In case of graded index fibre, for large value of V
)
Pulse Dispersion
A pulse of light sent into a fibre broadens in time as it propagates through the fibre, this
phenomenon is known as pulse dispersion. This phenomenon occurs because of the different
times taken by different ray propagating through the fibres.
Dispersion is typically measured in nanosecond per kilometer (ns/Km).
For Step Index Fibre
Pulse dispersion is given by
=
(
)
=
Where L is the length of the fibre, travelled by a ray
For Graded Index Fibre
Pulse dispersion is given by
=
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where
For typical fibre;
(Pure silica)
= 0.01
= 1.4746
For step index fibre:
S/Km = 50 ns/Km
For graded index fibre
0.25 ns/Km
Fibre Losses
The losses in optical fibres may be due to following causes
1. Rayleigh scattering losses.
2. Absorption losses
3. Micro bend loss
4. Macro bend loss
5. Attenuation loss Attenuation loss of an optical fibre is defined as the ratio of optical output
power
from a fibre of length L to the optical input power
. In symbol expresses
attenuation in decibel/Kilometer.
P
og (
)
P
In case a fibre is an ideal, then
attenuation loss.
therefore
0 which means that there will not be any
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9.7: Ultrasonic Transducers and Ultrasanography

Ultrasounds are sound or mechanical vibration which are beyond (20 KHz and greater) than
audible range frequency spectrum.
Infrasonic
z
Audible
z ultrasonic
Accoustic Impeadence(Z): It is the measure of the opposition to the propagation of the sound
waves.
Z = e. v e density of organ
v velocity of sound
Acoustic impedance varies in different times hence echo pulses are measured according to the
percentage of reflection from each
Co-efficient of reflection
) 100
A I (z) for various parts of body are given as Bone > fat > soft tissues > fluid > Air
In medical application ultrasonic frequency is from 1 to 15 MHz.
When frequency is high, resolution increases and extent of penetration decreases
Velocity of sound in human body is between 1450m/sec to 1700m/sec, the depth of penetration
can be calculated from velocity of sound (Fig1)
d depth
t time
v velocity
Gel
Soft tissue
d
bone
Ultrasonic Tranducers
Ultrasonic transducers basically make use of the principle of piezoelectric effect, crystals such as
quartz , Rochelle salt when stretched or compressed then a potential difference is produced
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The crystal generation frequency (f) can be given as
y youngs modules
t thickness of crystal
density
Quartz Range is from 1 MHz to 10 MHz
Application of ultrasonic transducers comes under ultrasonography dealing with blood flow
analysis they are of two types
1. Transit time velocity meter
2. Doppler shift velocity meter
Transit Time Measurement Ultrasonic Transducer
C ultra sound velocity
V velocity of liquid or blood
Td Downwards time of pulse
Tup upwards time of pulse
D distance between Tx and Rx
--------------- (1)
--------------- (2)
Solving above equations

Doppler Shift Ultra Sound Transducer
Doppler Effect: The frequency of the sound wave emitted by the source is changed when there is
a relative movement between the source and the observer.
In lood velocity measurement the particles of the lood BCs and WBCs are structured as
observers and these causes a Doppler shift upon which the velocity they are travelling.
By Doppler equation
f
+
------ (1)
is frequency shift)
-------- (2)
Solving
f
v
fv cos
c
fc
fcos
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9.8: ECG EEG EMG

Sources of Bioelectric Potentials
Bioelectric potentials are actually ionic voltages produced as result of the electrochemical
activity of certain special types of cells. Through the use of transducers capable of converting
ionic potentials into electrical voltages, these natural monitoring signals can be measured and
result can be displayed in meaningful ways.
Resting and Action Potentials
1. At the same time potassium ions, which were in higher concentration inside the cell during
the resting state, try to level the cell but are unable to move as rapidly as the sodium ions. As
a result, the cell has a slightly positive potential ions. This potential is known as the action
potential and is approximately +20mV. A cell that has been exited and that displays an
action potential is said to be depolarized.
The process of changing from the resting state to the action potential is called
depolarization.
20mV
2. Once the rush of sodium ions through cell membrane has stopped (a new state of
equilibrium) reached, the ionic currents that lowered the barrier to sodium ions are no
longer present and the membrane reverts back to its original, selectively permeable
condition, where in the passage of sodium ions from outside to the inside of the cell is again
blocked.
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50
40
30
Action Potential
20
millivolts
10
0
0
0
Depolarization
Repolarization
0
0
0
0
0
After Potentials
Resting Potential
t
All or Nothing Law

Regardless of the method by which a cell is excited or the intensity of the stimulus (provided it is
sufficient to activate) the cell, the action potential is always the same for any given cell. This is
known as the all or nothing law.
Refractory Period
Following the generation of an action potential, there is a brief period of time during which the
cell cannot respond to any new stimulus. This period, called the absolute refractory period
(ARP), last about 1m sec in nerve cells.
Bioelectric Potential
1. Beware of suffix gram and graph
A) he designation of the waveform itself generally ends in the suffix gram
B) Where as the name of the instrument used to measure the potentials and graphically
reproduce the waveform ends in the suffix graph
1. Electro cardio gram Bio potentials generated by muscles of heart
2. Electro encephalo gram Bio potentials generated by neuronal of activity of Brain
3. Electro myo gram Bioelectric potentials associated with muscle activity
4. Electro retino gram Bioelectric potentials from retina of eye
5. Electro oculo gram Measure of variation in the corneal retinal potential as affected by
position and movement of eye
6. Electro gastro gram Associated with the peristaltic movement of the gastro intestinal
track
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ECG (Electro Cardio Gram)

R
P
T
J
Q
S
Amplitude: P wave
0.25mV
R wave
1.60mV
Q wave
25% of R wave
T wave
0.1 to 0.5 mV
Duration: P-R interval
0.12 to 0.20 s
Q T interval 0.35 to 0.44 s

S T segment 0.05 to 0.15 s
P wave interval 0.11 s
QRS interval
0.09s
P wave Represents the depolarization of the atria musculature.

QRS complex Com ined result of the epolarization of the atria and the depolarization of
the ventricle which occurs almost simultaneously
T wave Ventricular Repolarization.
U wave If present is generally believed to be the results of after potentials in the ventricular
muscles.
P-Q Interval Represents the time during which the excitation wave is delayed in the fibres
near the AV node.
Electrodes & Leads
C (Brown)
RA
(White)
RL
(Green)
LA
(Black)
LL
(Red)
Electrodes: Einthoven found it advantageous record ECG from electrodes placed vertically as
well as horizontally on the body
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Leads: In the normal electrode placement shown in figure, 4 electrodes are used to record ECG.
The electrode on the right leg is for found reference. Because the input of ECG recorder has only
2 terminals, a selection has to be made among the available active electrodes. Each standard
leads used most frequently are shown a figure. The 3 bipolar limb leas selections introduced by
Einthoven are as follows
Lead I: left arm (LA) and right arm (RA)
Lead II: left leg (LL) and right arm (RA)
Lead III left leg (LL) and left arm (LA)
Right arm
Lead
Left arm
Cardiac vector
Lead
Lead
+ +
Left leg
inthovens triangle
Einthoven triangle equation
Lead 2 = Lead 1 + Lead 3
Measurement of Blood Pressure
Indirect Method: blood pressure is a good indicator of the status of cardiovascular system. Blood
pressure is usually measured by means of an indirect method using sphygmomanometer
(meaning pulse manometer). It does not provide a continuous recording of pressure
variations. Only systolic and diastolic arterial pressure readings can be obtained with no
indication of the details of pressure wave form.
The sphygmomanometer works on the principle that when the cuff is placed on the upper arm
and inflated, arterial blood can flow past the cuff only when arterial pressure exceeds the
pressure in the cuff furthermore, when the cuff is inflated to a pressure that only occludes the
bronchial artery turbulence is generated in the blood as it spurts through the tiny arterial
opening during each systole. The sounds generated by this turbulence, korotkoff sounds. Can be
heard through a stethoscope placed over the artery downstream from the cuff.
EEG Electro Encephalogram
Brain waves are summation of simulating five sensing organs eye , ear , nose tongue and skin , it
has a complex pattern and depends on the location of measuring electrodes
EEG is recorded mainly for diagnosing
Page 235
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
AOB
Cerebral brain lesion

To diagnose Epilepsy
Detecting mental disorders
Studying sleep patterns
Analysis of brain response to sensing stimulus
Electrode Placement
Around 10 to 20 electrodes are placed, and the system called 10 to 20 electrode system
2
Nose
10
20
20
ear
10
20
20
20
20
20
10
ear
20
10
Inion
reference in ear
---19
+1
20
Electrode placement in brain ___________ areas

EEG Frequency Bands
delta ) waves - premature babies , infant , sleeping adults (0.5 to 4Hz)
(theta) waves childrens sleeping adults with frustration disappointment
8 Hz)
(alpha) waves Normal person , awake , resting ( eye closed position) ( 8 -13 Hz)
Beta) waves person who are very alert and thinking mood ( 13-30 Hz)
The Electromyogram (EMG)
Skeletal muscle fibers are considered to be twitch fibers because they produce a mechanical
twitch response for a single stimulus and generate a propagated action potential. Skeletal
muscles are made up of collections of motor units (MUs), each of which consists of an anterior
horn cell (or motoneuron or motor neuron), its axon, and all muscle fibers innervated by
volitional effort. The constituent fibers of a motor unit are activated synchronously. Component
fibers of a motor unit extend lengthwise in loose bundles along the muscle. In cross- section, the
fibers of a given motor unit are interspersed with the fibers of other motor units
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AOB
9.9: Clinical Measurement and Computer Assisted Tomography

