Inedic Manual en - Innovation and Ecodesign in The Ceramic Industry

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual
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Page 2
Contents
Foreword ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.
Ecodesign ...................................................................................................................... 9
The importance of ecodesign ...................................................................................... 10
Life cycle thinking ........................................................................................................ 11
Environmental considerations in ceramic products.................................................... 13
Ecodesign project step-by-step ...................................................................................................... 15
2.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 15
2.2
Step 1: Ecodesign project planning ............................................................................. 17
Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 17
Activities .............................................................................................................................. 17
2.2.1
Get top managements commitment for the project ......................................... 17
2.2.2
Setup the project team ....................................................................................... 17
2.2.3
Investigate the motivation factors for ecodesign ............................................... 19
2.2.4
Select the target product .................................................................................... 19
2.2.7
InEDIC resources.................................................................................................. 20
2.2.8
Results ................................................................................................................. 21
2.3
Step 2: Product analysis .............................................................................................. 22
Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 22
Activities .............................................................................................................................. 22
2.4
Step 3: Definition of ecodesign strategies for the product ......................................... 25
Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 25
Activities .............................................................................................................................. 25
2.5
Step 4: New product concept ...................................................................................... 27
Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 27
Activities .............................................................................................................................. 27
2.5.3
Definition of final product concept(s) ................................................................. 28
2.5.4
2.5.5
Results ................................................................................................................. 28
2.6
Step 5: Product detailing ............................................................................................. 29
Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 29
Activities .............................................................................................................................. 29
2.6.3
2.6.4
Results ................................................................................................................. 32
2.7
Step 6: Production and market launch........................................................................ 33
Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 33
Activities .............................................................................................................................. 33
2.7.1
Production ........................................................................................................... 33
2.7.2
Internal promotion of the ecodesigned product ................................................ 33
2.7.4
2.7.5
Results ................................................................................................................. 34
2.8
Step 7: Evaluation of the product and project ............................................................ 35
Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 35
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Activities .............................................................................................................................. 35
2.8.1
Evaluation of the ecodesign project.................................................................... 35
2.8.2
Evaluation of the final ecodesigned product ...................................................... 35
2.8.3
Report .................................................................................................................. 36
2.8.4
2.8.5
Results ................................................................................................................. 36
2.9
Step 8: Follow-up activities ......................................................................................... 37
Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 37
Activities .............................................................................................................................. 37
2.9.1
Integration of ecodesign in the companys processes and management systems
37
2.9.2
From eco(re)design to eco-innovation and design for sustainability ................. 37
2.9.3
2.9.4
Results ................................................................................................................. 38
3.
Motivating factors .......................................................................................................................... 39
3.1
Motivating factors ....................................................................................................... 39
3.2
Which are the main motivating factors for ecodesign projects in a company? ......... 39
3.3
Internal drivers ............................................................................................................ 39
3.3.1
Cost reduction ..................................................................................................... 39
3.3.2
Innovation ........................................................................................................... 40
3.3.3
Quality ................................................................................................................. 40
3.3.4
Companys image ................................................................................................ 40
3.3.5
Companys environmental policy and environmental management systems
(EMS)
40
3.3.6
Motivation of employees .................................................................................... 41
3.4
External drivers ........................................................................................................... 41
3.4.1
Environmental benefits ....................................................................................... 41
3.4.2
Government policies, legislation and standardization ........................................ 41
3.4.3
Market demands ................................................................................................. 42
3.4.4
Suppliers .............................................................................................................. 42
3.4.5
Competitors......................................................................................................... 42
3.4.6
Social environment.............................................................................................. 43
4.
Innovation ....................................................................................................................................... 44
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
5.
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 44
Eco-innovation as a social process .............................................................................. 44
Types of innovation ..................................................................................................... 45
Six steps to the development of innovation projects development ........................... 48
Market analysis .............................................................................................................................. 49
5.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 49
5.2
Market analysis project ............................................................................................... 49
5.2.1
Market size .......................................................................................................... 50
5.2.2
Market growth rate ............................................................................................. 50
5.2.3
Market trends...................................................................................................... 50
5.2.4
Market profitability ............................................................................................. 50
5.2.5
Industry cost structure ........................................................................................ 51
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5.3
5.4
6.
Marketing management.............................................................................................. 52
Key success factors ...................................................................................................... 53
Environmental analysis .................................................................................................................. 54
6.1
Environmental analysis based on life cycle thinking ................................................... 54
6.2
Methods of environmental analysis of the life cycle .................................................. 56
6.2.1
Examples of tools for environmental analysis .................................................... 57
6.3
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) ........................................................................................ 62
6.4
Examples of LCA application in ceramics .................................................................... 65
7.
Economic analysis ........................................................................................................................... 69
7.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 69
7.2
Types of economic assessment: Life Cycle Costing and Cost-Benefit Analysis ........... 70
7.2.1
Life Cycle Costing................................................................................................. 70
7.2.2
Conventional Life Cycle Costing .......................................................................... 70
7.2.3
Environmental life cycle costing .......................................................................... 72
7.2.4
Societal life cycle costing ..................................................................................... 75
7.2.5
Cost-benefit analysis ........................................................................................... 77
7.2.6
Adjusting for the time dimension ....................................................................... 77
8.
Ecodesign strategies ....................................................................................................................... 79
8.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 79
8.2
Ecodesign strategies in the ceramic sector ................................................................. 82
8.2.1
Strategy @: Develop new concepts .................................................................... 82
8.2.2
Strategy 1: Select lower impact materials........................................................... 83
8.2.3
Strategy 2: Reduce the use of materials ............................................................. 85
8.2.4
Strategy 3: Reduce the environmental impact of production ............................ 87
8.2.5
Strategy 4: Promote environmentally friendly packaging and logistics .............. 89
8.2.6
Strategy 5: Reduce the environmental impact in the use phase ........................ 91
8.2.7
Strategy 6: Increase product durability ............................................................... 92
8.2.8
Strategy 7: Optimize the end-of-life system ....................................................... 93
8.3
Trade-offs between criteria ........................................................................................ 94
9.
Ecobenchmarking ........................................................................................................................... 95
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
10.
What is benchmarking?............................................................................................... 95
Why benchmarking? ................................................................................................... 95
What is environmental product benchmarking? ........................................................ 96
Steps of eco-benchmarking of products ..................................................................... 96
Product innovation through benchmarking ................................................................ 98
Creative thinking ............................................................................................................................ 99
10.1 Creative thinking ......................................................................................................... 99

10.2 How to stimulate creative thinking ........................................................................... 100
10.3 Lateral thinking.......................................................................................................... 100
10.3.1 Random stimuli ................................................................................................. 101
10.3.2 Brainstorming .................................................................................................... 101
10.4 Other creativity techniques for problem solving ...................................................... 104
10.4.1 The morphological box ...................................................................................... 104
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10.4.2 Drawing ............................................................................................................. 105

10.4.3 Improvements ................................................................................................... 105
10.4.4 Modifications..................................................................................................... 106
10.4.5 Metaphors ......................................................................................................... 106
10.4.6 Learning from nature: biomimicry .................................................................... 107
10.4.7 User research .................................................................................................... 108
10.4.8 Role play ............................................................................................................ 108
10.5 Nine dots puzzle ........................................................................................................ 109
10.5.1 Lessons to be learnt from this puzzle ................................................................ 109
11.
Environmental management systems and ecodesign ................................................................. 110
11.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 110

11.2 ISO 14001 and ecodesign .......................................................................................... 113
11.2.1 Scope definition................................................................................................. 113
11.2.2 Environmental policy......................................................................................... 113
11.2.3 Planning ............................................................................................................. 113
11.2.4 Implementation and operation ......................................................................... 115
11.2.5 Checking ............................................................................................................ 118
11.2.6 Management review ......................................................................................... 118
12.
Green marketing and communication ......................................................................................... 119
12.1 Green marketing ....................................................................................................... 119

12.1.1 Definition and importance ................................................................................ 119
12.1.2 European context. Green procurement ............................................................ 120
12.1.3 Concepts related to green marketing and market analysis .............................. 121
12.2 Communication tools ................................................................................................ 123
12.1.4 Introduction, definition and importance .......................................................... 123
12.1.5 Background and European context ................................................................... 124
12.1.6 Eco-labels based on ISO .................................................................................... 125
12.1.7 Eco-labels for ceramic products ........................................................................ 127
13.
Design for sustainability ............................................................................................................... 129
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 129

Design for sustainability inspired by ISO 26000 ........................................................ 130
Product-service systems............................................................................................ 134
Synthesis: From ecodesign to design for sustainability ............................................ 137
Annex tools .............................................................................................................................................. 138

References (by chapter) ........................................................................................................................... 141
Glossary (in alphabetical order) ............................................................................................................... 151
ANNEX I. Notions in adjusting for the time dimension .......................................................................... 161
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Foreword
Ecodesign is a well established concept amongst environmental specialists in Europe, but there
is a lack of know how to support the systematic integration of environmental considerations in
the design of ceramic products. Despite its economic importance, the ceramic industry is
suffering the effects of the slowing down of the European economy and it reflects the effects
of the competition of products from countries where environmental and social standards in
manufacturing are considerably lower. The ceramic sector needs competitive products to
survive in the market and by addressing the environmental features good opportunities for
innovation and differentiation arise while the impacts along the life cycle are reduced.
InEDIC - Innovation and Ecodesign in the Ceramic Industry is a project funded by the EU
Lifelong Learning/Leonardo da Vinci Program (contract 2009-1-PT1-LEO05-03237), coordinated
by LNEG-UPCS (National Laboratory of Energy and Geology, Sustainable Production and
Consumption Research Unit) from Portugal. This project is a Transfer of Innovation from
another Leonardo da Vinci project (Transfer of Knowledge in the Field of Ecodesign,
Agreement n 2004 -CZ/04/B/F/PP-168002).
The projects primary goal is the development of ecodesign training materials and tools to
the ceramic industry in order to provide designers, training and education organizations and
businesses with the skills for the systematic integration of environmental considerations in the
development of their products.
This Manual is organized in a step-by-step approach to ecodesign, presented in Chapter 2
Ecodesign project step-by-step. The implementation of the eight proposed steps is supported
by theoretical chapters and practical tools, making it easy to follow and implement, adjust the
each companys reality and develop through further reading and learning (InEDICs resource
centre). A simplified version of chapter 2 and of the ecodesign tools has also been produced,
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aiming at potteries which may not wish to follow a more comprehensive approach as ceramic
industries, which were the primary target of the project.
The InEDIC project relies on the training/action principle, which proved to be the most
effective method in vocational training. It consists on combining in-classroom and practical
applications, preferably in real-life cases. With this in mind, ten demonstration projects have
been performed with partner industries and potteries, to test the InEDIC Ecodesign Manual,
thus ensuring its adequacy and applicability.
Besides the InEDIC Ecodesign Manual, projects results are: two databases of ceramic materials
and technologies, support material for trainers, ten case studies, a resource centre, a glossary
and additional information and explanations, available at the projects website
(www.inedic.net) in partners languages and English.
The InEDIC consortium involves an international partnership from Portugal, Spain and Greece,
totalling 18 partners with proven expertise in the area of ecodesign and in the ceramic sector.
The partnership includes research centres, training institutions, associations and companies.
This Manual was written by the InEDIC Core Partners:
LNEG, I.P., Portugal Cristina Rocha, David Camocho, Sofia Bajouco and Ana Gonalves. www.lneg.pt
CENCAL, Portugal Maria Helena Arroz and Manuela Baroso. www.cencal.pt
CPD, Portugal Isabel Brarens and Paula Gris Grais. www.cpd.pt
CTCV, Portugal Marisa Almeida and Pedro Frade. www.ctcv.pt
ESAD/IPL, Portugal Fernando Carradas, Jos Frade and Francisco Fernandes. www.esad.ipleiria.pt
ITC, Spain Irina Celades, Teresa Ros Dosd and Noelia Coll Bad. www.itc.uji.es
PROSPEKTIKER, Spain Ibon Zugasti, Olatz Errazkin and Xabier Eguskizaga. www.prospektiker.es
ARVIS, S.A., Greece Leonidas Somakos and Konstantinos Aravossis. www.arvis.gr
The team hopes that this project and Manual are useful to the target group and to all
interested in promoting design for sustainability, but is aware that there is always room for
improvement and learning. We therefore kindly welcome all comments that will help us
improve this kind of initiatives and better work towards a more sustainable society!
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1. Introduction
1.1 Ecodesign
Ecodesign is the systematic integration of environmental considerations into the design
process of products (both goods and services). The main purpose of ecodesign is to develop
products leading to sustainability by reducing their environmental impacts throughout the
entire life cycle, taking also into account other conventional product and customer
requirements, such as functionality, quality, safety, cost, manufacturability, ergonomics and
aesthetics (see Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 Criteria for product development, including environment
All products have some impact on the environment, which may occur at any or all stages of the
products life cycle, from raw material extraction to the manufacturing processes, distribution,
use and end-of-life. The life cycle impacts may range from slight to significant; they may be
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Chapter 1
Introduction
short-term or long-term; and they may occur at the local, regional or global level. Integrating
environmental considerations from the early phases of product development process is the
most effective way of introducing changes that positively affect all life cycle stages.
It is estimated that over 80% of all product related environmental impacts is determined by
design, so ecodesign is a very promising approach to sustainable consumption and production,
which has been applied in numerous products of many economic sectors. In the InEDIC
Ecodesign Manual, the ecodesign concepts and tools focus on ceramic products, of the
following sub-sectors:
Table and ornamental ware;

Bricks and roof tiles;
Wall and floor tiles;
Sanitary ware.
While InEDIC is orientated to ceramic products, the concepts and tools presented herewith are
applicable or easily adaptable to other products. Despite the fact that the concept of
ecodesign is easily applicable to goods and services, InEDIC methodologies and tools are
deemed more suitable to physical products (i.e., goods).
1.2 The importance of ecodesign

Implementation of environmental requirements into product development is important both
from an environmental as well as from a business perspective. A direct and tangible benefit is
the reduction of environmental impacts related to the consumption of materials, energy and
water (i.e., inputs) and the generation of waste and emissions (i.e., undesired outputs). In
addition to environmental improvement there are other possible benefits deriving from
ecodesign. Companies can reduce costs for themselves and their end users, can increase
product quality, pursue innovation and achieve better compliance with environmental
legislation as well as with customers demand. In addition they can improve theirs and their
products image. In order to optimize these results, ecodesign initiatives in companies should
be part of the business strategy, rather than being restricted to the environmental corner of
the company. The challenge is to find solutions that are more environmentally sustainable,
make business sense in the short and long run and better satisfy customers and consumers
needs and expectations.
There is growing interest by customers, users and manufacturers alike in the environmental
aspects and impacts of products and processes. This interest is reflected in the discussions
between business, consumers, government and NGOs with regard to sustainable
development, expressed through international agreements, trade regulations, national and
international legislation, and voluntary initiatives. This interest is also reflected in the
economics of various market segments that are recognizing and benefiting from these new
approaches to product design, resulting in improved resource efficiency and processes,
increased product differentiation potential, reduced regulatory burden and consequent
potential liabilities, and amplified cost savings. Moreover, globalization of markets and
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Chapter 1
Introduction
changes in procurement, manufacturing and distribution practices influence the supply chain
of every product and therefore have an impact on the environment.
Despite the fact that an ecodesign methodology has emerged and has been developing since
the 1970s, there are still some barriers for its implementation. The InEDIC project was
developed to tackle some of these impediments that are still persisting. These include:
Difficulty to understanding ecodesign by most client/users;

Inability of producers to perceive product impacts;
Inability of stakeholders to perceive product impacts;
Inaccurate (increased) monetary investment estimations for the implementation of
the ecodesign methodology;
Lack of time for the implementation of ecodesign;
Unwillingness to change current production and consumption habits;
Lack of training and know-how on environmental aspects, ecodesign and
environmental tools;
Lack of environmental studies;
Misperception that implementation increases the costs of human resources;
Technical difficulties to adapt and adjust for new developments;
Difficulties to create interdisciplinary teams.
1.3 Life cycle thinking

At the heart of eco-design is the concept of the product life cycle, which is illustrated in figure
1.2. Each of these stages has environmental aspects (inputs and outputs) and associated
impacts (such as climate change, resources depletion, toxicity, air, water and soil pollution,
etc.). The term life cycle thinking refers to the integrated approach that has to be applied with
the aim of designing more environmentally compatible products, often requiring the
involvement of other elements of the value chain besides the producer: suppliers, distributors,
retailers, waste managers, etc.
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Figure 1.2 Product Life Cycle

Source: Adapted from ISO/TR 14062 Environmental management Integrating environmental aspects
into product design and development
Consideration of the entire life cycle of the product aims to ensure that:
No materials are arbitrarily excluded;
All the environmental characteristics of a product are taken into account;
Focus is not only on the product itself, but also on the system in which the product will
perform;
Environmental impacts are not shifted from one life cycle phase to another or from
one medium (air, water, soil) to another.
To this endeavour, it is necessary to apply specific methods and tools based on scientific knowhow. Life cycle assessment will help identify the most significant impacts within the product
life cycle and therefore choose the most suitable strategies for product improvement. It helps
to define direction of design decisions, encouraging measures at the product life cycle points
where they are likely to result in greatest benefits to the environment and the company on a
business perspective.
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.4 Environmental considerations in ceramic products

It is possible to find many ceramic products with innovations that can be classified according to
ecodesign strategies; below, some examples from Spain and Portugal are presented. One
should keep in mind, however, that the overall environmental benefits of those innovations
are not known and therefore environmental trade-offs may occur. It is also observed that
typically only one strategy or environmental component is observed in these examples.
Nevertheless they illustrate the application of design interventions with potential
environmental benefits in an industry which has traditionally focused its environmental efforts
in the manufacturing processes.
Table 1.1 Examples of ceramic products with interest on an ecodesign perspective
Ecodesign strategy
Selection of low
impact materials
Activity or
solution
Incorporation of
waste
Examples
Image
Some tile manufacturing

companies recycle preconsumer waste, reaching
up to 90% recycled material
by weight, while retaining
the strength.
There are also examples of
house ware producers that
manufacture items using the
sludge from the wastewater
treatment plant.
Greenearth by Roca
Reduction of the
material use
Reduction in
products
thickness
Wall and floor tiles

companies have researched
into raw materials to
achieve a reduction in tile
thickness (in this case from
12 mm to 6,5 mm).
Reduce the
environmental
impact of
production
Reduction of
losses and
consequently
losses of ecoefficiency.
The ceramic industry has

heavily invested in more
eco-efficient production
techniques. Designers can
also influence the
environmental performance
of the manufacturing
processes. Complex shapes,
right angles and changes in
thickness are to be avoided
as they lead to cracks and
losses in production. This
thin piece was carefully
designed to avoid fledging:
the tensions during drying
neutralize each other out.
Light ceramic tile sheet by Revigres
Designer: Dulce Fernandes
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Ecodesign strategy
Optimizing
packaging and
distribution
Activity or
solution
Reduction of
packaging
Eliminating
distribution
activities
Examples
Image
Companies have been

engaged in reducing the
amount of cardboard, shrink
plastic and glue, and
eliminating strips in
packaging.
A recent trend is called
picking, a new form of direct
sales orders from the end
consumer to the
manufacturer, thus reducing
the transport impacts.
New bricks with high
thermal, mechanical and
acoustic performances have
been developed. In this case
it is not only the product
itself that is improved, but
the energy performance of
the building, a matter of
high concern in the field of
sustainability.
Reduction of the
environmental
impact during the
use phase
High efficiency
construction
elements
Optimizing the
end- of-life system
New method of
installation and
dismantling
Raised Technical Floor is a

method of installation of
floor tiles that reduces
building waste and
facilitates waste separation.
This floor is a construction
system installed on a
metallic substructure at a
certain height above the
substrate allowing the
incorporation of radiant
heating systems under the
flooring and the flexibility to
change the tiling.
New concepts
development
Integration of
functions
Ceramic wall and roof tiles

that incorporate a thin
photovoltaic film are
intended to have a high
aesthetic, energy and
technical performance
contributing to a new,
sustainable building.
Direct sales system
CBloco by CTCV
Technical raised floor by Porcelanosa
Solar Tiles
University of Minho, CTCV, FCT-CENIMAT, LNEG,
Revigrs, Domin, Coelho da Silva, De Viris, ADENE
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Chapter 2
Ecodesign project step-by-step
2. Ecodesign project step-by-step

2.1 Introduction
The design activity is a creative process. The innovative solutions developed for design
problems can never be predetermined; however, the methodology used to develop solutions
is more predictable. The logistic aspects of projects can and should be planned with some
accuracy. To support the ecodesign project development, the InEDIC manual presents an
approach in 8 steps, which are supported by 13 theoretical chapters and 15 tools (plus 2
databases). The description of each step is organized in (1) objectives, (2) main activities, (3)
resources (theoretical chapters and tools) and (4) results.
As simple as it seems, there is a long way to go from making a decision to implement
ecodesign to a final ecodesigned product. It is necessary to select a suitable product, evaluate
its current environmental performance, identify potential for improvements, define measures
about how to achieve those improvements and, last but not least, put the proposed solutions
into practice. This process involves a number of functions from different company
departments or units.
Companies that decide to implement ecodesign can start with parts of their products and
gradually extend the project to the overall redesign of new products or services and may go as
far as creating new business solutions. The duration of an ecodesign project varies, depending
on the projects scope and the complexity of the product. Typically an ecodesign project can
take between three months and one year, but it is recommended that the project should be as
short as possible so that the team and the company do not lose the impetuous for ecodesign.
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Relationship between the 8 ecodesign steps and the InEDIC supporting chapters and tools
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Chapter 2
2.2 Step 1: Ecodesign project planning

Objectives
To start-up the project in the company;
To organize the means and resources for the project;
To define the design brief.
Activities
2.2.1 Get top managements commitment for the project
The involvement of top management in defining the strategic goals for a successful
development of the ecodesign project, as well as in allocating the necessary resources, is a key
factor. Top management should be committed not only in words, but also in actions. To that
end, top management needs convincing arguments for ecodesign and it is important to carry
out debates about the added value of ecodesign for the business in the short, medium and
long terms (see chapter 3 Motivation factors for ecodesign and chapter 4 Innovation).
If the company has an environmental management system (EMS) implemented, or is in the
process of implementation, this planning phase is a good opportunity to make the ecodesign
project a part of the system (see chapter 11 Environmental management systems and
ecodesign).
2.2.2 Setup the project team

A project team that will be responsible for the ecodesign project from start to finish, and that
will later lead the ecodesign process in the company in a long term perspective, should be
established. For ecodesign to be operational, the team should be small, effective and well
organized, and the most relevant functions to be involved are design, production and
environmental managers or coordinators. In specific milestones and activities of the project
development, a multidisciplinary support group should intervene. This group should be
composed by all experts needed to develop the project and can include internal staff, external
experts or both. Management representatives from all different sectors should be involved in
the project to make sure that decisions are implemented once approved by top management.
Top management participates mainly when the most important decisions are to be taken and
strategic options to be discussed.
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.2 Human resources required to implement ecodesign in the company: top management, the
ecodesign project team and the project support group
Typically the ecodesign support group involves the departments or functions presented in
table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Typical composition of the project support group
Department or
function
Quality
Laboratory
Purchasing
Marketing
Sales
Logistics
Human resources
Involvement and role in the ecodesign project (indicative examples)

Contribution regarding regulations applicable to the product (safety
and quality)
Control and verification of the ecodesign process and the product
Control of product and process parameters
Research of materials and formulations for the product
Search of more eco-efficient materials
Integration of environmental criteria in the purchasing operations
Integration of environmental criteria when collaborating with
suppliers
Contribution regarding market analysis and trends, customers
perceptions and preferences, including those related to the products
environmental profile
Marketing of the ecodesigned product
Communication about the environmental profile of the product
Contacting clients, gathering their perceptions and needs about ecoefficient products and environmental information
Communication about the environmental profile of the product
Eco-efficient transportation of the final product
Identification of training and competence needs in environmental
matters and ecodesign
Organization of the company training programmes in order to meet
those needs
Internal communication about the ecodesign project and its results
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Chapter 2
2.2.3 Investigate the motivation factors for ecodesign

It is important to investigate the reasons behind the implementation of an ecodesign project.
These factors define the business objectives and the level of ambition and innovation of the
ecodesign process in the company. It is a discussion where top management and the project
support group should be involved, besides, of course, the ecodesign team. See chapter 3
Motivation factors for ecodesign and tool 1 Investigation of motivation factors for
ecodesign for further guidance on this activity.
2.2.4 Select the target product

Most design and ecodesign projects are based on, or are inspired by, something that exists, a
predecessor product, or an existing idea for a new product. Companies may have their own
specific reasons for choosing a product to work with, but it is recommended that the product
selection is based on the following rules of thumb:
The product must have a good ecodesign potential, having enough room to maneuver
allowing modifications and improvements;
The product must respond to the motivation factors of ecodesign, so that higher
benefits of ecodesign can be obtained;
The product should not be very complex in terms of parts, materials and technical
requirements; starting with simpler products facilitates acquaintance with ecodesign,
leading to faster results and therefore fosters the motivation to continue working with
ecodesign.
See tool 2 Product selection/ecodesign potential questionnaire, which provides a set of
questions to support the team in selecting a favourable product for the project.
2.2.5 Define the design brief

In order to start the project, a well defined brief, with clear objectives and important
information covering the company's strategic vision and specific objectives for the product
should be developed. It is recommended that the brief is defined by the top management,
eventually in collaboration with the ecodesign project team. A design brief has the following
characteristics:
It is a planning instrument for the project
It is a written document consisting of a set of ideas that enable the team to
understand and implement the project objectives
It encompasses a short description of a project, typical users and their needs
It may include requirements and constraints at technical, financial and regulatory
levels, if they are known from the beginning
And very important: it is an open document, that may change along the design process
A clear and well-prepared brief contributes to a successful project, reducing the possibility the
end results to not match the objectives and business needs.
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2.2.6 Establish the ecodesign plan

It is recommended that an ecodesign plan is developed by the project team in collaboration
with top management. Here an example is proposed, following the 8 steps of the ecodesign
project as presented in this manual; it includes the list of the main activities per step, the
people responsible, the resources needed and the deadlines set. A verification of the
accomplishment of the different steps and activities should be performed as well. This plan
should be integrated in the regular design and development process of the company and
adjusted accordingly. It can also integrate the environmental management programme
(particularly for those companies with an implemented environmental management system,
see chapter 11 Environmental management systems and ecodesign).
Table 2.2 Ecodesign plan
Ecodesign step
Activities
Responsible
people
Resources
Deadline
Verification
1 Ecodesign
project
planning
2 Product
analysis
3 Ecodesign
strategies
4 New product
concept
5 Product
detailing
6 Production and
market launch
7 Evaluation
product and
project
8 Follow-up
activities
2.2.7 InEDIC resources