Clinical measurement consists of the measurement of the following body characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
Blood pressure
Blood volume
Blood cells test
Blood composition [ colorimeter , photometer]
1. Measurement of Blood Pressure

Indirect method: blood pressure is a good indicator of the status of cardiovascular system. Blood
pressure is usually measured by means of an indirect method using sphygmomanometer
(meaning pulse manometer). It does not provide a continuous recording of pressure
variations. Only systolic and diastolic arterial pressure readings can be obtained with no
indication of the details of pressure wave form.
Direct measurements: Regardless of electrical or physical principles involved, direct
measurement of blood pressure is usually obtained by one of the 3 methods:
A. Percutaneous insertion
B. Catheterization (vessel cut down )
C. Implantation of a transducer in a vessel or in the heart
Specific Direct Measurement Techniques
(A) A catheterization method involvesthe sensing of blood pressure through a liquid column. In
this method the transducer is external to the body and blood pressure is transmitted
through a saline solution column in a catheter to this transducer. This method can use either
an unbounded resistance strain gauge to sense the pressure or a linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT)
(B) A catheterization method involving the placement of the transducer through a catheter at
the actual site of measurement in the blood stream (e.g., to the aorta ) or by mounting the
transducer on the tip of the catheter.
(C) Percutaneous methods in which the blood pressure is sensed in the vessel just under the
skin by the use of a needle or a catheter.
2. Measurement of Blood Volume
The instrument consists of a rigid cup or chamber placed over the limb in which volume changes
are to be measured. The cup is tightly sealed to the member so that volume changes in the limb
reflect as pressure changes inside the chamber. Fluid or air can be used to fill the chamber.
Plethysmographs may be designed for constant pressure or constant volume within the
chamber. A pressure or displacement transducer must be included to respond to pressure
changes within the chamber and to provide a signal that can be calibrated to represent the
volume of the limb. The baseline pressure can be calibrated by using a calibrating syringe.
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AOB
3. Measurement of Heart Sounds

The stethoscope (sthethos in Greek means chest) is a device that carries sound energy from the
chest of the patient to the ear of the physician via a column of air. The familiar configuration of
stethoscope has 2 ear pieces connected to common bell or chest piece. The system is purely
except that might occur through resonance.
A graphic record of heat sounds is called a phonocardiogram. The instrument used for recording
is called a phonocardiograph.
Chemical Tests: Blood serum is a complex fluid that contains several substances in solution. The
determination of the concentration of these substances is performed by chemical methods. Most
tests are based on chemical colour reaction followed by colorimetric determination of the
concentration. Many chemical compounds in solution appear coloured with the saturation of the
colour depending on the concentration of the compound.
Transmittance, T =
100 percent.
If a second Cuvette with the same solution were brought into the light path behind the first
Cuvette, only a similar portion of the light entering this Cuvette would be transmitted. The light
intensity I behind the second Cuvette is
I
=TI
or I
= T2 I
The light transmitted through successive cuvettes decreases in the same manner. It is
advantageous to express transmittance in logarithmic scale. This logarithmic measure is
absorbance or optical density, A.
A = log
or A = log
The total absorbance of the two cuvettes is therefore, the sum of the individual absorbances.
The amount of light absorbed depends only on the number of molecules of the absorbing
substance which can interact with light. If, instead of two cuvettes each with path length L, one
cuvette with path length 2L were used, the absorbance is also the same if the cuvette has path
length L but concentration of the solution were doubled.
ie,
aC
Beers aw)
where L = path length of cuvette

C = concentration of absorbing substance
a = absorbtivity, a factor which depends on the absorbing substance and the optical
wave length at which measurement is made.
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Principles of Computer Assisted Tomography

A high acclaimed application of the digital computer to clinical medicine is computerized Axial
Tomography (CAT). This procedure, which combines X-ray imaging with computer techniques,
permits visualization of internal organs the body structures with greater definition and clarity
than could ever be attained by conventional methods. Although X-rays have been in use since
their discovery in 1895 and the reconstruction methods used in axial tomography date back to
1917, a practical combination of these techniques could not be achieved until the availability of
the modern computer.
The basic principles involved in conventional X-ray imaging are that the X-ray photograph is
literally a shadow of all organs and structures in the path of the rays. If two radiopaque objects
lie, one behind the others, in the X-ray path, as shown in Figure 1, the smaller of the two may be
completely hidden by the larger. To partially circumvent this problem, a method of lines
tomography was developed in which the X-ray source and film are simultaneously moved in
opposite directions, as shown in Figure 2, for any given combination of source and film
velocities, there will be one single plane perpendicular to the path of the rays in which objects
will appear to remain stationary with respect to the film during the movement. In contrast, the
shadows of objects at all other distances from the source will move on the film and produce a
blur. In figure 2, the sphere lies in the plane that appears stationary, whereas the cube does not.
The shadow of the sphere is therefore reinforced as the X-ray vantage point is changed.
Film
X ray source
Conventional X-ray imaging of two object, one behind the other.
Film
X ray source
Linear tomography, X-ray source and film move simultaneously in opposite directions. Plane, in
which small sphere lies, appears stationary on film.
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Transducers
Part 10: Transducers

10.1: Classification of Transducers
An instrument may be defined as a device or a system which is designed to maintain a functional
relationship between prescribed properties of physical variables and must include ways and
means of communication to a human observer.
Generalized Measurement System
Primary sensing element The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the
primary sensing element of a measurement system
Quantity
to be
measured
Variable
conversion
element
Primary
sensing
element
Variable conversion
element
Variable manipulation
element
Data preserving
element
Variable
manipulatio
n element
Data
transmissio
n element
Variable
presentatio
n element
The output of the primary sensing element is converted to some

other suitable form for the instrument to perform desired function
The function of this element is to manipulate the signal presented to
it preserving the original nature of the signal.
This element conveys the information about the quantity under
measurement to the personnel handling the instrument or the system
for monitoring, control & analysis purposes.
We can define Transducer as a device which, accurately transforms energy from one form to
another.
Another name for Transducer is PICK UP.
Classification of Transducers
The transducers can be classified as:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Based upon transduction principle

Primary and secondary transducers
Passive and active transducers
Analog and digital transducers
Transducers and inverse transducers
(i) Based upon Transduction Principle

The transducers can be classified on the basis of principle of transduction as resistive, inductive,
capacitive etc., depending upon how they convert the input quantity into resistance, inductance
or capacitance respectively.
(ii) Primary and Secondary Transducers
The first transducer which converts physical phenomenon into displacement, pressure, velocity
etc. which is to be accepted by next stage is known as Primary Transducer.
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Transducers
The output of the primary transducer is converted subsequently into a usable output by a device
called Secondary Transducer
(iii) Passive and Active Transducers
Passive transducers: They derive the power required for transduction from an auxillary power
source.
Eg: Resistive, inductive and capacitive transducers.
Active transducers: They do not require an auxillary power source to produce their output. They
are also known as self generating type since they develop their own voltage or current output.
Eg: piezoelectric, photovoltaic etc
(iv) Analog and digital Transducers
Analog transducers: These Transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which
is a continuous function of time.
Eg: LVDT, thermocouple etc.
Digital Transducers: These transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical output
which is in the form of pulses.
(v) Transducers & Inverse Transducers
Transducer: A transducer can be broadly defined as a device which converts a non electrical
quantity into an electrical quantity.
Example: L.V.D.T, Resistive and Capacitive Transducers as well.
Inverse transducer: An inverse transducer is defined as a device which converts an electrical
quantity into a non electrical quantity.
NOTE: Generally a Inverse Transducer is a output transducer.
Example: Indicating Instruments, Pen Recorders, Oscilloscope.
1. Input Characteristics
1.A Type of Input and operating Range
1. The type of input, which can be any physical quantity, is generally determined in advanced a
physical quantity may be measured through use of a number of transducers.
2. However the choice of a particular transducer that is selected for the purpose, depends upon
the useful range of selected quantity over which the transducer can be used.
1.B Loading Effects
1. The transducer, that is selected for a particular application should ideally extract no force,
power or energy from the quantity under measurement in order that the latter is measured
accurately.
2. Ideally a transducer should have no loading effect on the input quantity being measured.
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Transducers
2. Transfer Characteristics
2.A Transfer Function
1. The transfer function of a transducer defines a relationship between the input quantity
and the output.
2. The Sensitivity of a transducer is defined as the differential Quotient,
S=
3. The Scale Factor is defined as the inverse of Sensitivity,
=
2.B Error
The errors in transducers occur because they do not follow, in many situations the input
output relationship given by q = f(q ). Any deviation from above mentioned relationship
results in errors.
3. Output Characteristics
3.A Type of Electrical Output
The types of outputs which may be available from the transducers may be a voltage, current,
impedance or a time function of these amplitudes.
3.B Output Impedance
The output impedance
of a transducer determines to the extent the subsequent stages of
instrumentation is loaded.
Constant Voltage Source
If the output Impedance is low compared to the forward Impedance of the System, then the
transducer has the characteristics of a constant voltage Source. Provided the output of the
transducer is a voltage.
Constant Current Source
If the forward Impedance is High as compared with the output impedance of the transducer, it
then behaves as a Constant Current Source.
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Transducers
10.2: Resistive Transducers