Chapters
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Ecodesign project step-by-step
Chapter 3 Motivation factors
Chapter 4 Innovation
Chapter 11 Environmental management
systems and ecodesign
Tools
Tool 1 Investigation of motivating factors for
ecodesign
Tool 2 Product selection/ecodesign potential
questionnaire
Tool 3 Design brief
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Chapter 2
2.2.8 Results
The top managements commitment regarding ecodesign in general and the specific
ecodesign project;
The establishment of the ecodesign team and support group;
The definition of the reference product that will be the object of the ecodesign project,
if applicable;
The definition of the design brief (reflecting the motivation factors, amongst others),
that will be used by the internal project team and/or external providers;
The ecodesign project plan.
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Chapter 2
2.3 Step 2: Product analysis

Objectives
In this step the relevant baseline information concerning the reference product has to be
gathered and analysed so that the ecodesign strategies for the new product are appropriately
defined on the basis of a solid rationale. The main objectives are:
To determine the environmental, economic and market aspects of the reference
product, in order to identify the hot spots in the life cycle;
To identify legal requirements applicable to the new product;
To adjust or modify the design brief, if needed.
Activities
2.3.1 Definition of the functional unit
Comparisons between products from environmental and economic points of view are only
relevant when their functions are defined. Therefore, the ecodesign project team should
define the functional unit that will be the reference unit of the environmental life cycle
assessment and economic analysis. More information on this issue can be found in chapter 6
Environmental analysis.
2.3.2 Market analysis

A good market analysis will guarantee that the final ecodesigned product will meet the needs
of consumers and thus will ensure the success of the ecodesign project. For more specific
information regarding this activity, see chapter 5 Market analysis and the related tool 4.
Here you find valuable information to gain insights on the market potential of the new
product.
2.3.3 Environmental analysis

To establish meaningful objectives for the new product, the environmental profile of the
reference product should be established. The aim is to identify the major environmental
problems and the life cycle stages when they occur, so that the new design minimizes these
impacts. The ecodesign team should decide, according to the specificity and goals of the
project, on how to establish this environmental profile. Several methods for life cycle
assessment, qualitative or quantitative, are available to perform the task. See chapter 6
Environmental analysis and related tools 5 Environmental inputs and outputs worksheet,
and 6 MET matrix.
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Chapter 2
2.3.4 Economic analysis

A successful ecodesign project combines environmental as well as economic benefits for the
company and other players of the value chain. Therefore a key element is the economic
evaluation of the reference product. The ecodesign team will thus be able to compile the
environmental and economic results and use this information to define ecodesign strategies
that also make business sense. The methodology for economic analysis can be found on
chapter 7 and tool 7 Economic profile assessment.
2.3.5 Legal and other requirements analysis

All products and companies have to comply with several legal requirements. In the ecodesign
project it is essential that the project team and the support group are aware of all productrelated legal requirements in order to avoid the development of non compliance products. If
the company wishes the new product to comply with requirements of a specific eco-label,
these should be identified at this stage as well (see chapter 12 Green marketing and
communication).
2.3.6 Ecobenchmarking
As part of the analysis process, the company may wish to compare the reference product with
best-in-class products produced internally or by competitors. When such comparison is based
on environmental features, it is called ecobenchmarking. This subject is further developed in
chapter 9 Ecobenchmarking.
2.3.7 Review of the design brief

Taking into account the results of the previous analysis that may be summarized with the help
of tool 8 Product analysis worksheet Synthesis, the design brief may need to be adjusted
or modified.

Chapters
Chapter 5 Market analysis
Chapter 6 Environmental analysis
Chapter 7 Economic analysis
Chapter 9 Ecobenchmarking
Chapter 12 Green marketing and
communication
Tools
Tool 3 Design brief
Tool 4 Market analysis
Tool 5 Environmental inputs and outputs
worksheet
Tool 6 MET matrix
Tool 7 Economic profile assessment
Tool 8 Product analysis worksheet
Synthesis
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Chapter 2
2.3.9 Results
Environmental, economic and market analysis of the reference product;
Identification of legal and other requirements applicable to the ecodesigned product;
Reviewed design brief, if applicable.
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Chapter 2
2.4 Step 3: Definition of ecodesign strategies for the product

Objectives
This step aims at identifying and selecting the most promising ecodesign strategies for the
product, amongst a set of pre-defined ecodesign strategies and criteria/measures for ceramic
products.
Activities
2.4.1 Analysis of the ecodesign strategies
The ecodesign strategies for ceramic products are presented in chapter 8 Ecodesign
strategies. For their analysis, selection and application to the reference product, a qualitative
tool is proposed (tool 9 Ecodesign strategies for ceramics). This is also a qualitative
environmental evaluation and communication instrument.
The analysis consists of the evaluation of the reference product according to the 8 strategies
and respective criteria of the InEDIC Manual. By applying tool 9, the most problematic
situations (i.e., those criteria according to which the reference product performs worse and
there is potential for improvement) are immediately identified. Drafting of the tool according
to directions should be done by the ecodesign team and later validated by the support group
and the results should be controlled against the environmental, economic and market analysis,
as well as the motivation factors for ecodesign in the specific company and product situation.
2.4.2 Selection of the most adequate strategies to implement in the

product design
This activity usually takes place in a half or full day session with the support group, depending
on the complexity of the project. The ecodesign team presents the outcomes of steps 1 and 2
in an easy to understand and graphically attractive way, along with the preliminary results of
the completed checklists and the diagram of the ecodesign strategies for ceramics (tool 9). The
group discusses all of the above and eventually required adjustments are performed.
Then a brainstorming session follows to generate ideas for the new product. The inputs to this
session are the above mentioned results and the design brief. The motivating factors for
ecodesign are also to be kept in mind. But the most concrete and straightforward inputs to
brainstorming are those ecodesign criteria according to which the reference product scored C
(which means urgent need for action). The team may wish to debate the criteria according to
which the reference product scored B (potential for improvement) as well. The selection of
the most adequate strategies and criteria to implement in the product development during
this step aims at:
Stimulating the creative design process;
Highlighting opportunities for improvement;
Identifying potential improvement options.
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Chapter 2
The brainstorming session should not last more than 3-4 hours. It involves the whole group
and should follow the appropriate brainstorming techniques as described in chapter 10
Creative thinking. At the end, the ecodesign team summarizes the results and informs all
interested parties of the next steps.
Typically the brainstorming session generates a large number of ecodesign options, so
afterwards the ecodesign team should select between those that have good potential to be
implemented and will thus be subject to a feasibility analysis (tool 12 Improvement
options evaluation matrix) and those that would not be feasible in the short term, but may
be revisited in a subsequent project or may lead to research and development projects or
new business areas. In other words, even those ideas that do not actually work in the
context of the actual project at hand should nevertheless not be lost or forgotten.

Chapters
Chapter 8 Ecodesign strategies
Chapter 10 Creative thinking
Tools
Tool 9 Ecodesign strategies for ceramics
Tool 10 Brainstorming
Tool 12 Improvement option evaluation
matrix
2.4.4 Results
List with feasible improvement options for the product in the short term (inputs to the
conceptual design);
List of improvement options that may be used in subsequent research and
development projects or development of new business areas.
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Chapter 2
2.5 Step 4: New product concept

Objectives
Development of product concepts;
Analysis of product concepts;
Definition of final product concept(s).
Activities
2.5.1 Develop concepts for the product
Within the design process, all the different aspects need to get attention and compromises are
required, in order to come to one or more solutions that satisfy all applicable criteria.
Using the insights gained in the analysis and strategies definition phases, this step aims to
develop ideas and proposals on how to improve the reference product or how to develop a
new environmentally-sound and cost-effective business idea or an eco-efficient service to
satisfy customer needs. Although the previously defined design criteria and requirements as
laid down in the design brief have to be taken into account, they should not constrain the
creative process. The task, somewhat paradoxically, is to let ones ideas and imagination run
freely without forgetting the criteria, the strategies and the analysis. Team work and the
ability to think out of the box are especially important in this phase.
Inspiration can come from a lot of different directions. It can be spontaneous or a little guided.
To find ways and tools to stimulate creativity during individual brainwaves or Group Creative
Sessions, please refer to chapter 10 Creative thinking in this manual. Relating supporting
tools are 10 Brainstorming and 13 Morphological box.
As a result of the idea generation phase, concepts and solutions are generated and described
clearly so that a rough assessment of the success potential can be determined. For this
conclusions (concepts and solutions) have to either be described in detail or presented and
that is why it is very important that the design team knows how to communicate the ideas
visually and verbally within the team, to the company and to the outside world. Therefore
sketches, hand drawings, 2D/3D computer drawings, storyboards, technical information,
documentation and models or prototypes can be prepared to support the communication. This
phase is essential, as good ideas can be discarded or overlooked if communication fails.
Designers in the ecodesign project team will be familiar with several other ways to
communicate ideas. The technique used to visualize the product concept should be selected
according to what has to be communicated from the concept or project.
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Chapter 2
2.5.2 Detailed analysis and evaluation of product concepts

An important task of the conceptual design stage is the evaluation of the design concepts
against each other and in comparison to existing solutions on the market. The result of the
conceptual design stage is the selection of one or more possible concepts that best meet all
requirements.
To evaluate all concepts, the best option is to use the same tools and approaches used in the
analysis of the reference product (tool 5 Environmental inputs and outputs worksheet; tool
6 MET matrix; tool 7 Economic profile assessment), since they allow a complete evaluation
and a comparison between the previous product and the new proposed product concept(s).
For the economic assessment of the ecodesign measures chosen for the product concept, tool
11 Economic feasibility assessment of ecodesign should be used to support the decision
making regarding final product concept(s).
2.5.3 Definition of final product concept(s)

Based on the analysis mentioned above, one or more product concepts should be selected to
continue to the next phase, during which the product specifications will be defined. The InEDIC
Materials and Technologies databases are helpful at this point.

Chapters
Tools
Tool 5 Environmental inputs and outputs
worksheet
Tool 6 MET matrix
Tool 7 Economic profile assessment
Tool 11 Economic feasibility assessment of
ecodesign
Tool 12 Improvement option evaluation
matrix
Tool 13 Morphological box
InEDIC Materials database
InEDIC Technologies database
2.5.5 Results
New product concept(s).
Page 28
Chapter 2
2.6 Step 5: Product detailing

Objectives
Definition and detailing of the final product for production
Activities
2.6.1 Definition of product specifications
During this stage, the concept is developed further to meet the product design specifications
and to specify the product prior to production and introduction into market. Depending on the
complexity of the design and development process the number of participants (and their areas
of expertise) involved in this stage, within or outside the support group can vary. Usually,
designers, engineers, production planners, service providers and marketing personnel work
together to refine the design concept in order to meet the design specification.
Tools typically employed at this stage include:
Software and modelling tools, such as those used to estimate efficiency during use;
Material and technologies databases (see InEDIC databases);
Production and process optimization tools.
The level of detail achieved at this phase of definition of product specifications should
allow manufacturing of the product prototype(s) and provide information for the introduction
of the product to the market. The final specification should be a multi-criteria decisionmaking process considering specific company conditions, existing production processes,
business strategies and available resources.
This process with include the elaboration of documentation which describes technical aspects
of the product, ergonomic and functionality features required by customers, economic aspects
of the production and overall product marketing.
Aspects to be considered during the definition of product specifications:
Technical aspects
The technical description of the product design should provide a detailed definition of all
product components and technology processes necessary for manufacturing of the product.
As a minimum, this includes:
Shape definition of the product and all its components;

Exact dimensions including tolerances;
Surface properties;
Selected materials with reference to evaluated environmental criteria;
Selected production techniques with reference to evaluated environmental criteria;
Environmental criteria;
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Chapter 2
Product test plans;

Description of manufacturing of the prototype(s);
Testing and evaluation procedure of the prototype(s);
Summarised product definition and additional technical documentation;
Applicable standards.
Quality and safety aspects

These product features are vital to ensure the customer preference and product acceptance in
the market. Designers should therefore be aware of the need to incorporate all relevant
measures ensuring required product quality and safety in the early stages of ecodesign
projects. The definition of product quality and safety aspects generally includes:
Identification and evaluation of risks in early stages;
Identification of applicable legal requirements regarding quality and safety of the
product;
Description of applied measures to ensure quality of the product;
Description of applied measures to ensure safety of the product;
Product reliability declaration;
Information on testing to be carried out on the product;
Consumer requirements.
Safety involves the formal examination of product materials, components, configurations,
packaging and labelling (instructions and warnings) to identify, evaluate, and control potential
product hazards. Hazards identification and evaluation criteria should include objective
estimations of the conditions under which the product will be used, including such things as
age levels and physical limitations of users as well as potentially dire situations that might
occur as a result of reasonably foreseeable product misuse. In the case of tiles and roof tiles
for instance, leaching behaviour should be examined. Comparisons with applicable
authoritative guidelines, legislation and standards should be made.
Some practical examples in ceramics are:
Raw material selection: specifications for control of lead and cadmium in raw materials
for domestic tableware;
Use stage: microwave safety instruction for tableware; slippery information in the case of
floor tiles.
Environmental aspects
The detailed design of the new products should be assessed from an environmental point of
view, using the same methods and assumptions that were applied to the reference product
and new concepts, to enable comparisons. Furthermore, relevant environmental criteria such
as the absence of hazardous substances, the use of recycled materials, etc. should be part of
the products specifications.
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Chapter 2
Economic aspects
At this stage, some of the economic aspects to be considered are:
Assessment of investments needed to the manufacturing of the ecodesigned product
including costs with lab analysis;
Assessment of investments needed to the market launch;
Assessment of costs related to the products entire life cycle (Life Cycle Costing);
Product sales forecast/qualified estimate;
Product costing and profitability analysis;
Other financial analysis.
Legal and other requirements

The products specifications should be in accordance with the legal requirements identified in
step 2 and those identified as relevant in the aforementioned specification step. For this
purpose, a list of all relevant legal provisions regarding technical, safety, environmental and
other mandatory properties of the product should be compiled. For example, the team should
identify the applicability of REACH regulation in the selection of new raw material for the
product.
2.6.2 Prototyping
Once the prototype is produced, it should be tested and evaluated, in order to determine
whether it actually conforms to the objectives defined in the brief. This step is an important
milestone in the product development process, and is an opportunity to check conformity to the
production plan and process engineering.
The environmental aspects of the product can also be assessed at this stage, again following the
methods and assumptions used previously. During this stage, any necessary adjustments and
changes in design can also take place.

Chapters
Tools
InEDIC Materials database
InEDIC Technologies database
Page 31
Chapter 2
2.6.4 Results
Product specifications, with a sufficient level of detail to proceed to production,
including all technical documentation, models and prototypes, validated in terms of
environmental, technical, economic and other requirements;
Prototypes;
Production plan.
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Chapter 2
2.7 Step 6: Production and market launch

Objectives
Production of the ecodesigned product;
Market launch.
Activities
2.7.1 Production
Preparation for production of the ecodesigned product is based on approved product
specifications. Most companies use standardized procedures when starting a new production
line.
2.7.2 Internal promotion of the ecodesigned product

Appropriate communication of the results of an ecodesign project to the company staff is an
important prerequisite for its success. However, it is often undervalued by companies. Internal
communication of the project should emphasize changes relating to the activities and routines
of workers arising from the implementation of ecodesign measures.
2.7.3 Market launch

Market launch includes the presentation and communication of product features and benefits
in order to encourage the purchase and use of the product by consumers. In this context, the
environmental profile of the ecodesigned product can be the basis of the marketing strategy.
The external environmental communication regarding the product has two main aspects:
The communication of environmental aspects throughout its life cycle, using various
tools and means, for example, environmental labelling or environmental product
declarations (see chapter 12 - Green marketing and communication);
Information to the user to minimize the environmental impacts of products during their
use and final disposal.
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Chapter 2

Chapters
Chapter 12 Green market and
communication
Tools
2.7.5 Results
Final product, including packaging and user information;
Marketing and communication elements associated to market launch.
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Chapter 2
2.8 Step 7: Evaluation of the product and project

Objectives
Evaluation of the ecodesign project;
Evaluation of the final ecodesigned product.
Activities
2.8.1 Evaluation of the ecodesign project
This part of the evaluation process is aimed at analysing the effectiveness and procedural
aspects of the ecodesign project. Firstly, the company should consider whether the
methodology used for the project is actually appropriate. The step-by-step procedure for
ecodesign projects described in this manual is a general model that companies may want to
modify according to their specific needs. Some companies have their own internal project
management system that can incorporate aspects of an ecodesign project as described here.
The company also needs to evaluate the project team and support group. This evaluation
should specifically focus on its composition, the level of participation, available resources and
responsibilities. This process can also reveal knowledge and training needs in the project
team, especially in environmental topics. In this case, specific training actions are
recommended.
For further guidance see tool 14 Ecodesign evaluation questionnaire.
2.8.2 Evaluation of the final ecodesigned product

This part of the evaluation focuses on improved qualities of the new product compared to the
original, competing or other reference product (tool 14 Ecodesign evaluation
questionnaire). It is also at this stage that the final result of the project is to be compared to
the design brief. If there are deviations, the team should reflect on why they occur and learn
from them. Apart from financial and environmental aspects of the new product, functionality
and technical qualities should also be evaluated during this phase. Such information will
complete the picture of the newly designed/redesigned product and will provide additional
information for product marketing and internal justification/promotion of the ecodesign
project.
After the market launch, feedback from customers and other stakeholders is an important
information source for the organization to improve its current or future products, as well as
the design and development process.
Companies should take into account the fact that often information about improvements is
not achieved soon after the completion of the project; it takes some time until they have
reliable and meaningful data.
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2.8.3 Report
The evaluation of the projects results and of the product itself should be compiled in a report
prepared by the project team, so that lessons learnt during the implementation of the project
are not forgotten or lost. The report shall be distributed to all parties involved in the project,
including top management.

Chapters
Tools
Tool 14 Ecodesign evaluation questionnaire
2.8.5 Results
Evaluation of the project;
Evaluation of the product;
Report about the evaluation of project and product.
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Chapter 2
2.9 Step 8: Follow-up activities

Objectives
Definition of future ecodesign activities in the company.
Activities
2.9.1 Integration of ecodesign in the companys processes and
management systems
Normally, the results of ecodesign projects are positive and top management will be interested
in pursuing these projects and integrate them systematically in the companys strategy and
business practice. This can result in the creation of a formal eco-design programme and the
integration of the projects methodology in the overall design process of the company,
following all necessary adjustments.
If companies implement or aim at implementing a quality or environmental management
system, it is important to integrate ecodesign as an integral part of these systems. For more
guidance on the link between ecodesign and environmental management systems (EMS) see
chapter 11 and tool 15 Environmental management systems and ecodesign checklist, both
of which provide support regarding the extent to which the EMS includes the product and life
cycle thinking in its elements, including the operational control of the design process.
2.9.2 From eco(re)design to eco-innovation and design for

sustainability
Eco-innovation is a more challenging initiative than the eco(re)design process, since it includes
exploring new market segments or user needs, instead of the improvement of a reference
product. The aim is to create new ideas for products and services that meet consumer needs
with lower environmental (and social) impacts. This type of innovation can also be attained
through improvements in technology, resulting from research and development.
If the company is willing to proceed to more far-reaching innovations, it may review the
ecodesign ideas that were generated during the brainstorming session and were disregarded
as too futuristic. Or it may have other insights or identify market opportunities to develop a
totally new product or business area. It is recommended to refer to chapter 4, where four
kinds of product, services and systems innovation as well as a method for innovation
management are presented.
Another trend is to integrate social criteria in the design of products, alongside with
environmental, technical, aesthetical etc., criteria. Many companies currently undertake social
responsibility programmes and these should include the companies product and service
development as well. For additional information please refer to chapter 13 Design for
sustainability.
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Chapter 2

Chapters
Chapter 11 Environmental management
Chapter 13 Design for sustainability
Tools
Tool 15 Environmental management
systems and ecodesign checklist
2.9.4 Results
Integration of ecodesign in the companys processes
Integration of ecodesign in the companys management systems
Environmentally and socially driven innovation of products and services
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Motivating factors
3. Motivating factors
3.1 Motivating factors
It is important to investigate the reasons behind the eco-design project and the expectations
of all interested parties, from client to producers. Companies can reduce theirs and their end
users costs, increase the product quality, pursue innovation and comply better with
environmental legislation as well as with customers demands. These factors define the
business objectives and consequently the level of ambition and innovation of the ecodesign
process in your company. Therefore, the identification of motivating factors is an important
input to the design brief (tool 3).
3.2 Which are the main motivating factors for ecodesign projects in a
company?
Environmental improvement;
Policies, legislation and standardization;
Company environmental policy and environmental management systems;
Social environment;
Product innovation, differentiation;
Product quality;
Product cost reduction;
Available technologies;
Company image;
Customer demand;
Future trends;
New project challenge, motivation of employees.
These motivation factors can come from the business itself (internal drivers) or from its
surroundings (external drivers).
3.3 Internal drivers

These are the internal factors or organisations internal stimuli which influence the decision to
undertake ecodesign approach. They are depicted in detail below:
3.3.1 Cost reduction

The product cost is one of the most important factors in product development. With an
ecodesign project significant financial savings may be achieved in the short and long terms by
using fewer materials for each product (e.g. reduction of the consumption of raw materials),
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Motivating factors
reducing hazardous materials (which appear in glasses for aesthetic effects and normally have
a higher price), optimising manufacturing processes (energy and water efficiency, generation
of less waste) and improving logistics.
The energy consumption represents an important spending line in the ceramic manufacturing.
Through appropriate design measures it is possible to reduce energy consumption in
manufacturing, by for example reducing the maximum temperature with fluxes agents and
modification of ceramic bodies.
Another important cost is related to the raw materials whose price is constantly increasing.
Given that raw materials account for around a fifth of total ceramics manufacturing cost any
volatility in input prices has a marked impact on overall production costs and competitiveness.
3.3.2 Innovation
New considerations in the product development lead to innovative products giving them also a
longer lifetime; that enable the company to reinforce market shares over time and to open up
new market niches. There is a trend in the European ceramic sector to the development of
high added value products, for example ventilated facades, urban pottery, lightweight bricks,
solar tiles, etc. Ecodesign is part of product innovation in the ceramic sector.
3.3.3 Quality
Ecodesign can help to increase the product quality by means of improved surface quality,
straightness of sides, durability and so on.
3.3.4 Companys image

Ecodesign could be one of the ways to improve the company image in the social surroundings.
This factor is important when customers and other important stakeholders environmental
awareness is high. This strategy has been used by the Italian manufactures to dominate the
France, German and USA markets. Once the environmental improvements of a product have
been achieved, the user must receive correct information about them. The environmental
quality can be communicated by different means, for example, by the use of eco-labels, by
providing adequate information to the clients, and by proper green marketing. Communicating
environmental benefits will improve the image of both the product and the company.
3.3.5 Companys environmental policy and environmental

management systems (EMS)
The company may be willing to improve its products environmental performance because of
its implemented environmental policy, and its constant work towards environmental
improvements. Also, the EMS (e.g. ISO 14001 or EMAS) puts emphasis on products if they are
linked to significant environmental aspects.
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Motivating factors
3.3.6 Motivation of employees

The motivation of employees may be strengthened if they perceive that they work for an
environmentally conscious company. In addition, through ecodesign it is possible to increase
workers health and safety conditions, namely through the selection of non- hazardous
materials.
3.4 External drivers

These factors do not depend on the company; they depend on external stakeholders such as
costumers, governments, environment, etc.
3.4.1 Environmental benefits

Products can cause different kind of environmental aspects and impacts during their life cycle.
The potential for environmental improvements in the product should be analyzed and is itself
a driver for ecodesign.
3.4.2 Government policies, legislation and standardization

Product-oriented environmental legislation and regulations have been developed throughout
the European Union some years ago. These EU policy measures bring the focus to products
more and more to the attention.
Ecodesign and sustainable building strategies for improving the environment are pivotal in the
implementation of any European environmental policy. That is what the strong support with
which the revision of the European Strategy for Sustainable Development was received, shows.
The Strategy, which was passed in July 2009, establishes Sustainable Consumption and
Production as one of the priority fields of action.
Ecodesign Directive (2009/125/EC) on 21 October 2009, the recast of the Ecodesign Directive
2005/32/EC, seeks to achieve a high level of protection for the environment by reducing the
potential environmental impact of energy-related products. Moreover, some ceramic
materials (e.g. bricks, ceramic tiles, roof tiles) are covered by the Council Directive 89/106/EEC
regarding construction materials, which stresses that environmental aspects are one of the
essential requirements in construction products.
These directives among other things require a modification of the design of products towards
elimination of hazardous substances, increase in recyclability at the end of their useful lifetime
and so forth.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) has also produced some standards to
address the environmental aspects and impacts during the life cycle of a product; these
standards act as a motivation factor to improve the environmental performance of the
product, such as:
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Motivating factors
ISO, 2007. ISO 21930. Sustainability in building construction Environmental

declaration of building products;
ISO 14020, Environmental labels and declarations General principles;
ISO 14025. Environmental labels and declarations Type III environmental
declarations principles and procedures;
ISO 14040. Environmental management. Life cycle assessment. Principles and
framework;
ISO 14044. Environmental management. Life cycle assessment. Requirements and
guidelines.
The ISO Technical Committee 207 on Environmental Management launched in 2008 the
project of setting up a new standard of the ISO 14000 family on incorporating ecodesign in
EMS: the future ISO 14006.
3.4.3 Market demands

The professional customers (business to business) like architects and builders, have increased
their demand in eco-friendly products. The directive 2009/125/EC (energy performance of
buildings) forces builders to use specific materials that help maintain the building energy
efficiency.
On the other hand, there is a growing demand from the consumer side for environmentally
friendly and sustainable products. In the last 5 years the Euro barometer survey on attitudes
towards the environment clearly shows that sustainable consumption and production are now
a core concern for most consumers. More and more consumers are willing to buy
environmentally friendly products, even if they have to pay a bit more.
3.4.4 Suppliers
The existing suppliers technology, materials or components could reduce the environmental
impact of products. These innovations impact should be analyzed and may represent a driver
for ecodesign.
3.4.5 Competitors
Environmental aspects are often part of a companys brand and product quality. Many leading
companies take into account those aspects and develop and sell products with the
environment in mind, thus achieving product and brand differentiation. Most companies
global competitiveness strategies are based in product differentiation, in cost, quality or
environment improvement. To this end, ecodesign is one of the tools for the ceramic product
differentiation.
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Chapter 3
Motivating factors
3.4.6 Social environment