Introduction
It is generally seen that methods which involve the measurement of change in resistance are
preferred to those employing other principles.
This is because both alternating as well as direct currents and voltage are suitable for
resistance measurements.
Effect
1. Change in length
2. Change in length
and area of cross
section
3. Change in
resistivity
As a primary transducer
Linear and angular
displacements,
thickness
Temperature, pressure, weight, force, fluid

flow rate, viscosity, velocity, acceleration
and altitude of vehicles in space
High pressure strain
All the above quantities except velocity

and altitude
Temperature
Thermal conductivity, gas composition,

fluid flow rate, wind velocity and
direction, low pressure and vacuum and
infrared radiation
Potentiometer
1. A resistance potentiometer, or simply a POT (a resistive potentiometer used for the purpose
of voltage division is called a POT) consists of a resistive element provided with a sliding
contact. This sliding contact is called a wiper.
2. The resistive element of the POT may be excited by either d.c. or a.c. voltage. The POT is a
Passive Transducer since it requires an external power source for its operation.
Analysis
i
Output device meter

e
wiper
Let ei and e0= input and output voltages respectively

xt= total length of translational pot
Page 243
Transducers
xi= displacement of wiper from its zero position

Rp= total resistance of potentiometer
Rm= resistance of a meter or a recording monitoring the output be Rm
RL=left over resistance
Resistance per unit length=
The total resistance seen by the source is:
R=
(1-K)+
=
Current, i = e /R
=
The output voltage under load condition is:
e = i(
=
Error = output voltage under load output voltage under no load
=
e K
= -e [
% error = -e [
Power Rating of Potentiometers

1. The potentiometers, are designed with a definite power rating which is related directly to
their heat dissipating capacity.
2. Since, Power = ei
, the maximum input excitation voltage that can be used is,
e
volts
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Transducers
Linearity and Sensitivity of POTs

1. In order to achieve a good linearity, the resistance of potentiometer , should be as low as
possible when using a meter for reading the output voltage which has a fixed value of input
resistance
.
2. In order to get a high sensitivity the output voltage e , Should be high which in turn requires
a high input voltage e .
3. The resistance of the potentiometer , cannot be made low because if we do so the power
dissipation goes up with the result that we have to make the input voltage small to keep the
power dissipation to the acceptable level. This results in lower sensitivity.
4. Thus linearity and sensitivity are therefore two conflicting requirements. If
is made small,
the linearity improves, but a lower value
requires a lower input voltage e in order to
keep down the power dissipation and a lower value of e results in a lower value of output
voltage e resulting in lower sensitivity.
Materials used for Potentiometers
1. The materials used for POTs may be classified as wire wound and Non wire wound.
a. Wire wound POTs
Platinum, Nickel, Chromium, Copper and some other precious
resistance elements.
b. Non wire wound POTs These are also called as continuous POTs and have improved
resolution and life. Cermet, Hot Moulded Carbon, Carbon film, Thin metal films are used.
Strain Gauge
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed its resistance changes on account of the fact that
both length and diameter of conductor changes.
Also there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this
property is called piezo resistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as
piezo resistive gauges.
Theory of Strain Gauges
Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire.
The wire has the dimensions,
Length =L
Area = A
Diameter = D before being strained.
The material of the wire has a resistivity .
esistance of unstrained gauge, R= L/A.
Page 245

L
Transducers
D-
Poissions ratio, v
=
= -v
+v
For small variations, the above relationship can be written as

=
+v
---------------------------- (4)
Gauge Factor
It is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length.
Gauge factor,
Or
strain
Dividing equation (1) with
we get
= 1 +2v +
= 1
2v
Resistance
Resistance
Resistance
Change due to
change due
change due
Change in
to change in
to piezoresistive
Length
area
effect
If the change in the value of resistivity of a material when strained is neglected, the gauge factor
is
= 1 + 2v
Types of Strain Gauges
1. Unbonded Metal Strain Gauges
2. Bonded Wire Strain Gauge
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauges
4. Diffused Strain Gauges
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Transducers
Resistance Thermometer
1. The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This property is
utilized for the measurement of temperature
2. The variation of resistance R with temperature T( K) can be represented by the following
relationship for most of the metals as
R=
T
T
------- T
Where
,
= resistance at temperature T = 0
------
are constants
Requirements of a conductor material to be used in RTD are as follows

1. The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature should be as large as
possible.
2. The material should have a high value of resistivity. So, that minimum volume of material
is used for the construction of RTD.
3. The resistance of materials should have a continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.
Linear Approximation
A linear approximation means that we may develop an equation for a straight line which
approximates the resistance versus temperature curve over a specified span.
10
9
8
Resistance
R( )
7
6
5
4
3
2
Temperature
1
0
20
60
40
80
100
120
The equation of this straight line is the linear approximation of the curve from
equation of the straight line is written as
=
C to
C. The
with
Where
= approximate resistance at
= approximate resistance at
C;
C;
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Transducers
= change in temperature; C
= Resistance temperature coefficients at temperature
The value of
above graph.
C;
can be found from the value of resistances and temperatures as shown in
(slope at
)=
Thermistors
1. Thermistor is a contraction of a term Thermal esistor. Thermistors are generally
composed of semiconductor materials.
2. Although positive temperature coefficients of units are available, most thermistors have a
negative coefficient of temperature resistance i.e. their resistance decreases with increase of
temperature.
Notes
1. Thermistors are widely used in applications which involves measurements in the range of
6 C to
5 C. The resistance of thermistor ranges from .5 to .75M.
2. Thermistor is a highly sensitive device. The price to be paid off for the high sensitivity is in
terms of linearity. The thermistor exhibits a highly non-linear characteristics of resistance
versus temperature.
Resistance Temperature Characteristics
The mathematical expression for the relationship b/w the resistance of a thermistor and
absolute temperature of thermistor is
exp * (
Where,
)+
Resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T ; K

Resistance of thermistor at absolute temperature T ; K
a constant depending upon the material of thermistor 35
to 45
Thermistor
Resistivity
m
Platinum
3
Temperature,
Page 248
Transducers
Voltage Current Characteristics

100
10
Voltage
(V)
1
0.1
Current (A)
1. Above graph shows that the voltage drop across a thermistor increases with increasing
current until is reaches a peak value beyond which the voltage drop decreases as the current
increases.
2. In this portion of the curve, the thermistor exhibits a negative resistance characteristics. If a
very small voltage is applied to the thermistor, the resulting small current does not produce
sufficient heat to raise the temperature of the thermistor above ambient.
3. The characteristics of self-heat provides an entirely new field of uses for the thermistor. In
the self heat state, the thermistor is sensitive to anything that changes the rate at which heat
is conducted away from it.
Current Time Characteristics
80
E = 70 V
70
60 V
60
Current (mA)
50 V
50
40 V
40
30 V
30
20
10
0
10
Time Sec
1. Above graph indicates the time delay to reach maximum current as a function of applied
voltage.
2. When the heating effect occurs in a thermistor network, a certain finite time is required for
the thermistor to heat and the current to build up to the maximum steady state value.
Page 249
Transducers
Thermocouples
In a thermocouple temperature measuring circuit, the emf is measured by sending a current
through a moving coil instrument, the deflection being directly proportational to the emf. Since
emf is a function of temperature difference
, the instrument can be calibrated to read the
temperature.
The emf produced in a thermocouple circuit is given by:
E=a
Where,
= difference in temperature between the hot thermocouple junction and the
reference junction of thermocouple; and a, b = constants.
a is usually very large as compared with b and therefore emf of thermocouple is
E=a
or
a
c
Iron Lead
Iron
Copper
Lead
Constantan
Constantan
Lead
PMMC
Temperature controlled
Junction Box.
Note: It should be borne in mind that the thermocouples are active transducers unlike RTD and
thermistors which are passive transducers.
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Transducers
10.3: Inductive Transducers

Introduction
The variable inductance transducers work, generally upon one of the following three principles:
1. Change of Self Inductance
2. Change of Mutual Inductance
3. Production of Eddy Currents
Transducers Working on Principle of Change of Self Inductance
The self inductance of a coil L =
--------- (1)
Where N = number of turns

R = Reluctance of magnetic circuit.
The reluctance of magnetic circuit is given by
R=
------------- (2)
L=
( )
------------ (3)
Where = effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil ; H/m
G = = Geometric form factor
A = Area of cross section of coil m
= length of coil; m
It is clear from the above equations that the variation in inductance can be caused by
(a) Change in Number of Turns ; N
(b) Change in Geometric Configurations ; G
(c) Change in Permeability ;
Inductive transducers are mainly used for measurement of displacement. The displacement to
be measured is arranged to cause variation of any of three variables mentioned above and thus
alter the self inductance L by L.
Differential Output
1. The change in self inductance L is adequate for detection for subsequent stages of
instrumentation system. However, if the succeeding instrumentation responds to L, rather
than to L + L the sensitivity and accuracy will be much higher.
2. The succeeding stages of instrumentation system measures the difference between these
outputs i.e. 2 L. This is known as the differential output.
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Transducers
Transducers Working on Principle of Change of Mutual Inductance