Development is sustainable when it can "meet the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs"
United Nations Report of the Committee on Environment and Development, 1987
Demographic changes, aging populations, global warming, biodiversity loss, ecosystem

imbalance, deterioration of public health, deterioration of water quality, acidification of the
oceans, change in the coastal geography, human rights violations, chronic poverty, conflict,
natural resource depletion, increase of waste production, social exclusion and economic
stagnation of the once-dominant economies, are some, of todays most important issues of
the world. These events of chaos and uncertainty determine new methodological approaches
in the area of design, production and consumption, exploit new ways to identify opportunities,
generate ideas and implement solutions with strong potential for application in every
industrial sector of production including ceramics products.
Using critical awareness and returning to more natural solutions by changing the way we are
used to make things, well be able to directly improve the quality of life for all living beings,
including humans.
The initiatives and projects carried out by NGOs and environmental organizations have
increased awareness in todays societies regarding more eco-friendly products, since
companies are responding to societys pressure.
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Chapter 4
Innovation
4. Innovation
4.1 Introduction
Innovation is a change in the thought process of doing something, or the useful application of
new inventions or discoveries. It may refer to incremental or radical and revolutionary changes
in thinking, products, processes, or organizations. The goal of innovation is positive change, to
make something better. Innovation leading to increased productivity is the fundamental
source of increasing wealth in an economy.
Eco-innovation is a term used to describe products and processes that contribute to
sustainable development. Eco-innovation is the commercial application of knowledge to elicit
direct or indirect ecological improvements.
It is often used to describe a range of related ideas, from environmentally friendly
technological advances to socially-acceptable innovative paths towards sustainability.
Eco-innovation may include new production processes, new products or services, and new
management and business methods, including in other words all forms of innovation that
result in reducing environmental impacts. Leaders in many industries have been developing
innovative technologies in order to work towards sustainability. However, these are not always
practical, or enforced by policy and legislation.
4.2 Eco-innovation as a social process

Another position held (for example, by the organization Eco Innovation) is that this definition
should be complemented: eco-innovations should also bring greater social and cultural
acceptance. In this view, this 'social pillar' added to James' (1997) definition is necessary
because it determines learning and the effectiveness of eco-innovations.
This approach gives eco-innovations a social component, a status that is more than a new type
of commodity, or a new sector, even though environmental technology and eco-innovation are
associated with the emergence of new economic activities or even entire new market niches
(e.g., waste treatment, recycling, etc). This approach considers eco-innovation in terms of
usage rather than merely in terms of product. The social pillar associated with eco-innovation
introduces a governance component that makes eco-innovation a more integrated tool for
sustainable development.
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Chapter 4
Innovation
4.3 Types of innovation

From the product, service and system design point of view, it is possible to distinguish different
grades of environmental product innovation, expressed in a four-level model. As shown in
figure 4.2, the potentials for environmental improvement, which progressively increase from
Type 1 to Type 4, are expressed in a factor X reduction (figure 4.1) of life-cycle impact and
related to time.
Factor X is an index that compares the increase of

value (sometimes expressed in terms of quality of
life) and the reduction of the environmental impact
of a new product to those of the product being
evaluated; this index expresses the improvement in
terms of a multiple (factor).
Figure 4.1 Factor x estimation
Figure 4.2 Innovation types

Source: Rathenau Institute, 1996
Type 1: Product improvement

It involves partial changes to existing products, i.e. usage of a more environmentally friendly
material, reduction of material usage or improvements from the perspective of energy
efficiency, durability, reparability, pollution prevention during production, use and green endof-life management, etc. It means reducing consumption of resources, embodied carbon and
production of by-product waste. A limited number of adaptations in the production process or
in the supply chain are therefore necessary to achieve this basic type of innovation.
Some related examples: bricks with docking systems that reduce or eliminate the use of
mortars (figure 4.3); thickness and weight reduction of ceramic tiles, tableware and other.
Figure 4.4 shows an example of a reduced thickness tile.
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Chapter 4
Innovation
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
It is estimated that if employed on a global level, product improvement in the short term can
lead to reduced resource use, waste and emission generation by a factor of 2.
Type 2: Product redesign

It focuses on incremental environmental improvements on all technical aspects and parts of a
product, according the ecodesign principles and by means of new or best available
technologies. This level of innovation requires substantial changes in the production, supply
and distribution activities.
Some related examples: ventilated facades (figure 4.5) and c-block (figure 4.6), a brick with
high thermal, mechanical and acoustic performances.
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Experience has shown that applying extensively product redesign a reduction of environmental
pressure by a factor of 5 could be reached, though on a longer time base.
Type 3: Function innovation

It involves the change in the way the function of a product is fulfilled. Here the focus of a new
design is in the service that the consumer receives from a product and on the way the
customer uses a products function. According to an innovative environmental concept, a new
product is developed together with a new way of marketing. Becoming multi-functional,
products achieve higher added value, and industry competitiveness is increased.
Instruments that can be used to dematerialize and to shift towards producing and delivering a
system of products and services which fulfils client demands are: integration of functions,
shared used of products, leasing, etc. To pursue this level of innovation, extensive revisions of
the company management strategies have to accompany changes in the design and
production processes, as well as in the supply chain. Cooperation and development of
synergies between industrial companies and research institutions must also be enhanced.
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Chapter 4
Innovation
Examples would be: solar tiles (combining the use of ceramic materials with photovoltaic cells
for energy production in faades and roofs, figure 4.7); Eco-Active tile with anti-pollutant, antibacterial properties (figure 4.8); the development of way finding ceramic products like tactile
tiles, tiles with optical fibres or luminescent tiles (Figure 4.9 and 4.10).
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
In the medium term it should be possible to achieve improvement in the overall environmental
performance by a factor of 10.
Type 4: System innovation

It focuses on environmental improvements on the entire system of activities in order to
achieve an optimal product-service combination.
Besides the technological aspects, social and cultural aspects are also intensely considered,
especially when rather different approaches are required, such as substantial changes at the
production and organizational level, extensions of relationships and implementation of new
forms of partnerships among all stakeholders of the value chain and/or other (such as public
bodies, NGOs and consumers). This results in an integrated solution for the customer and final
consumer, supported by a solid infrastructure and a new validated business model.
Some examples that belong to this type of innovation are e-communication (e-mail, internet)
and houses or communities supplied by micro-generation renewable energies.
If globally adopted, system innovation would lead in the long term to the sustainable level
factor 20 of environmental improvement. The concept behind innovation Types 3 and 4 is
product-service systems, a new promising approach which shifts business focus from
designing and selling physical products only, to providing a system of products and services
which are jointly capable of fulfilling specific client demands with reduced impact on the
environment (see chapter 13 Design for sustainability).
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Chapter 4
Innovation
4.4 Six steps to the development of innovation projects development

How to develop an eco-innovative product, process or system in 6 steps:
Step 1: Set the goals
The first step in all improvement efforts should be to clearly identify the goals of the change
pursued, including the environment goals. This step should be defined in a team briefing
session.
Step 2: Create a team
Innovation is a team work. While, in practice, everyone can contribute with ideas and should
be kept informed of any changes, a smaller group to carry out the bulk of the work is needed.
A team representing the different functions should be assembled, for example a 10 people
group formed by designers, production managers, commercial managers, environmental
managers, etc. This team should have a leadership with global project vision.
Step 3: Identify outside ideas, benchmarking
In many cases, it is not necessary to reinvent the wheel. It is crucial to look for and analyze
great ideas from external resources like competitors, other sector companies with similar
technologies and others.
Step 4: Generate new ideas
One of the ways to generate innovative ideas is to engage in activities that force one to think
beyond the status quo, as it is presented in chapter 10 Creative thinking and its related
tools. This process includes activities such as: spending time observing the processes related to
the projects aim; drawing a "map" of the steps involved and challenging the assumptions
associated with each step; collecting the staff's observations, and also those from outside
observers, and others.
Step 5: Test the innovation on a small scale
Putting ideas into action, and testing their impact, is the heart of innovation. The team has to
turn ideas into prototypes, showing how they might work in practice. The prototype should be
tested on a small scale using modelling tools.
Step 6: Evaluate the success of the prototype
The team should make sure that every test measures key outcomes; a negative evaluation of
prototype A could be the start point for the successful B prototype. Based on the
outcomes of the test, the proposed idea should be revised and then retested. Gradually, the
proposed idea will be introduced to a larger test group and then to the entire practice. But
practice-wide implementation isn't the end of the line. Ongoing evaluation and improvements
are critical for long-term success.
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Chapter 5
Market analysis
5. Market analysis
5.1 Introduction
The goal of a market analysis is to determine the attractiveness of a market and to understand
its evolving opportunities and threats, as they relate to the strengths and weaknesses of the
firm. In our case, the market analysis will determine the potential of the ceramic ecodesigned
products market and how to supply it.
From a marketer's perspective, marketing analysis consists of the consideration of every angle
of a specific market to determine policies, for example ecodesign European directive, that will
help a company capture a larger market share and/or make the share they already control
more profitable. The market analysis of customer desire and satisfaction is a large part of
marketing. Logit analysis, a statistical technique used by marketers to assess the scope of
customer acceptance of a product, attempts to determine the intensity or magnitude of
customers' purchasing intentions and to translate that into a measure of the customers actual
buying behaviour.
For companies, market analysis is crucial because investing too much money could create a
massive loss, while investing few monies could result in loss of customer satisfaction thus
opening the door to competitors.
Market analysis may also focus at the share a company holds in a particular market, with the
aim of determining how to augment it, for example by supplying new international markets.
Unlike logit analysis, this type of market analysis, known as market share analysis, is geared
more towards entrenched product lines. The goal of market share analysis is not to determine
whether a customer would purchase a product, but rather to examine customer loyalty levels,
brand perception, and the overall competitive edge of the company, and to come up with a
strategy on how to attract market share from competitors and use it to increase one's own. Its
known that some ceramic markets like the German, French and American ones are now mainly
supplied by a few manufacturers and this type of market analysis could help a new company to
find ways to introduce its products to these markets.
5.2 Market analysis project
Market size (current and future);

Market growth rate;
Market trends;
Market profitability;
Industry cost structure;
Marketing management;
Key success factors.
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Chapter 5
Market analysis
5.2.1 Market size

Market size = Company sales + Competitors sales
The size of the market can be evaluated based on present and potential sales, if the use of the
product were expanded. The following are some information sources for determining market
size:
Government data;
Trade associations;
Financial data from major players;
Customer surveys.
The market size analysis should be done taking into account the evolution of the previous
years, to identify growth rates.
5.2.2 Market growth rate

A simple means of forecasting market growth rate is to extrapolate historical data into the
future, for example, extrapolation of some countries ecodesign product market data to
provide an estimation of this markets evolution in other countries. While this method may
provide an initial estimate, it does not predict important turning points. A better method is to
study growth drivers, such as demographic information, country legislation, environmental
standards and sales growth in complementary products. Such drivers serve as leading
indicators, and provide more accuracy than the mere extrapolation of historical data.
Important inflection points in the market growth rate can sometimes be predicted by
constructing a product diffusion curve. The shape of the curve can be estimated by studying
the characteristics of the adoption rate of a similar product in the past.
5.2.3 Market trends

Changes in the market are important because they often are the source of new opportunities
and threats. Ecodesign is a unique opportunity for product differentiation, while regional
trends and strategies like Europe 2020 are very important to estimate the future market.
5.2.4 Market profitability

While different firms in a market achieve different levels of profitability, the average profit
potential for a market can be used as a guideline for knowing how difficult it is to make money
in the market.
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Chapter 5
Market analysis
Michael Porter devised a useful framework for evaluating the attractiveness of an industry or
market. This framework, known as Porter's five forces, identifies five factors that influence
market profitability (figure 5.1):
Buyer power
Supplier power
Barriers to entry
Threat of substitute products
Rivalry among firms in the industry
Figure 5.1 Schematic view of Porters five forces

Source: Porter, 1980
Another tool to evaluate the attractiveness of the ecodesign product-market is the SWOT
analysis method used to evaluate the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats
involved in a project or business venture. It involves specifying the objective of the business
venture or project and identifying the internal and external factors that promote or hinder that
objective.
5.2.5 Industry cost structure

The cost structure is important in identifying key factors for success. To this end, Porter's chain
model is useful for determining where value is added and for isolating the costs.
The cost structure is also helpful for formulating strategies to develop a competitive
advantage, such as ecodesigned products for the ceramic sector. This kind of project will help
increase market share and at the same time reduce cost structure.
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Chapter 5
Market analysis
Figure 5.2 Porters model of the value chain

Source: Porter, 1980.
5.3 Marketing management

The major marketing management decisions can be classified in one of the following four
categories:
Product; In this case an ecodesigned ceramic product differentiated from the
competitors products.
Price; The price should be determined according to the added value of the product and
the market demand and offer.
Placement; The following aspects of the distribution system are useful in a market
analysis:
- Existing distribution channels can be described by how direct they are to the
customer.
- Trends and emerging channels; new channels like internet 2.0 can offer the
opportunity to develop a competitive advantage.
Promotion; There are a lot of ceramic products and much more substitute products,
thus the key to increase sales and market share of a specific product (or product line)
will be the way this product (or product line) and brand are promoted.
These variables are known as the marketing mix or the 4 P's of marketing. They are the
variables that marketing managers can control in order to best satisfy customers in the target
market.
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Chapter 5
Market analysis
5.4 Key success factors