1. An inductive transducer working on the principle variation of mutual inductance uses
multiple coils. The mutual inductance between two coils is
M = K
Where & = Self inductances of two coils
K = Coefficient of coupling.
2. The self inductance of such an arrangement varies between
M to
M
with one of the coils being stationary while the other is movable.
Transducers Working on Principle of Production of Eddy Currents
1. These inductive transducers work on the principle that, if a conducting plate is placed near
the coil carrying alternating current, eddy currents are produced in the conducting plate.
2. The conducting plate acts as a short-circuited secondary winding of a transformer. The eddy
currents flowing in the plate produce a magnetic field of their own which acts against the
magnetic field produced by the coil.
F
Plate
Linear Variable Differential Transformer(L.V.D.T)

1. The most widely used inductive transducer to translate linear motion into electrical signals
is the L.V.D.T. The transformer consists of a single primary winding P and two secondary
windings S and S wound on a cylindrical former.
2. The assembly is placed in a stainless steel housing and the end lids provide electrostatic and
electromagnetic shielding. The frequency of a.c. applied to primary windings may be
between 50Hz to 20 kHz.
Working
1. Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source it produces an
alternating magnetic field which in turn induces alternating current voltages in the two
secondary windings.
2. The output voltage of secondary S is
and that of secondary S is
. In order to convert
the outputs from S and S into a single voltage signal, the two secondaries S and S are
connected in Series Opposition.
3. Thus the output voltage of the transducers is the difference of the two voltages.
Differential output voltage
Page 252
Transducers
A.C Excitation
A.c Excitation
1A
Primary winding
Primary
winding
Arm
Core
Core
Displacement
L3
1mH
L4
1mH
Displacement
L5
1mH
L6
1mH
E0
Sec windings
Differentional output E0
(Circuits of L.V.D.T)
Different Cases
1. By comparing the magnitude and phase of the output (differential) voltage with that of the
source, the amount and direction of the movement of the core and hence of displacement
may be determined.
2. The output voltage of an LVDT is a linear function of core displacement within a limited
range of motion typically 5mm from null position.
Output voltage,
Linear range
8
Residual voltage
B
0
Displacement
(Variation of output voltage with linear displacement for LVDT.)

Rotary variable Differential Transformer (RVDT):
Page 253
Transducers
A variation of linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) which can be used to sense
angular displacement is rotary variable Differential Transformer (RVDT).
Clockwise rotation produces an increasing voltage of a secondary winding of one phase
while counter-clockwise rotation produces an increasing voltage of opposite phase.
Hence, the amount of angular displacement and its direction may be ascertained from the
magnitude and phase of the output voltage of the transducer.
Synchros
A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer which is commonly used to convert the angular
position of the shaft into an electric signal
There are two types of synchro systems.

(i) control or error type of synchro systems
(ii) Torque transmission type
Resolvers
Resolvers are used for conversion of angular position of a shaft into Cartesian coordinates.
The output of the transducer is in form of two signals, one proportional to the sine of the
angle and the other proportional to cosine of the angle.
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Transducers
10.4: Capacitive Transducers

The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the familiar equation for
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
Capacitance C = A/D
=
A/D
Where A= overlapping area of plates
=
= permittivity of medium
= relative permittivity
= permittivity of free space
The capacitive transducer works on the principle of change of capacitance which may be caused
by:
(i) Change in overlapping area A
(ii) Change in distance d between the plates
(iii) Change in dielectric constant
Change in area of plates
The equation for capacitance, C = A/D =
A/D
The capacitance is directly proportional to the area A of the plates
Thus the capacitance changes linearly with change in area of the plates
The elementary of two types of capacitive transducers are shown in the following figures.
For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitor is C= A/D = x W/d
Where x= length of overlapping part of plates
W=width of overlapping part of plates
Sensitivity s= =
F/M
This is suitable for measurement of linear displacement ranging form 1 mm to 100 mm
Accuracy is as high as 0.005%
For a cylindrical capacitor, the capacitance is c =
Where x= length of overlapping part of cylinders

D2=inner diameter of outer cylinder electrode
D1=outer diameter of inner cylinder electrode
Sensitivity s =
F/m
Measurement of Angular Displacement

One plate is fixed and other is movable
Page 255
Transducers
The angular displacement to be measured is applied to the movable plate which changes the
effective area b/w the plates and thus changes the capacitance.
Maximum value of capacitance c
Capacitance at an angle is c =
Where isangular displacement in radian
Sensitivity s =
The variation of capacitance with angular displacement is linear.

Change in Distance Between the Plates
The following figure shows the basic form of a capacitive transducer utilizing the effect of
change of capacitance with change in distance between the two plates.
Fixed
plate
D
Moving
plate
Displacement capacitance
displacement
One plate is fixed plate and the displacement to be measured is applied to the other plate which
is movable.
The capacitance C, varies inversely as the distanced between the plates, the response of the
transducer is non-linear.
Sensitivity s =
Differential Arrangement
Mainly used to obtain linear characteristics of capacitive displacement transducers
The following figure shows a differential arrangement of capacitors.
Page 256
Transducers
Fixed plate P
C 1, E 1
Movable
plate,M
C 2, E 2
Fixed plate p2
This arrangement uses three plates

P1 and P2 are fixed plates and m is the movable plate to which the displacement to be measured
is applied.
Thus we have two capacitors whose differential output is taken.
Let the capacitance of these capacitors be C1 and C2 respectively.
Differential output voltage = E =
=
=
= E
The output voltage varies linearly as the displacement X.
Sensitivity S =
This method can be used for displacements of
mm to 10 mm.
Accuracy is 0.1%
Variation of Dielectric Constant for Measurement of Displacement
The following figure shows a capacitive transducer using the principle of change in dielectric
constant for measurement of displacement.
Page 257
Transducers
Top plate
Displacemen
t x
Bottom plate
It has a dielectric of relative permittivity

Initial capacitance of transducer = c
Change in capacitance, C =
Change in capacitance is proportional to displacement.
Variation of Dielectric Constant for Measurement of Liquid Level
The electrodes are two concentric cylinders and the non-conducting liquid acts as the dielectric.
At the lower end of the outer cylinder there are holes which allow passage of liquid and if these
holes are small, they provide mechanical damping of the surface variation.
c
a
2t
Tank
2, h2
r2
Vapours
Cylindrical
electrodes
h
1, h1
Liquid
r1
The value of capacitance for this capacitor is,

C
-------- (1)
Where h1 = height of liquid

h2 = height of cylinder above liquid
Page 258
Transducers
= relative permittivity of liquid

= relative permittivity of vapour above liquid
r1 = inside radius of outer cylinder
r2 = outside radius of inner cylinder
= permittivity of free space
Equation (1) is based on the assumption
h2 >> r2 and r2 >> r2 r1 >> a
Now r2 = r + a and r1 = r.
C
Page 259
Transducers
10.5: Piezo Electric Transducers

Introduction
1. A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces
of a crystal if the dimension of the crystal are changed by the application of a mechanical
force.
2. The materials that exhibit a significant and useful piezoelectric effect are divided into two
categories
(a) Natural Group Quartz and Rochelle salt
(b) Synthetic Group Lithium Sulphate, Dipotassium tartarate, ethylene diamine tartarte,
potassium dihydrogen phosphate, Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate.
Synthetic or artificial crystals, they themselves do not posses the piezo-electric property. By
applying high voltages across the electrodes heating to higher temperature and slow cooling
induces the property.
With synthetic crystals, if the temperature is more than a threshold value called curie-point the
property is lost.
Properties of crystal depends on
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Cutting of the crystal

Thickness of the crystal
Dimensions of the plate and
Means of mountiny
The piezo-electric effect can be made to respond to mechanical deformations of the material in
many different modes.
The modes can be
Thickness expansion
Transitive expansion
Thickness shear and
Face shear
Mathematical Analysis
Mechanical deformation generates a charge and a change appears as a voltage across the
electrode.
The voltage is E = Q / C
The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity
while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity.
Youngs modulus,
stress stain
Page 260
Transducers
N/ m2 ----------------- (3)
Area A = wl
Where w = width of the crystal
l = length of crystal
From equations (1) and (2) we have
Charges Q = dAE ( t / t) ------------------------- (4)
The charge at the electrodes gives rise to an output voltage E0
Voltage, E0 = Q / CP ---------------------------------- (5)
where CP = capacitance between electrodes
=
At ----------------------------- (6)
From equations (1), (5) and (6)
E0 =
=
---------------- (7)
But F / A = P = pressure or stress

E0 =
-------------------------------- (8)
= gtp --------------------------------- (9)

where g = d /
----------------------------------- (10)
g is the voltage sensitivity of the crystal.
Now
g=
--------------------------------- (11)
But E0 / t = electric field strength
Let = E0 / t
g = electric field / stress
= / P ------------------------------------------------ (12)
Charge sensitivity d =
g -------------------------- (13)
Equivalent Circuit of Piezo-Electric Transducers
The basic equivalent circuit of a piezo-electric transducer is shown in the following figure
CP
RP Output
The source is charge generator.

The value of the charge is Q = dF
Page 261
Transducers
The charge generated is across the capacitance CP of the crystal and its leakage resistance RP.
The charge generator can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source having a voltage of
E0 =
In series with a capacitance, CP and resistance RP.
The circuit is shown in the following figure.
CP
RP
Output
Loading Effects and Frequency Response

Let the transducer be loaded by a capacitance CL and resistance RL. The capacitance CL is the
combination of the capacitance of the cable and the stray capacitance.
The following figure shows the load connected to a piezo-electric transducer.
CP
RP
E0
CL
RL
Output, EL
The value of load resistance RL is considerably smaller than RP and hence equivalent circuit of
the piezo-electric crystal under load conditions is shown in the following figure.
CP
E0
RL
CL
Output EL
The magnitude of voltage across the load is
Page 262
EL = [
=
= dF [
Transducers
as
At medium and high frequencies

2 (CP + CL)2 RL2 >> 1
EL =
Frequency Response Analysis:
Charge produced q = Kq xi
where Kq = sensitivity
xi = displacement
The following figure shows the equivalent circuit.
Charge
generator q
= Kqxi
RP
CP
CC
CA
RA
eL
Where RP = leakage resistance of transducer

CP = capacitance of transducer
CC = capacitance of cable
CA = capacitance of amplifier
RA = Resistance of amplifier
The charge generator is converted into constant current generator. This is shown in the
following figure.
Page 263
iC
Current
generator iCR
Sinusoidal transfer function

The amplitude ratio is: M = |
=
=
iP
Transducers
eL
j
j |
Phase shift
tan-1
At high frequencies > >

M = 1 and
=0
Frequency sensitivity K = eL / xi
Page 264
Transducers
10.6: Mechanical Transducers in Instrumentation
Introduction
1. In order to extract information from mechanical systems, only mechanical displacement or
velocity can be used, and therefore the importance of mechanical sensing elements is
obvious.
2. Some of the commonly used mechanical sensing elements are springs which converts a
force or a toque into a displacement ; a diaphragm, a capsule, bellows or Bourdon tube
which convert pressure into a displacement, a bimetallic strip converts temperature into a
displacement; a mass damper system is used for measurement of acceleration, velocity and
displacement.
TYPE
A. Contacting spindle, pin or finger
B. Elastic Member
1. Prooving Ring
2. Bourdon Tube
3. Bellows
4. Diaphragm
5. Spring
C. Mass
1. Seismic Mass
2. Pendulum Scale
3. Manometer
OPERATION
Displacement to displacement
Force to displacement
Pressure to displacement
Forcing function to displacement

. Thermal
1. Thermocouple
2. Bimetallic
3. Tempperature stik
Temperature to electric current

Temperature to displacement
Temperature to phase
E. Hydro pneumatic
1. Static
Page 265
(a) Float
(b) Hydrometer
Transducers
Fluid level to displacement

Specific gravity to displacement.
2. Dynamic
(a) Orifice
(b) Venturi
(c) Pitot tube
(d) Vanes
(e) Turbines
Velocity to Pressure
Velocity to Force
Linear to Angular velocity.
Cantilever
F
x
t
Deflection at the free end
F
x
Where F = applied force ; N,

d
l = lenght of cantilever ; m.
E = modulus of elasticity ;
m
I = moment of intertia = ( ) bt
b = width of cantilever ; m
t = thickness of cantilever ; m
Stiffness of cantilever K = F/x =
F
D
Page 266
Transducers
Helical Spring
Displacement of spring:
Where F = applied force ; N

D = mean diameter of coiled spring ; m
d = diameter of spring wire ; m
n = number of wires
G = shear modulus ;
Stiffness of spring K = F/x

=
Maximum shear stress,
Spiral Sprin
The deflection of the spring is:
rad
Where E = modules of Elasticity; N/m
b = width of spring ; m
t = thickness of spring ; m
l = length of spring ; m
T = Torque ; Nm
Stiffness of spring K =
Maximum fibre stress
= N/
Spiral springs are used for production of controlling Torque in Analog instruments.
Torsion Bars or Shafts
1. They are made use of in Torque meters. The deflection or Twist of the bar is proportional to
the applied Torque and the deformation is used as a measure of the Toque.
Angle of Twist:rad
Page 267
Where,
Transducers
T = applied Torque ; Nm
G = shear modulus ; N/m
d = diameter of bar ; m
Prooving Ring
1. They are used for measurement of force, weight or load. The applied force causes a
deflection which is measured with the help of electrical transducers.
2. The deflection is given by
)
F
d = outside ring diameter; m
Bourdon Tube
Pointer
100
0
Bourdon tube
Tip (Sealed end)

Link
Geared Sector
Pinion
Socket
Pressure, P
1. The Bourdon tubes are designed in various forms. They are as follows :(a) C type.
(c) Twisted tube type.
(b) Spiral type.
(d) Helical type.
C- TYPE: The C type of Bourdon element is most commonly used for Local indication but it is also
used for pressure transmission and control applications. The tube which is oval in section is
formed into on arc of 250 and hence the name C type.
The displacement of tip is,
.
()
()
()
Page 268
Transducers
Where E = modules of Elasticity ; N/m

P = applied pressure ; N/m
Bellows
Pressure, P
b
Bellows
100
Pointer
Calibrated
Scale
1. A metallic bellows is a series of circular parts resembling the folds in an accordion. These
parts are formed or joined in such a manner that they are expanded or contracted axially by
changes in pressure.
2. The displacement of Bellow element is given by :.
d=
where P = Pressure, N/m
b = radius of each corrugation ; m
n = number of semicircular corrugation
t = thickness of wall; m
D = mean diameter ; m
E = modulus of Elasticity ; N/m .
V Poissons ratio.
Diaphragms
1. The operating principle of diaphragm elements is similar to that of the bellows. The pressure
to be measured is applied to the diaphragm, causing it to deflect, the deflection being
proportional to the applied pressure. The movement of the diaphragm depends on its
thickness and diameter. The movement is small and hence a diaphragm element does not
require any springs as is the case in Bellows.
2. The diaphragms are of two types:(a) Flat type
Page 269
Transducers
(b) Corrugated type

diaphragm
P
t
dr
dm
R
D
r
Pressure, P =
N/
Where
Youngs Modulus;
N/m
t = Thickness of diaphragm; m
= diameter of diaphragm; m
R = Radius of diaphragm; m
V = Poissons ratio
dm = deflection at the center of diaphragm ; m
The above relationship between pressure, P and the deflection at the centre, dm is linear. But
linearity holds good as long as dm 0.5t and not otherwise.
The deflection at the center is :
dm =
Maximum stress at the circumference

Sm =
N/
Page 270
Transducers
10.7: Measurement of Non Electrical Quantities
1. Measurement of Strain
Ballast Circuit
Ballast
Resistance
input
voltage,
Capacitor
Strain
gauge
Output
voltage,
Maximum sensitivity is obtained when the ballast resistance is equal to the strained resistance
of the gauge or
Change in output voltage when the gauge is strained
Gauge sensitivity
Strain
gauge
Strain
gauge,
Output of bridge = K
Gauge sensitivity
Sg =
=
, where. K = scale factor of
indicator
=K
When
=
and
=
Gauge Sensitivity Sg = K
Page 271
Transducers
Now if
=
=
=
=R
The output voltage from the bridge is
e =
e =
Use of Dummy Gauge
Test Specimen
Gauge 3
(Dummy
Gauge )
Gauge 1
(Active Gauge)
Hence for balance,

or
)=(
or
+
But
Suppose
. This requires that
Use of two Active gauges in Adjacent Arms

b
Gauge
(tension)
Gauge
=R
a
(Compression)
change in output voltage when strain applied is,
=R
. .
Page 272
e =
e -
Transducers
Thus, the output voltage from a half bridge is twice that from a Quarter Bridge and therefore the
sensitivity is doubled and in addition temperature effects are cancelled.
Sensitivity
Sg = 2K
Use of Four Active Gauges

b
c
a
(Compression)
Change in output voltage

Gauge Sensitivity
Sg = 4K
Measurement of Low Pressure (Vacuum Gauges)

Thermocouple Vacuum Gauge
Moving coil mV meter
Thermocouple
Vacuum
Heater element
Metal or glass envelope
A
Page 273
Transducers
Principle: At low pressures the Thermal conductivity of a gas is a function of pressure.

Pirani Gauge
Vacuum
Heater
element
Pirani
gauge
Milli- ammeter
Bridge
1. The operation of pirani gauge depends on variation of the thermal conductivity of a gas with
pressure.
2. Pirani gauge is useful for pressures ranging from
to
mm of Hg.
Ionization Type Vacuum Gauge
Meter
Vacuum
I
Plate
Meter
I
Grid
Heated Cathode
1. Ionization may be produced by the collision of a high speed electron from the atom.
Electrons are emitted from heated cathode using a filament and are accelerated towards the
grid, which is positively charged.
It is found that, the pressure of the gas is proportional to ratio of plate to grid current.
Page 274
Transducers
P=
Where S = constant of proportionality.
Pressure range
to
mm of Hg.
Measurement of Linear Velocity

The electromagnetic transducers are generally classified into two categories:
1. Moving Magnet Type.