The key success factors are those elements that are necessary for the firm to achieve its
marketing objectives. A few examples of such factors include:
Access to essential unique resources;

Ability to achieve economies of scale;
Access to distribution channels;
Technological progress;
Environment improvement.
It is important to consider that key success factors may change over time, especially as the
product progresses through its life cycle.
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6. Environmental analysis
6.1 Environmental analysis based on life cycle thinking
Every product has an impact on the environment during all stages of its life-cycle, e.g.
extraction of resources, acquisition of raw materials, production, distribution, use
(application), reuse, end-of-life treatment, including final disposal (ISO, 2008). The
environmental aspects are the elements of an organizations activities, products and services
that can interact with environment (ISO 14001, 2004 handbook):
Direct environmental aspects are those referring to the activity of an organization
which can be controlled;
Indirect environmental aspects are those referring to the activity of an organization,
which cannot be fully controlled by the organization.
The environmental impacts are the effects of the environmental aspects, that is, they are the
changes in the environment, either adverse or beneficial which can result wholly or partially
from environmental aspects (ISO 14001, 2004 handbook).
These impacts range from slight to significant; they can be short-term or long-term; and they
occur at global, regional or local levels (ISO, 2008). Provisions in product standards have an
influence on environmental impacts of products (ISO, 2008). The prediction, identification and
quantification of environmental impacts during the life-cycle is a complex process.
To identify and understand their environmental aspects, the organizations must collect
quantitative and/or qualitative data on the characteristics of their activities, products and
services, such as inputs and outputs of materials and energy, processes and technology used,
facilities and transports. In fact, organizations should consider the environmental aspects they
can directly control (direct aspects), as well as those they can influence (indirect aspects).
Direct environmental aspects include:
Air emissions (from chimneys and fugitive emissions);

Water releases (domestic and industrial);
Waste production and treatment;
Use of natural resources and raw materials (including water, natural resources,
electric energy and fuel);
Local issues (noise, odor, dust, visual appearance, etc.);
Transportation issues (both for goods and services and employees);
Risks of environmental accidents and impacts arising (or likely to be encountered),
as consequences of incidents, accidents and potential emergency situations.
Page 54
Indirect environmental aspects include:

Product related issues (design, development, packaging, transportation, use and
waste recovery/disposal);
The environmental performance and practices of contractors, subcontractors and
suppliers;
Energy production and transportation.
The ceramic products, like many other sectors, generates over its life cycle, a series of
environmental impacts (Almeida et al, 2004, 2009; Bovea et al, 2007; European Commission,
2008; Timellini et al, 1998) from the extraction of resources to the final disposal of waste
ceramics. Figure 6.1 represents the life cycle phases and system boundaries of the ceramic
materials.
Figure 6.1 Life cycle phases of ceramic products

Source: Almeida, 2010
As shown in figure 6.1, the most common environmental aspects in the ceramic sector over
the life cycle of a product are related to:
Consumption of mineral resources, energy and water;
Air emissions resultant from thermal processes (drying and firing) and cold processes
(due to the handling of dusty materials);
Emissions of industrial and domestic effluents;
Production of waste;
Noise;
Land use;
Transport.
Page 55
For each environmental aspect there are one or more environmental impacts (based on a
cause and effect relationship). In figure 2 there are some examples of environmental impacts
like climate change, acidification, eutrophication, ozone layer depletion, etc.
Figure 6.2 - Scheme of a products life cycle along the supply chain of production, the products useful
life and disposal procedures, as well as the related impact topics
Source: European Commission, 2007
6.2 Methods of environmental analysis of the life cycle

Various qualitative and quantitative methods are established for the environmental analysis of
the product and for setting environmental priorities.
Some examples include qualitative methods like ecodesign checklists and Environmental
Assessment; others are based on semi-quantitative methods, like MET matrix
(materials/energy/toxicity), MIPS (material intensity per service unit) or CED (cumulative
energy demand); and others are quantitative like Eco-indicator and Life Cycle Assessment.
Below there is a summary of the most common tools for environmental analysis, all of which
take into consideration the life cycle approach. Practical examples are also available in tools 6
MET matrix and 9 Ecodesign checklists for ceramics.
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6.2.1
Examples of tools for environmental analysis
In this chapter, a short description of the most common environmental analysis methods is
provided. The comparison of these methods is presented in table 6.1.
Impact analysis/assessment
Semi-quantitative and objective
- MET (W): Materials, Energy, Toxicity (and Waste)
- MIPS: Material Input per Service Unit
- CED: Cumulative Energy Demand
Quantitative and objective
- Ecoindicator
- LCA: Life Cycle Assessment
- ReCiPe Method
Improvement analysis
Qualitative and subjective
- Ecodesign checklists
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Chapter 6
Environmental analysis
Table 6.1 Description and comparison of tools and methods for environmental analysis
Analysis tool
Ecodesign
checklists
Description
List of questions on relevant
aspects of the product life
cycle. It helps to identify
strengths and weaknesses.
Advantages
- Simplicity
- Easy communication of
improvements
- Useful for raising
awareness
LiDS Wheel
Identifies the degree of

implementation of
improvements in a product
throughout its life cycle. It is
expressed by a graph with axes
that correspond to the stages
of the life cycle, on which the
degree of implementation is
indicated. The area indicates
the magnitude of impacts
(area = impact).
- Easy reading of the

results
- Considers the entire life
cycle
- Facilitates
communication of
improvements
MET(W):
Materials,
Energy,
Toxicity (and
Waste)
Overview of inputs and

outputs through qualitative
and quantitative analysis, in
which critical points are
detected.
- Initial quantification
- Results easy to
understand
- Easy detection of
critical points
Disadvantages
- Too much
subjectivity
- It may be
incomplete if it is
not adapted to the
sector
- Subjectivity
- Considers all stages
as equally
important
Results may vary
depending on the
capacity and
experience of the
team
- It does not assess

or quantifies
impacts
- It does not include
all impacts
Example
Example: Coffee machine

Functional Unit: 2 capd/day turing 5 years
Life Cycle
Materials
Energy
Steps
Raw materials
1 kg PS
149.51 MJ
0.3 kg steel
raw materials
0.4 kg
extraction
aluminium
and
0.4 kg glass
production +
0.01 kg PVC
energy for
transport
Manufacturing
Printed circuit
--
Distribution
Use
End of life
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400 g cardboard
40 g paper
10 g PE
7.2 kg paper
filters
1095 l water
--
1.03 MJ for
packaging
manufacture
3.2 MJ/coffee
--
Toxics
Wastes
PS: benzene
Flame
retardarnt
(printed
circuits)
Chlorine
(paper)
Plastic scraps
--
1,095 l waste water
--
2.5 kg nonrecyclable material
--
Chapter 6
Analysis tool
MIPS: Material
per Service
Unit
Description
The MIPS concept can be used
to measure eco-efficiency of a
product or service and can be
applied in any project, from
the creation of a single product
to complex systems. The
calculation takes into account
materials required to produce
a product or provide a service.
The total material input (MI) is
divided by the number of
service units (S).
Advantages
- Initial quantification of
environmental aspects
- Easy understanding of
the results
- Quick check of
alternative products
Disadvantages
- It does not consider
the emissions over
the life cycle
Example
Source: Wuppertal Institute
20000
CED:
Cumulative
Energy
Demand
Amount of energy consumed

directly or indirectly during the
life cycle of a product.
- Easy understanding or
the results
- Quick check of
alternative products
- It is difficult to
include indirect
consumption
Page 59
Plastics
Total CED
MJ/kg
CED Nonrenewable
PE-HDPE
PE-LDPE
EPS
PP
PS
PVC
46.9
52.2
67.5
65.9
54.6
39.6
46.6
51.5
66.5
64.5
54.3
39.9
CED
renewable
CED Others
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.3
0.7
0.4
1.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
-0.6
Source: Ok-Institut, 2000
Chapter 6
Analysis tool
LCA: Life Cycle
Assessment
Description
Assessment of products,
processes or services to
objectively quantify the
environmental impacts
throughout the life cycle, using
its materials and energy inputs
and outputs.
Eco-indicator
ReCiPe
Advantages
- System overview
- Identification /
quantification of
Disadvantages
- It assesses
potential global
impacts, not real
- Complexity in the
development and
application of the
tool
Rating/weighting of
environmental impacts by
converting the results to a
single value.
- It quantifies
- Results easy to
understand
- Relatively easy to
implement
- No data for all

systems and
materials
- Inaccuracy of the
models
- A degree of
subjectivity in the
weighting of the
impacts
The primary objective of the

ReCiPe method is to transform
the long list of inventory
results, to a limited number of
indicator scores. These
indicator scores express the
relative severity of an
- It quantifies
- A degree of
subjectivity in the
weighting of the
impacts
Page 60
Example
Metals manufacturing (milipoints per kg)

Material
Indicator
Description
Cast iron
240
cast iron with a> 2% carbon
Steel converters 94
blocks of material containing
only primary steel
Electric arc
24
blocks containing only scrap
steel
material (secondary steel)
Steel
86
material blocks 80% of primary
iron and 20% remains
High Alloy Steel
910
steel, 16% Cr and 13% Ni
Low Alloy Steel
110
steel, 5% and 1% remains alloy
materials
Example of a harmonised midpoint-endpoint model for

climate change, linking to human health and ecosystem
damage
Chapter 6
Analysis tool
Description
environmental impact
category. In ReCiPe, two levels
of indicators are determined:
1. Eighteen midpoint indicators
2. Three endpoint indicators
Advantages
Disadvantages
Page 61
Example
All aforementioned methods of environmental analysis are based on life cycle thinking, i.e.
they analyze potential environmental impacts of a product during its entire life cycle, from its
cradle to grave. Life-cycle thinking refers to the consideration of all environmental aspects of
a product at all stages of its lifecycle. Particular improvements targeted at a specific life-cycle
stage can adversely affect environmental impacts at other stages of the product life cycle (ISO
Guide, 2008). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is the only standardized method for quantitative
environmental Life Cycle Thinking by ISO 14040 and ISO 14044.
The most detailed information is required; the most complete environmental analysis must be
applied. Therefore environmental analysis methods vary in their complexity, data
requirements and consumption of time and money. The simplicity and complexity of some
different methods is presented in figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3 Simplicity and complexity of different environmental analysis methods
Quantitative environmental analysis is generally performed when a very detailed evaluation or

environmental prioritization based on available data is required. In addition, it is used when
the environmental benefits of a newly developed product need to be evaluated and compared
to the former product or other alternative products.
6.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is one of the internationally most common accepted tools for
assessing and demonstrating the environmental impacts of products and services (ISO, 2006
a,b), since it is the only standardized method, according to ISO 14040 and ISO 14044.
This tool is about the assessment of the environmental impacts of products (or services) in all
stages of their life cycle, from extraction or acquisition of resources, through production,
transportation, use and disposal of products (i.e. from "cradle to grave").
This type of tool is recognized by the Green Paper on Integrated Product Policy (European
Commission, 2001), which proposes the use of methodologies that assess the environmental
behaviour of products considering their entire life cycle.
The function of the product system is quantified as a functional unit to evaluate the
environmental performance of the function fulfilled by the product. The consumer appreciates
the products (and services) function and can also be aware of their environmental impacts.
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The functional unit, defined in the ISO 14040 as the "quantified performance of a product
system for use as a reference, corresponds to a reference flow to which all other modeled
flows of the system are related, so the aforementioned functional unit needs to be
quantitative. It should be remembered that the functional unit does not relate to production
or consumption volumes, only to product function.
This process also allows the comparison of data from LCA, considering different materials,
components, processes or products with the same function. For example if we want to
consider a ceramic tea pot for water, its functional unit could be: a product to contain and
serve one liter of tea twice a week during 5 years or if we consider a ceramic tile, its functional
unit could be X m2 to cover walls (or floors) for 40 years. Attention must be payed to
comparisons, since it is not possible to compare two LCA studies even of two products with the
same functionality, if they are not based on the same scenario or scope.
In LCA, the potential environmental impacts are expressed by impact categories. The impact
categories can be for example acidification, eutrophication, global warming, ozone depletion,
biodiversity or shorter length of life of humans.
The effect on the environment in each impact category is quantified through each categorys
impacts indicators e.g. kg SO2 in the case of acidification potential or Kg of equivalent CO2 in
the case of global warming potential.
According to ISO14040 and ISO14044, the four phases of a LCA study are:
a) Goal and scope definition,
b) Inventory analysis,
c) Impact assessment, and
d) Interpretation.
Figure 6.4 Methodology of life cycle assessment