2. Moving Coil Type.
1. Moving Magnet Type
Velocity
Magnet
N
Coil
S
Air gap
O/P
The polarity of the output voltage determines the direction of motion. The sensitivity of this
transducer is stated in terms of mV mm sec
Measurement of Angular velocity
Electromagnetic Tachometer Generators:
1. D.C. Tachometer generators.
2. A.C. Tachometer generators.
3. Drag Cup Rotor A.C. Tachometer generators.
Digital Methods
Types:
1. Photo electric type.
2. Inductive type.
Page 275
Transducers
1. Photo Electric Type

Light Source
Light Sensor
To electric counter
Shaft
1. The frequency at which these pulses are produced depends upon the number of holes in
the disc and its speed of rotation.
2. Since, the number of holes are fixed, the pulse rate is a function of speed of rotation.
Toothed Rotor Variable Reluctance Tachometer:
Magnetic
Pick Up
Electronic
Counter
Toothed Rotor
(i) The frequency of pulses of induced voltage will depend upon the number of teeth of
rotor and its speed of rotation.
Since the number of teeth is known, the speed of rotation can be determined by
measuring the frequency of pulses with an electronic counter.
(ii) Suppose the rotor has T teeth, the speed of rotation is n rps, and number of pulses per
second is P.
Number of pulses per revolution = T
ence, Speed
n=
rps
Stroboscope
It is a simple, portable manually operated device which may be used for measurement of
periodic or rotary motions. Basically, the instrument is a source of variable frequency flashing
brilliant light, the flashing frequency being set by operation.
Page 276
Transducers
Shaft Speed Measurement

D
A
Marks
Shaft
Shaft
B
n = f/2
n = f/3
Six Marks
1. The flashing frequency is adjusted until the mark appears to be stationary. Under these
conductance the speed is equal to the flashing frequency provided that the approximate
speed of the shaft provided that the approximate speed of the shaft is known is advance.
When the disc appears to be stationary, the speed of rotating machine is given by
f m
Where f = Number of flashes per second.

m = Number of point marks.
The value of exact speed may be found out as: Single line images is obtained by adjusting the
stroboscope at its highest flashing frequency. The flashing rate is gradually reduced and the
flashing frequencies are noted for all single line images. If single line images are obtained at m
different flashing rates f , f , - - - - - - - - f the shaft speed is given by
f f m
f
f
Where, f = Highest flashing frequency.
f = Lowest flashing frequency.
m = Number of flashing frequencies.
Page 277
Transducers
Measurement of Vibrations
Most vibrations are sinusoidal displacement of the vibrating member about its mean position. A
vibration of this nature may be defined by its amplitude and frequency.
Seismic accelerometer:
x
B
Damper
Sesimic
Mass M
Displacement
Transducers
Housing
Spring
Work Piece
x
cos t
Mechanical System For Sesimic

Transducer
Schematic Figure of Sesimic Accelerometer
But natural frequency
And damping ratio
K M rad sec
K M
u = normalized frequency =
where the phase angle may be written as
tan
) rad
Measurement of Flow
By measuring the difference in pressure before and after the obstruction by means of a
differential pressure sensor, the rate of flow may be determined. They are infact mechanical
means of measuring liquid flow. Examples
(a) Orifice plate
(b) Venturi tube
(c) Rotameter
Page 278
Transducers
Electro Magnetic Flow Meters

The pipe is surrounded by an electromagnet which produces a magnetic field. The arrangement
is analogous to a conductor moving across a magnetic field. Therefore, voltage is induced across
the electrodes. This voltage is given by E = Blv
Where B = flux x density; Wb/m
l = length of conductor = diameter of pipe
v = velocity of conductor (flow); m/sec
Hot Wire Anemometers
Heater
wire
Flow
Pipe
To
Potentiometer
Standard
Resistor
Battery
1. The current is measured by finding the voltage drop across the standard resistor
connected in series with the heating wire. The voltage drop is found by using a
potentiometer.
2. It can be shown that the loss of heat from the heated wire is:
=a
V.
J/sec
Where V = Velocity of heat flow,
density of fluid a and b are constants.
Constants a and b depend upon dimensions and physical properties of wire and fluid.
Page 279
Transducers
3. Now supposing a current I flows through the wire having a resistance R. therefore under
equilibrium conditions.
Heat generated = Heat lost or I
a V.
b
Or V =
Thus, if the resistance and the temperature of the wire are kept constant, the rate of fluid flow
can be measured by measuring current, I through the heater wire.
Ultrasonic Flow Transducers
Basically an ultrasonic transducer for flow rate consists of two piezo electric crystals in the
liquid or gas separated by a distance. One of the crystal acts as a transmitter and the other as a
receiver.
T
iezoelectric
Crystals
The difference in transit time is,
t=t
- - - - - - - - - (5)
This is measured by a phase sensitive detector driven synchronously with the commentator,
usually C>>V.
t=
- - - - - - - - - - (6)
Hence, time t is linearly preoperational to flow velocity V. This system, through gives a linear
relationship, is subjected to an error on account of uncertainty of the value of C.
Amplifier
Amplifier
Page 280
Transducers
A system based on frequency may be evolved. Above figure shows two self excited oscillating
systems created because of using the received pulses to trigger the transmitted pulses in
feedback arrangement. The pulse repetition frequency in the forward propagation loop is ,
while that in the backward loop is t .
Hence difference in frequency,
f=f
- - - - - - - - - (7)
Above equation shows that the output is independent of C, and is therefore not subjected to
errors on account of errors involved in the value of C.
Measurement of Humidity
Hygrometers: A Hygrometer measures the value of humidity directly. Generally, the output of
hygrometer is used to indicate relative humidity. Several materials exhibit changes in electrical
properties that are caused by humidity. These are frequently used in transducers that are
designed and calibrated to read relative humidity directly.
1.
Resistive Hygrometer
Electrodes
Base
Conducing
Film
Base
Some Hygroscopic salts exhibits a change in resistivity with humidity. The most common is
lithium chloride, resistance is measured either with a wheat stone bridge or by a combination of
current and voltage measurements.
2. Aluminium Oxide Hygrometer
Page 281
Transducers
Outer electrode
(Gold Layer).
Oxide
Pore
Pore Side
Pore
Base
Inner electrode
Aluminium
The aluminium oxide coating on anodized aluminium exhibits a change in dielectric constant
and a change in resistivity with a change in humidity. A hygrometer that uses this is built by
using the base aluminium as one electrode and depositing a very thin electrode usually gold
on the opposite side of the oxide.
Crystal Hygrometer
Hygroscopic coating
Electrodes
Quartz Crystal
Some crystals are hygroscopic and others may be coated with a hygroscopic material. The
coating materials are hygroscopic polymers. The crystals are used as frequency determination
elements in electronic oscillators.
Measurement of PH Value
1. The dissociation constant is the product of hydrogen( ) ions and hydroxyl ions (0 ) and
this product is always equal to
.
2. Hydrogen ion concentration is measured on a scale called PH scale. PH value of a solution is
defined as the negative logarithm of the Hydrogen ion concentration or
PH = log
This scale ranges from 0 to 14.
Page 282
Transducers
Nuclear Instrumentation
1.
Geiger Muller Tube

Cathode
Window
Glass Envelope
Nuclear
Radiation
Anode
Output
Battery
1. Geiger Muller Tube is frequently used for detection and measurement of alpha, beta and
gamma rays. This tube is a diode consisting of a cathode which is a long metal cylinder
and a anode which is a fine wire running through the centre of the cylinder.
2. By counting the number of pulses, we can know the number of particles entering the
tube in a particular interval of time. The number counted gives the intensity of radiation.
The pulses may be stored in some cases and the total count may be calibrated directly in
terms of radio activity. The counting rate of this tube is seldom greater than
counts
per second.
2. Ionization Chamber
Rod (Central
electrode)
Window
Insulation
Radiation
R
Metal Cylinder
(outer electrode
OUTPUT
Battery
1. This is quite similar to the Geiger Muller tube. The ionization chamber is a metal cylinder
(the outer electrode) sealed at one end by a window. The other end of the cylinder is
closed, and a metal rod (the centre electrode) protrudes outside the cylinder on this end.
2. Since the increase in this potential is a function of the number of radiation particles that
have entered the chamber, the intensity of the nuclear radiation may be determined. The
main use of this chamber, is to detect and measure alpha particle.
Scintillation Counters
Page 283
Transducers
Time Aluminum
Housing
Photomultiplier
Tube
Radiation
Scintillation
Crystals
Certain crystals such as Zinc Sulphide, Sodium iodide, Anthracene and Naphthalene etc, produce
a brief flash of light each time they are struck by an alpha or beta or gamma particles. The
production of a flash of light by striking the crystals mentioned above, with alpha or beta or
gamma says is called scintillation.
Page 284
Process Control
Part 11: Process Control

11.1: Introduction, Building blocks of Process control
Block Diagram of a Control System
Controller Block
Set Point
Automatic
Controller
Final Control
Element
Process
Output
Measurement
Terminology
Process: It is an environment where a particular variable is measured, monitored and controlled.
Process Variables: They are
(a) Controlled variable (or) dynamic variable.
(b) Manipulating variables
(c) Load variables
Controlled (or) Dynamic Variable: It is the variable which is measured, monitored and controlled.
Ex: Level in the tank is an example of controlled variable.
Manipulated Variable: It is the variable which is manipulated to make the controlled variable
remain at set point value.
Ex: In a level control system, the output flow-rate is the manipulated variable.
Load variable: It refers to all the other variables that affect the controlled variable to deviate
from set point value.
Ex: In the above example, changes in inlet flow rate also change the level in the tank, so it
constitutes to load variable.
Flow Variable: Any variable which is measured along the process loop.
Ex:- Flow in a loop, current in a loop, heat transfer.
Across Variable: Any variable which is always measured as a differential value or with reference
to some point.
Ex:- Voltage (potential difference), Differential pressure, Temperature, etc.
Page285
Process Control
Process
Flow Variable
Across Variable
Relationship
Electrical N/w
V Voltage
v = i R R = electrical
Resistance
Flow Process
Q Fluid flow
rate
h=qR
Current
Pressure head
R = Flow Resistance
Useful Conversations
Pressure
14.7 psi = 1 atm

1 N/
= 1 Pa (=1 Pascal)
Pa = 1 bar
1 Psi = 0.07 bar
1 gallon = 3.78 liters
3.8 liters
Process Load
The set of all load variables that cause a change or deviation of controlled variable from set point
are known as process load.
Process equation
It is the equation which describes the process mathematically.
For the above example, the liquid level h is a function of changes in inlet flow rate and outlet
flow rate. A simple process equation is
evel h = f q q
Measurement
It is the determination of magnitude of a variable i.e. controlled variable.
Controller
It is an automatic device having an output that varies to regulate the controlled variable.
Page286
Process Control
A controller performs operations such as comparison, evaluation and operation upon the next
stage to meet the demands and control objectives.
Final control element
The device that directly controls the value of manipulated variables in a process control loop is
the final control element.
Often the control element is control value.
Elements of Process Control
The different elements with which a mathematical model may be formulated for a process are
A. Resistance Element.
B. Capacitance Element.
C. Time constant Element.
D. Dead time Element.
The mathematical model thus obtained is known as Transfer function.
A transfer function is defined as ratio of L.T of output to L. T of input under the assumption that
all initial conditions are set to zero. [L.T laplace Transform]
o p
i.e. T s =
T Transfer is function
|
i p
(A) Resistance Type Element
Resistance may be defined as any obstruction or constriction which can be incorporated by
external means also, (or) the ability to resist the transfer of mass or energy is called
resistance.
The Laplace transform is given as H(s)=R Q (s)
Q(s)
H(s)
Where Q(s) is input and H(s) is output and R is the resistance.

(B) Capacitance Element
Capacitance is the ability to store.
Q(S)
H(S)
Hence the transfer function representation of capacitance elements is
(C) Time Constant Element

A combination of capacitance and resistance elements results in a time constant process.
(D) Dead Time Element
Page287
Process Control
The phenomena that is encountered during the transfer of mass or energy is transportation
lag. Synonyms for this term are dead time (or) distance velocity lag.
Representation of dead time is given by e
e
= cos
Magnitude |e
isin
|=
t
and phase angle = - T(rads).
Process Degree of Freedom

It implies assessment of how many independent controllers, that can be employed in a control
loop configuration, to meet the requirements of control objective.
More number of controllers than required leads to redundancy and more cost. Hence the
number of in dependently acting controllers, should not exceed the number of degree of
freedom.
It is given by =
Where
number of variables in a process
nu ber of defining equations ( based on dynamics of process)
nu ber of degree of freedo .
Generally, the number of defining equation also refer to transfer function of process.
Page288
Process Control
11.2: Modes of Controller Operation

In terms of analog signal transmission this range of Controller output is 4 20 mA standard
signal.
The standard pneumatic signal transmission range is 3 15 psi.
The controller output as a percentage of full scale when the output varies between specified
limits is given by
P=
Where
= Actual Controller output.

= Standard signal transmission range.
A Controller is said to operate in reverse action, when an increasing value of controlled variable,
causes a decrease in the controller output.
The controller equations, are written with respect to output of controller denoted by letter P and
input to Controller i e error e.
Classification
Modes of Control
Actions
Discontinuous
Modes of
Action
ON/OFF (or)
Two position
Mode
Continuous
Modes of
Action
Floating
Proportional
Control Mode (P Mode)
Integral
(I Mode)
Proportional +
Integral
(P + I)
Derivative
(D Mode)
Proportional +
Derivative
(P + D)
Composite
Mode
Proportional +
Integral +
Derivative
(P + I +
D)
Page289
Process Control
Discontinuous Controller Modes

Two position Mode
This mode is mathematically expressed as
P = 0% for e = 0
= 100% for e
The above representation implies, whenever there is an error (e > 0) the controller output it
100% (in terms of both ON (or) OFF states). When there is no error (e = 0) the controller o/p is
0.
The differential gap also called neutral - zone is analogous to minimum input hysteresis in the
overall transducer controller actuator system and is defined as the smallest change in
process variable that would change the state of control valve.
Floating Controller Mode

Unlike the Two position mode, here if the error is zero, the controller output floats at whatever
setting it was when the error went to zero, and whenever error occurs the controller output
again begins to change.
Analytic expression
P=
P (0), refers to initial setting of the controller when error is zero
= Rate constant [%/sec]
Continuous Controller Modes

Here there is a smooth relation between controller o/p and error, whenever there is a deviation
from set point.
Proportional Controller Mode
In this mode, for every value of error there is a unique value of controller output, called band of
errors before the output saturates at 0% [OFF state] or 100% [ON state].
This range of errors to cover 0% to 100% controller output is known as PROPORTIONA
BAND
Page290
Process Control
Analytical Expression
P=
: proportional gain
: initial value of controller o/p
Transfer Function
P=
E(S)
P(S)
Controller
(o/p)
P 100%
100% Saturation
0% Saturation
0%
error (e)
P.B
The proportional band (P.B) is related to gain of proportional controller
and is defined as P.B
Offset
One of the main disadvantage of proportional controller is it produces a permanent residual
error in the controlled variable, When a process load change results in error. This is called
Offset.
Steady state error ( ) is given by
.
=
=
&
Page291
[here U(S) is assumed to be Zero]
Let
e =
e =
Process Control
lt
[Ramp change]
.
Steady state error (

proportional to .
An increase in
is also called offset
of proportional controller and is inversely
will improve the speed of response as well as reduces the error.
But a large value of

action.
i plies less P.B and thus converting to ON OFF two position mode)
To summarize, proportional gain , improves both transient and steady state response but at
the same time its value should not be large.
Integral Controller Mode

It is an extension of floating Control mode.
Here the rate of change of Controller output is not constant at
to error.
but is directly proportional
P=
Units of
is minutes or seconds, and
also called as RESET TIME.
Transfer function
E(S)
P(S)
Main disadvantage of integral action is response to error is slow (or) sluggish.

Offset
It is the error which results due to change in load variable.
Here offset occurs due to changes in load variable.
Page292
Process Control
Integral action improves steady state response characteristics, as it completely eliminates error,
introduced by the variations in the input (or) set point or due to load variable changes.
Derivative Controller Mode
Here the controller output is proportional to rate of change of error
P(S) =
SE(S)
E(S)
T S
Characteristics
An derivative action will anticipate the nature of error and sends an output before the error has
occurred. Thus called as Anticipatory Controller Mode.
error
(e)
t
Controller
O/P
P
t
t=
Composite Controller Modes

Proportional + Integral (PI or P + I) Controller Mode
P=
On Laplace Transform
E(S)
P(S)
Page293
Process Control
Characteristics of P + I Controller Mode

Error (e)
t=
P only
t=
I only
t
t=
P + I only
P=
A+(
t
t=
Proportional + Derivative (Pd Or P + D) Controller

P=
e+
+ P(0)
On Laplace transform
[1 +
E(S)
S]
P(S).
Characteristics of P + D Controller
Page294
Process Control
Error (e)
t=
P alone
t=
D alone
t=
P + D Action
Action
t
t=
Proportional+Integral+Derivative (Pid Or P+I+D) Controller Mode
It improves both steady state and transient response
Analytic expression
P=
E(S)
P(S)
Page295
Process Control
Characteristics of P + I + D Controller
At
error (e)
t=
Controller
Action
I only
P only
D only
t=
P+I+D
P+I+D
action
t=
The overall analysis may be summarized as:

P controller produces a permanent offset.
I controller successfully eliminates offset but speed of response is much slower.
P + I Controller has no offset, but the influence of integral response is reflected in large
stabilization time.
P + D controller cannot eliminate offset but improves the speed of response.
P + I + D action has very good speed of response and eliminates completely the offset and error.
Valves
Theory of flow through valves
Pressure drop is proportional to the velocity of fluid in the valve. For the engineering practices,
the pressure drop or head loss due to flow of fluids is proportional to the square of velocity.
h
Where K is the constant of proportionality and is called the Resistance Coefficient.

By Darcys equation
Page296
h =( )
Process Control
where v = velocity of fluid flow
g = acceleration due to gravity.

f = friction factor, L = length of the pipe & D = Diameter of pipe.
i.e. the above equation conveys the meaning that when the length of pipe is more, more is the
loss due to friction. We can practically see this in a long length pipes.
For varying dimension, the resistance coefficient can be found using the following relation,
=[
is the resistance coefficient cross section A &

is the resistance coefficient cross section B.
Knowing
can be evaluated using the above relation.
Sizing & Selection of Control Valve

Sizing the valve is basically calculating the valve characteristic coefficient.
C = Q
, C = Valve characteristic coefficient

Q = Desired flow rate through valve is gpm
G = Specific gravity of fluid.
P = Allowable pressure drop in psi
Page297
Process Control
Pressure Profile Across a Valve

Across
A Valve
Liquid
Pressure
Inlet pressure
P
Liquid
Outlet pressure
pressure
Vapour pressure
Vena contracta - Distance
Liquid
press
ure
Inlet pressure
Outlet pressure
Vapour pressure
CAVITATION
Vena contracta
Distance
Factors to be Kept While Sizing a Valve

(i)
P:- Pressure drop across the valve:

Pressure drop across the valve should never go below the vapour pressure of the liquid
corresponding to the temperature of liquid flow.
If the pressure drops below the vapour pressure, then the liquid changes the phase to vapour &
when the liquid recovers the pressure in the downstream, again the vapour transforms into
liquid. This condition is called cavitation. If cavitation occurs, the valve body gets eroded &
causes the damage to valve.
Gain of the valve =
Where Q = change in flow rate for the given l where l is the change in the stroke of the
valve.
Page298
Process Control
Stroke of the valve is the displacement of the valve stem.