Source: ISO14040
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a) The goal and scope definition of LCA, including system boundary and level of detail,
depends on the subject and the intended use of the study. The depth of a Life Cycle
Assessment can differ considerably depending on its goal.
The goals of an LCA can include: the intended application (e.g. ceramic brick for construction
works); the reasons for carrying out the study (e.g. improvement in the ceramic factory,
namely firing conditions), the audience (to whom the results of the study are intended to be
communicated), etc.
The following issues should be considered within the scope definition: product system;
function of the product system; functional unit, the system boundary, allocation procedure,
LCIA methodology, type of impact assessment and interpretation, data requirements,
assumptions and limitations data requirements; eventual limitations, assumptions, type of
critical review and reporting.
b) The life cycle inventory analysis phase (LCI phase) is the second phase of LCA. It is an
inventory of input/output data with regard to the system being studied. It involves the
collection of the data necessary to meet the goals of the defined study.
The inventory data may include, but is not limited to, the use of mineral resources (e.g. clay,
inert, feldspar, sand, kaolin), the use of services (like transportation or energy supply), the use
of ancillary materials (like lubricants), the consumption of water, the air emissions (carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, fluorine, chlorine, etc), the water or
soil emissions etc.
As a general rule, process flowcharts are the essential part of this phase. Inventory data gives
the basis for the life cycle impact assessment.
Data collection is one of the most time consumering task/phase. Adequate documentation of
the data collection will assure the quality of the results.
c) The Life Cycle Impact Assessment phase (LCIA) is the third phase of the LCA. LCIA aims at
describing the consequences of the environmental loads quantified in the respective analysis.
The impact assessment is achieved by translating the environmental loads from the
inventory results into environmental impacts, in categories related to the data collected in the
previous phase (for e.g. acidification, global warming, ozone depletion, resources depletion,
eutrophication, etc). The level of detail, choice of impact categories and evaluation
methodologies, strongly depends on the goal and scope of the LCA study.
According to ISO 14044, the LCIA phase should include the following mandatory elements:
Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterization models;
Assignment of LCI results to the selected impact categories (classification);
Calculation of category indicator results (characterization).
Page 64
d) Life Cycle interpretation is the final phase of the LCA procedure, in which the results of an
LCI or an LCIA, or both, are summarized and discussed on a basis for conclusions,
recommendations and decision-making in accordance to the goal and scope definition (ISO
14044).
6.4 Examples of LCA application in ceramics

There are several studies of LCA regarding ceramic materials, especially brick and tiles. For
bricks there are studies published in the USA (Hodge, 2007), Greece (Koroneos, 2007) and
Portugal (Almeida et al, 2010), while for ceramic tiles, publications are available in Italy
(Timellini et al, 1998), Spain (Bovea, 2007, 2010) and Portugal (Almeida et al, 2010).
There is also the EU ecolabel (type I) on hard covering (including ceramic tiles) that was based
on the life cycle approach - decision n 2009/607/CE, 9 of July 2009.
A schematic overview of the results of an LCA regarding ceramic tiles at a sectoral level carried
out by ITC1 and GiGa-ESCI2 at the request of ASCER3 is presented below. The study aims at the
determination of the magnitude and nature of environmental impacts generated by ceramic
tiles along their life cycle. The study took into account the types of tiles manufactured mostly
in Spain and the most common existing production techniques.
The system analyzed is presented in figure 6.5, divided in 4 phases:
Phase A: extraction of raw materials and transportation to the manufacturing plant,
preparation of raw materials and tile manufacturing;
Phase B: transportation to the building;
Phase C: installation, use and maintenance and
Phase D: end of life of ceramic tiles.
The excluded parameters were those related to industrial equipments and the waste recycling
process, due to the allocation procedure used; moreover, excluded were those impacts
generated by inputs that make up for less than 1% of the tile (in weight).
Instito de Tecnologa Cermica. Asociacin de Investigacin de las Industrias Cermicas (AICE). Universitat Jaume I,
Castelln, Spain.
2
Grupo de Investigacin en Gestin Ambiental, Escuela Superior de Comercio Internacional. Universidad Pompeu
Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
3
Spanish Association of ceramic tiles manufacturers. Spain
Page 65
Figure 6.5 System analyzed in a LCA of ceramic tiles
Impact category
Table 6.2 - Impact categories assessed

Unit
Method
Abiotic Depletion (ADP)
kg Sb-Equiv.
CML2001
Acidification Potential (AP)
kg SO2-Equiv.
CML2001
Eutrophication Potential (EP)
kg Phosphate-Equiv.
CML2001
Global Warming Potential (GWP 100 years)
kg CO2-Equiv.
CML2001
Ozone Layer Depletion Potential (ODP, steady state)
kg R11-Equiv.
CML2001
Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP)
kg Ethene-Equiv.
CML2001
MJ
CML2001
kg
CML2001
Primary energy demand from ren. and non ren.

resources (net cal. value) reference fluxes
Water - reference fluxes
As an example, figure 6.6 presents a graph showing the contribution of the life cycle phases to
each impact category as a percentage of the total environmental impact of a porcelanic tile.
Page 66
Porcelanic tile
A Extraction and manufactoring
B Transport
C Instalation and use D End- of lifea
Figure 6.6 - Contribution of the life cycle phases to each impact category
The LCA study results show that manufacturing has the highest environmental impact for all
impact categories analyzed and for all types of tiles. The primary energy consumption of a nonrenewable origin (for instance the consumption of natural gas in the process of spray drying,
drying and firing, causing a 71% contribution on the indicator of Global Warming Potential
GWP) during the manufacturing of tiles is the largest contributor to the environmental impact
of this product.
Regarding the assessment of impacts during the use stage, it is worth indicating that the use of
tiles as covering materials in floors, walls or even exterior walls, has a great advantage over
other equivalent products, because their useful life is much longer. Moreover, the impacts of
the usage stage have been mainly attributed to the cleaning during a time span of 50 years;
moreover a ceramic tile product does not require any service, thus minimizing energy
consumption during its lifetime.
In order to identify significant environmental aspects and to establish improvement strategies
to minimize them, the relevance of each of them and their influence on the results have been
identified by a sensitivity analysis, where it was determined that the weight of tile, thermal
energy consumption and waste management are the critical points.
Another example of LCA (cradle-to-gate) in order to support EPD (environmental product
declaration) was performed by CTCV4 upon request of APICER 5.
This LCA examines the stages for the production of bricks, from cradle to customer's gate,
including the process of mining and mining facilities, transportation, production in factory and
its distribution to end users (based on scenarios). The methodology takes into account the ISO
14040 series, ISO 21930 and the EPD rules. In general, the impacts are mostly focused on air
quality, particularly at the production level during the firing operation.
The functional unit used was 1 tonne of bricks ready to be sold (for a brick 9, dimensions
30*20*09 cm, 1,000 kg is equivalent to 14,6 m2).
4
5
Centro Tecnolgico da Cermica e do Vidro, Portugal

APICER Associao Portuguesa da indstria de Cermica
Page 67
A cut-off rule was established in order to decide which materials associated to these phases
should be included within the boundaries. Thus, the materials representing less than 0.5% of
the functional unit were left outside the boundaries.
The phases corresponding to consumer use and final disposal of the product were also
excluded, as along with transportation and final disposal of industrial waste. The construction
phases of the plant and the remaining infrastructure, production of manufacturing equipment
and personnel activities were also excluded.
Environmental indicators were obtained for the impact categories shown in table 6.3, together
with the indicator that quantifies them. The impact categories correspond to those proposed
by the EPDSYSTEM (www.environdec.com) and the characterization factors were those
suggested by CML 2001 method (www.cml.leiden.edu).
Table 6.3 Impact categories and units considered in the study
Impact category
Unit
Total
Global warming (GWP100)
kg CO2 eq
170
Ozone layer depletion (ODP)
kg CFC-11 eq
1.8E-05
Photochemical oxidation
kg C2H4
0,075
Acidification
kg SO2 eq
0,565
Eutrophication
kg PO4--- eq
0,076
Note: Data for the functional unit: 1 tonne, including 100 km of distribution to the customer
In the global warming category, the main contribution comes from the production phase,
namely the burning of natural gas in the stage of drying and firing. Transportation and the clay
mining process are less relevant.
In the ozone layer depletion category, the profile of contributions seem to be mainly due to
natural gas distribution and the emissions from the combustion of diesel in the transports
associated to clay consumption, brick storage and distribution.
The photochemical oxidation category is predominated by the drying and firing processes in
brick production that emit nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), carbon oxides (COx) and
hydrocarbons during the combustion of natural gas and also during the combustion of diesel
during the transportation. The emissions of SOx produced during the production of the
electrical power used by the machinery in brick production, play also an important role in this
impact category.
Acidification is mainly due to NOx and SO2 emitted during the drying and firing of the ceramic
brick and during the combustion of fuels in transports.
Eutrophication is mainly due to NOx emitted during the combustion of the natural gas used in
drying and firing of the ceramic brick and during the combustion of fuels in transports.
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Chapter 7
Economic analysis
7. Economic analysis
7.1 Introduction
When selecting the most appropriate ecodesign strategies, it is necessary to evaluate both the
environmental and the economic benefits as well as the effects they may have on users.
Aiming at potential eco-efficient product development, namely achieve greater environmental
impacts reduction through lowest possible cost, this manual proposes the development of a
chapter that provides basic facts about the economic analysis of environmental improvements
defined in previous chapters.
There are various tools and methodologies to analyze economic cost of products, applied
depending on the objectives, scope and applicant.
One of the key elements for each product development process is the economic evaluation of
proposed design concepts. Since the aim for ecodesign is to reduce the environmental impact
of products and services, the economic assessment focuses on the costs of the product life
cycle that can change due to ecodesign.
When working on ecodesign, designers try to reduce environmental impacts over the entire
product life cycle. This means that in economic terms, one inevitably has to address the
product life cycle as well. The term used for this assessment is Life Cycle Costing (LCC).
Recently, several approaches have been developed to assess the economic aspects of products
with better environmental profile. This chapter first reviews the methods currently available
and their interdependence. It then introduces a simple methodology to assess the economic
viability of an ecodesigned product.
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Chapter 7
Economic analysis
7.2 Types of economic assessment: Life Cycle Costing and Cost-Benefit

Analysis
7.2.1 Life Cycle Costing
There are several methods for economic analysis taking into account the entire life cycle.
FIGURE 7.1 THE 3 TYPES OF LIFE CYCLE COSTING (LCC)

SOURCE: HUNKELER ET AL., 2008
7.2.2 Conventional Life Cycle Costing

The assessment of all costs associated with the life cycle of a product is directly covered by the
main producer or user during the product life cycle. The assessment is focused on real, internal
costs, sometimes even without consideration on end of life or use costs, if these are borne by
others. A conventional LCC is not accompanied by separate LCA results. The perspective is
mostly that of one market actor, either the manufacturer, the user or consumer (Hunkeler et
al., 2008).
Conventional LCC, as it will be designated in this document, is a well-established technique,
dating back to the 1930s. It is the traditional and current practice of governments and
important firms, since it was understood that in the procurement process acquisition costs
were overemphasized in relation to operating and follow-up costs.1
It is a purely economic evaluation and considers various stages of the life cycle, but generally
includes costs associated with production borne by a given actor (Hunkeler et al., 2008).
Even though Conventional LCC is demand driven, leading to separate approaches and
application fields, several standards regarding the harmonization of conventional LCC
application are available: for example, IEC 60300-3-3 (International Electrotechnical
Page 70
Chapter 7
Economic analysis
Commission, 2004), ISO 15663, SAE-ARP4293/94, DoD 1973 (US Department of Defense 1973),
and AS/NZS 4536 (Standards Australia and Standards New Zeland 1999). In addition, different
methods for performing Conventional LCC have been described in literature, e.g. Dhillon, 1989;
Ellram 1993, 1994, 1995; Fuller and Peterson 1996; Riezler 1996; Zehbold 1996; Australian
Department of Defence 1998.
As an example of the conventional life cycle costing in the ceramic industry, a report drafted in
2005 by Giorgio Olivieri & Associati for Assopiastrelle (Italian Association of Ceramic Tiles and
Refractory Products) is presented. Some of its results are shown below:
Determining total average cost: the average cost is obtained by summing the costs of
manufacturing, commercial and administrative.
Table 7.1 Average manufacturing costs (per sqm of ceramic tile)
Manufacturing costs (Euros)
2003
Raw materials for ceramic body
1.01
Raw materials for glazes and colours
0.91
Electricity
0.45
Thermal energy
0.72
Maintenance
0.47
Packaging materials
0.25
Production personnel
1.53
Total manufacturing costs
5.34
2004
0.99
0.88
0.43
0.74
0.46
0.24
1.50
5.24
Table 7.2 Average commercial costs (per sqm of ceramic tile)

Commercial costs (Euros)
2003
Intermediary commissions
0.56
Marketing, advertising, fairs, etc.
0.89
Sales staff
0.34
Total commercial costs
1.79
2004
0.54
0.86
0.34
1.74
Table 7.3 Average administrative costs (per sqm of ceramic tile)

Administrative costs (Euros)
2003
Financial charges
0.23
Depreciation
0.57
Overhead costs
0.26
Administrative staff
0.14
Total administrative costs
1.20
2004
0.20
0.54
0.24
0.13
1.11
Total costs
Manufacturing costs
Commercial costs
Administrative costs
Total costs
Table 7.4 Average total costs (per sqm of ceramic tile

2003
5.34
1.79
1.79
9.10
2004
5.24
1.74
1.89
8.87
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Chapter 7
Economic analysis
7.2.3 Environmental life cycle costing

Environmental Life Cycle Costing refers to the assessment of all costs associated with the life
cycle of a product directly covered by one or more entities in the product life cycle (supplier,
manufacturer, user or consumer and/or end of life administrator), including externalities that
are anticipated to be internalized in the decision-relevant future (hence, anticipated costs), as
well as, on the other hand, to the separate non monetized Life Cycle Assessment results. A
product system according to ISO 14040/44 (2006) should be used as a basis for both, under the
perspective of one or more given market actors, mostly manufacturers. If relevant, subsidies
and taxes should be included in the Environmental LCC.
Environmental LCC is a Steady-State model, such as the Environmental Life Cycle Assessment,
but it should always be complemented by Life Cycle Assessment, relating the system boundary
to a functional unit equivalent to LCA, since it is based on the same product system model.
The new methodology provides a sound combination of both environmental and economic
performance of a product that can help guide technological development and managerial
decisions in a more rational direction, identifying win-win situations, and optimizing trade-offs
between the environmental and the economic and business views.
The general scope of Environmental LCC is defined within the conceptual framework outlined
in figure 7.2. The conceptual framework on Environmental LCC is based on the physical
product life cycle, discerning 5 stages that can be further refined if needed: raw materials
extraction and processing, production of materials and components, manufacturing, use and
maintenance and end of life.
Figure 7.2 Conceptual framework of environmental LCC.