Note
Flow through a pipe is given by the continuity equation.
Q = AV
Where Q = flow in
/s
A = Area of cross section in

V = Velocity of flow in m/s
Valve characteristics
Quick opening
linear
Flow through
valve
Equal %
% of stem opening
Linear:- Flow capacity increases linearly with valve travel.

Equal %:- equal increments of valve position, will produce equal % changes in existing output.
Quick Opening:- the valve gain varies from a high value in the initial part of travel to a low value
toward the end of travel.
Page299
Process Control
11.3: Tuning of Controllers

Tuning of Controllers is done to achieve minimum-overshoot, rise time and settling time and one
quarter decay ratio.
One criteria, often used to evaluate a response of a control system is the integral of the square of
the error w.r.t. time (ISE)
ISE = e dt
The other two criteria often used in process control are
Integral of the absolute value of error (IAE) = e dt
Integral of time weighted Absolute error (ITAE) =
e tdt
Process Reaction Curve Method

Often referred as open loop transient response method, where the process control loop is
opened so that no control action occurs and a transient (disturbance) is introduced by step
change in the signal to the control value.
Transfer function between control value, process and measuring element is approximated to be
first order system with dead time.
e
G S G S H S =
K = system gain.
t = dead ti e in or secs .
: Time constant (or) process reaction time.
Typical process reaction curve obtained is called sigmodial curve.
A tangent line is drawn at inflection point of curve, which is defined as that point on the curve
where slope starts decreasing, as shown in fig (3.4)
(Step Change)
Page300
Slope [S] =
B ultimate value of output as
S slope (or) reaction rate.
Process Control
The Controller parameter settings can be obtained as follows,

(1) Proportional only:
A
=
A: step change at final control elements
(2) P + I Mode
. A
=
T = .
(3) P + I + D Mode
.
=
=
td
= .
Quarter Amplitude Criteria [Cohen Coon Corrections]

Ratio between second to first peak overshoot from steady state value of input should be .
decay ratio, =
Cohen-coon Corrections for controller parameters obtained from Process Reaction Curve:
(1) P only
=
(2) P + 1 Mode
=
* .
Page301
T =[
Process Control
Where R =
(3) P + I + D Mode:
=
* .
T =*
+t
T =t *
Where R = log ratio (unit less) =

Ziegler Nicols Tuning Method
This technique also called as ulti ate cycle ethod is a closed loop tuning
to any system with or without self regulation.
ethod applicable
Tuning Procedure
1.
2.
3.
The integral and derivative actions are reduced to the minimum effect after the process
reaches steady state at the normal level of operation.
The value of proportional gain
is gradually increased while providing periodic small
disturbances (step or ramp) as input to the system.
This process is repeated until the system exhibits continuous and ascertained oscillations.
This is called ulti ate or critical gain . The frequency and hence the period of
oscillation is called ulti ate or critical period .
Z N settings for Controller Modes

From the critical gain and period, the settings for
Controller modes.
1.
Proportional only
= 0.5
2.
P + I Mode
= 0.45 ;
3.
are assigned as follows for different
P + I + D Mode
= 0.6
Controller Tuning From Routh Array Method

Routh array is an algorithm, used in time domain to estimate stability of the system.
Tuning of controllers can be done using this method, where the values of critical or ultimate gain
and time period are evaluated from the array constructed.
Page302
Process Control
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Construct the characteristic equation

[1 + (S) (S) (S)
(S) = 0.]
(s): Controller transfer function with only
[proportional gain] and the derivative and
integral action reduced to minimum.
Construct Routh array and evaluate all the elements of the array in terms of .
Apply the condition of stability, where all the test column elements should be greater than
zero.
The value of proportional gain
which gives marginally stable case, corresponds to
critical or ulti ate gain .
For this value of construct the auxillary equation A(S).
Compare the roots of this auxillary equation A(S) with S = j & find d .
At =
=
where : critical frequency.
=
7.
(sec/min).
Apply Zielger Nicol method for finding optimum values of
, and
Page303
Process Control
11.4: Process Control System Configurations

Feed Forward and Feed Back Control
Here the deviations in controlled variables from set point due to disturbances are first measured
through feedback, compared with set point at the controller and the error is eliminated by
changing the manipulated variable of the process to restore the balance.
Feed Forward Control
Feed forward control provides a more direct solution, than finding the correct value by trial and
error.
Whenever a change in load is sensed, the manipulated variable is automatically adjusted to the
correct value at a rate that keeps the process continually in balance.
Cascade Control Configuration

In cascade control loop, we have one manipulated variable and more than one measurement.
A cascade control system consists of two control loops namely primary and secondary control
loops respectively.
The loop that measures the controlled variable is the primary (or) dominant (or) master control
loop and has set point as input.
The loop that measures the manipulating variable with the output of primary loop as its input is
called secondary or slave control loop.
Major advantage is any disturbances occurring within secondary loop are corrected by
secondary controller before they affect the value of primary controlled output.
Ratio Control Configuration
Ratio control, maintains a relationship between two variables to monitor and control a third
variable.
Ratio R of ingredient to ingredient is given by
Ratio R =
The most common method manipulates a flow loop whose set point is calculated as
=
Split Range Control Configuration
This scheme is employed whenever there is measurement & control of one controlled variable
with more than one manipulated variables is to be done.
Page304
Reference Books
Reference Books
Mathematics
Higher Engineering Mathematics Dr. BS Grewal
Advance Engineering Mathematics Erwin Kreyszig
Advance Engineering Mathematics Dr. HK Dass
Signals, Systems and Communications
Signals & Systems Oppenheim & Schafer
Signals & Systems Simon Hykin & Barry Van Veen
Discrete Time Signal Processing Oppenheim & Schafer
Analog & Digital signal Processing- Ashok Ambarder
Digital Signal Processing Proakis
Electronic communication system - Kennedy
Communication systems Simon Hykin
Principals of communication systems Taub & Schilling
Analog Communication Proakis
Digital Communication- Proakis
Control Systems and Process Control
Control System Engg. - Nagrath & Gopal
Automatic Control Systems - Benjamin C Kuo
Modern Control System Katsuhiko Ogata
Process Control Instrumentation Technology- Curtis D. Johnson
Basics of Circuits and Measurement Systems
Network Analysis Van Valkenburg
Networks & System D Roy & Choudhary
Engineering circuit analysis Hayt & Kammerly
Analog Circuits
Micro Electronics circuit Sedra & Smith
Integrated Electronics : Analog & Digital circuits and system Millman & Halkias
Electronics devices and circuits Boylestead
Op-Amp & Linear Integrated Circuits Gaikwad
Linear Integrated circuits Bakshi & Bakshi
Micro Electronic Circuits Neamen
Micro electronic circuits - Rashid
Page 305
Reference Books
Digital circuits
Digital Electronics Morris Mano
Digital principles & Design - Donald Givone
Digital circuits Taub & Schilling
Microprocessor Ramesh Gaonker
Transducers, Mechanical Measurement and Industrial Instrumentation
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation - A.K.Sawhney
Measurement Systems - Application and Design, Fourth edition- Doebelin E.O
Electrical and Electronic Measurements
Electronic Measurement - Godse & Bakshi
Analytical, Optical and Biomedical Instrumentation
Analytical Instrumentation- Bela G. Liptak
Introduction to Fiber Optics- Ghatak, A, Thyagarajan, K
Analytical Instrumentation R. S. Khandpur.
Biomedical Instrumentation - Cromwell
Instrumental methods of Analysis Willard Merrit
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#2. Network Theory

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10.5 Piezo Electric Transducers

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ith row, jth column

1.1.1.1 Types of Matrices

single row ( or row vector)

1.1.1.3 Square Matrix

Same number of rows and columns.

1.1.1.4 Rectangular Matrix

1.1.1.5 Diagonal Matrix

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1.1.1.6 Unit Matrix (or Identity Matrix)

1.1.1.8 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices:

Skew Symmetric Matrix = - A

1.1.1.9 Triangular Matrix

Orthogonal Matrix: If A. A = I, then matrix A is said to be Orthogonal matrix.

Singular Matrix: If |A| = 0, then A is called a singular matrix.

= transpose of a conjugate of matrix A

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Note: In Hermitian matrix, diagonal elements

Skew Hermitian matrix:

Note: In Skew-Hermitian matrix , diagonal elements

either zero or Pure Imaginary

Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar:

Every element of the matrix gets multiplied by that scalar.

An n order determinant is an expression associated with n

If A = [a ] , Element a with ith row, jth column.

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Minors & Co-Factors:

The minor of an element in a determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting the

1.1.1.20 Properties of Determinants:

Determinant of a skew symmetric matrix (i.e. A =-A) of odd order is zero.

|A| must be non-zero (i.e. A must be non-singular).

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AC = AD , doesnt imply C = D ,even when A

21. If A is a square matrix of order n then (i) |adj A|=|A|

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If A is a non-singular matrix, then all the row/column vectors are independent.

Solution of linear System of Equations:

For the following system of equations A X = B

A= Coefficient Matrix, C = (A, B) = Augmented Matrix

one or more solution (i.e. unique or infinite solution)

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Solution using Cramers rule:

In the above method, it is assumed that

Characteristic Equation and Eigen Values:

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is an Eigen value of the matrix then ,

Properties of Eigen Vectors

Any quantity having n components is called a vector of order n.

Its linear combination is x + x + x + x = 0

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1.2 Probability and Distribution