Source: Rebitzer and Hunkeler, 2003.
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Chapter 7
Economic analysis
Two types of costs are differentiated in figure 7.2 (Rebitzer and Hunkeler, 2003):
Internal costs: implying that someone a producer, transporter, consumer, or other
involved stakeholder is paying for the production, use and end of life expenses, and
thereby, internal costs can be connected to business costs. This internal cost definition
refers to all the costs and revenues within the economic system (inside the fine line in
figure 7.2).
External costs that are already priced in monetary units, due to their to-be-internalized
character in the decision-relevant future, and remain so; there is no conversion from
environmental measurements to monetary measures or vice versa. There should be no
double counting of externalities in LCC and the complementary LCA.
Unfortunately, there are no publicly available examples of Environmental life cycle costing of
ceramic products. Since the LCC Environmental studies are considerably large to be included in
this manual, examples like the one available below are transferred from the book of Rebitzer
and Hunkeler, 2003:
Wastewater treatment plant

An environmental life cycle costing study of a municipal wastewater treatment plant in
Switzerland was undertaken, with results being directly applicable to other European
Countries as well. It was found that the inclusion of both upstream and downstream processes
is essential for determining improved options for wastewater treatment.
When assessing options for the treatment of municipal wastewater and supporting decision
making in this context, one must focus not only on the quality of the end product, the cleaned
water, but also on the costs for the operation of the wastewater treatment plant. The impacts
and costs caused by the operation of the plant as well as by upstream processes (e.g., the
production ancillaries) and downstream operations (e.g., treatment and transport of produced
sludge) also need to be taken into account.
The aim of this study was to analyze both, environmental impacts and cost of the entire life
cycle of wastewater treatment, in order to identify the drivers for environmental impacts and
costs, to determine trade-offs, and to provide recommendations for improved and more
sustainable wastewater management. A detailed elaboration of the case study is given by
Rebitzer et al., 2002. The study examined medium-sized (50 000 person equivalent) municipal
wastewater treatments, using biological treatment followed by sludge digestion.
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Chapter 7
Economic analysis
Figure 7.3 Model of the LCA system for municipal wastewater treatment.
Source: Rebitzer et al., 2002.
Figure 7.4 Costs of the different elements of the wastewater treatment system.
Source: Rebitzer et al., 2002.
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Chapter 7
Economic analysis
7.2.4 Societal life cycle costing

Societal Life Cycle Costing refers to the assessment of all costs associated with the life cycle of
a product that are covered by anyone in the society, whether today or in the long-term future.
Societal LCC includes all environmental LCC plus additional assessments of further external
costs, usually in monetary terms (for example based on willingness-to-pay methods).
Estimations are determined from an overall social perspective, be it national and/or
international, including governments. Compared to environmental LCC, subsidies and taxed
have not net costs effect to Societal Life Cycle Costing, and hence are not included in that
assessment, because when all actors in society are considered, payments between them
cancel out and what remains as cost is only the value added in all activities involved.
Cost-Benefit analysis may be considered as a source of ideas regarding how to consider a social
cost perspective for the development of societal LCC.
Societal LCC is used to quantify environmental effects on society in money terms and may be
seen as a useful concept to link environmental life cycle approaches to Corporate Social
Responsibility or policy decisions.
All three costing types have a functional-oriented systems perspective, implying a life cycle
approach of some sort. The differences between conventional LCC, environmental LCC, and
societal LCC, as mentioned, are categorized in Table 7.4.
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Chapter 7
Economic analysis
Table 7.4 Comparison of the three LCC types.

Source: Hunkeler et al., 2008
Aspect
Conventional LCC
Environmental LCC
Societal LCC
Value added compared

to conventional LCC
---
Consistent to
environmental assessment
(LCA) and consistent
approach for sustainability
assessment of products
Opportunity costs or credits

considered
Product systems (model)
Life cycle, without end of

life phase (and sometimes
use phase) if not borne by
main actor
Complete life cycle
Complete life cycle
System boundaries
Only internal costs
Perspectives: actors
Mainly one actor, either

the manufacturer or the
user or consumer
Reference Unit
Item or product
Functional unit
System
Costs categories
Mainly acquisition costs

(R&D, costs, and
investment costs) and
ownership costs (operating
costs, maybe disposal
costs)
Mainly costs of
development, materials,
energy, machines, labour,
waste mgmt, emission
controls, transport,
maintenance and repair,
liability, taxes and
subsidies
Mainly costs of construction,

maintenance and
environmental damages; taxes
and subsidies have no net cost
effect
Cost model
Generally quasi-dynamic
model
Steady-State model
Generally quasi-dynamic
model
Discounting results of
LCC
Recommended
(but usually not applied)
Inconsistent and not

recommended
Recommended
Discounting of cash flows

for calculation
Recommended
Recommended
Recommended
LCA according to
ISO 14040/44
No
Yes
Not recommended due to risk

of double counting and
inconsistencies
Internal costs, plus

external costs expected to
be internalized
One or more actors
connected to the product
life cycle, mainly
manufacturers, supply
chain, and end of user or
consumer
Internal plus all (costs of)

externalities
Society as an overall, including

governments
Standards and guidance
Various (ISO, IEC, SAE,

AS/NZS, etc.)
None (LCA: ISO 14040/44)
For various elements thereof,

including from United Nations
(UN) and Organization for
Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD; Little
and Mirrlees 1969)
Use in Life Cycle

Management
Mostly internal decision

making in private
organizations and supply
chain considerations
Mostly internal decision

making for producer or
user of product, but also
for external
communication
(similar to LCA)
Mostly internal to public

organizations
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Chapter 7
Economic analysis
7.2.5 Cost-benefit analysis

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a process that involves, whether explicitly or implicitly, weighing
total expected costs against total expected benefits of one or more actions, in order to select
the best or most profitable option.
Cost-benefit analysis is typically used to evaluate the desirability of a given intervention. It is
an analysis of the cost effectiveness of different alternatives to determine whether the
benefits outweigh the costs. The aim is to gauge the efficiency of the intervention relative to
the status quo. The costs and benefits of an interventions impacts are evaluated in terms of
the public's willingness to pay for them (benefits) or its willingness to pay to avoid them
(costs). Inputs are typically measured in terms of opportunity costs the value gained through
their best alternative use. The basic guiding principle is to list all parties affected by an
intervention and place a monetary value of the effect that intervention has on their welfare, as
it would be valued by them.
As a definition, the process involves awarding a monetary value of initial and ongoing expenses
vs. that of expected returns.
Determining plausible values of the costs and benefits of specific actions is often very difficult.
In practice, analysts try to estimate costs and benefits either by using survey methods or by
drawing inferences from market behaviours. For example, a product manager may compare
manufacturing and marketing expenses with projected sales for a proposed product and
decide to produce it, only if he expects the revenues to eventually recoup the costs. Costbenefit analysis attempts to put all relevant costs and benefits on a common temporal footing.
Benefits and costs are often expressed in money terms, and are adjusted for the time value of
money, so that all flows of benefits and flows of costs (which tend to occur at different points
in time) projected over time are expressed on a common basis in terms of their present
value.
CBA begins with identifying and monetizing environmental benefits and costs. From this point
onwards, these values must be adjusted and then compared systematically to arrive at a
decision. Adjustments to the estimated values are necessary, because incremental costs and
benefits are not realized immediately.
7.2.6 Adjusting for the time dimension

Adjustments to estimated values are necessary because incremental costs and benefits from a
given decision are not realized immediately.
How do these time differences affect the result? Two considerations should be made:
One is that costs and benefits realized in some future period are not valued as highly as those
achieved immediately. Thus future costs and benefits have to be adjusted downwards to be
comparable to those incurred in the present.
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Chapter 7
Economic analysis
A second adjustment is needed to account for expected changes of the level of pricing over
time.
For example, the future value of costs and benefits measured in todays Euros will be much
higher during a period of inflation. Without adjusting for these time-related differences, the
benefit-cost analysis would yield biased results, and any decision based upon them would be
misguided.
Consequently, decision makers must use forward thinking in their evaluation of any proposal
and therefore make projections about its future implications. For more information, please
refer to Annex I of this chapter.
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Chapter 8
Ecodesign strategies
8. Ecodesign strategies
8.1 Introduction
During the environmental assessment of the products life cycle, the most important
environmental aspects are identified and some ideas for improvement rise spontaneously.
However, the idea generation process would be incomplete if it relied on the results of the
environmental assessment only; it is necessary to re-think the product and its function as a
whole in order to further develop design solutions that potentially reduce the environmental
burden.
For this purpose, so-called ecodesign strategies or principles have been developed. There
are different categorizations, but 8 common and widely adopted ecodesign strategies are:
@.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Develop new concepts

Select lower impact materials
Reduce the use of materials
Reduce the environmental impact of production
Promote environmentally friendly packaging and logistics
Reduce the environmental impact in the use phase
Increase product durability
Optimize the end-of-life system
These generic strategies can be deployed in different criteria or measures. In this chapter, such
criteria and/or measures have been developed in close relation to the specific characteristics
of ceramic products (see table 8.1).
The ecodesign strategies and criteria or measures can also be used as a checklist to
qualitatively evaluate the environmental profile of a product.
Although they provide guidance based on best practices in the ceramic industry, the ecodesign
team should not be limited to the recommendations here presented; on the contrary, it should
be able to innovate and find other ideas and solutions. The application of the ecodesign
strategies in ceramic products, for idea generation and/or qualitative environmental
assessment, is supported by tool 9 Ecodesign checklists for ceramics.
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Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Ecodesign strategies and related measures or criteria, adapted to the ceramic sector
Related measures or criteria
@. Develop new concepts
Criterion @.1: Consumer needs and expectations/ integration

of functions
Criterion @.2: Dematerialization: from products to services
Criterion @.3: Product system
1. Select lower impact

materials
Criterion 1.1: Avoid hazardous substances in glazing and

decoration processes
Criterion 1.2: Avoid other hazardous substances in the product
Criterion 1.3: Use of sufficiently available resources
Criterion 1.4: Use of renewable resources
Criterion 1.5: Use of local raw materials
2. Reduce the use of materials
Criterion 2.1: Optimization of products shape, size and/or

weight
Criterion 2.2: Resource cascading
Criterion 2.3: Adequate quality of raw materials
Criterion 2.4: Optimizing glazing and decorative materials
Criterion 2.5: Reducing the use of plaster moulds
Criterion 2.6: Use of in-house recycled materials
Criterion 2.7: Use of recycled materials from external sources
Criterion 2.8: Use of recyclable materials
3. Reduce the environmental

impact of production
4.Promote environmentally
friendly packaging and logistics
5.Reduce the environmental

impact in the use phase
Criterion 3.1: Reducing the energy consumption of the firing

process
Criterion 3.2: Reducing the energy consumption of other
production processes
Criterion 3.3: Reducing air emissions
Criterion 3.4: Valorization of waste from production
Criterion 3.5: Waste prevention
Criterion 4.1: Avoid or minimize packaging
Criterion 4.2: Returnable packaging system
Criterion 4.3: Reusable packaging system
Criterion 4.4: Avoid the use of harmful substances in packaging
Criterion 4.5: Use of recyclable materials in packaging
Criterion 4.6: Use of recycled materials in packaging
Criterion
3.5:
prevention
Criterion
4.7: Use
ofWaste
biodegradable
materials in packaging
Criterion 4.8: Optimizing transport of products
Criterion 4.9: Use standard packaging
Criterion 4.10: Information on packaging waste management
Criterion 5.1: Reducing indirect energy consumption
Criterion 5.2: Reducing indirect water consumption
Criterion 5.3: Reducing the environmental impact of cleaning
and washing
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Chapter 8
Related measures or criteria
6. Increase product durability
Criterion 6.1: Reducing wear and any other loss of properties

Criterion 6.2: Easy replacement of ceramic pieces
Criterion 6.3: Use of modular systems
Criterion 6.4: Timeless design
Criterion 6.5: Strong product-user relation
7. Optimize the end-of-life

system
Criterion 7.1: Choice and variety of materials for easy recycling

Criterion 7.2: Easy disassembly
Criterion 7.3: Marking of materials for recycling
There is a link between the ecodesign strategies and the five major stages of the life cycle,
illustrated by the following figure 8.1. For simplicity, only the major effects are shown; for
example, the stage recovery and disposal is influenced not only by strategy 7 but might also be
improved by strategies 1, 2 and 4.
Figure 8.1 The relation between ecodesign strategies and product life cycle.
Source: Adapted from Brezet and van Hemel, 1997.
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8.2 Ecodesign strategies in the ceramic sector

8.2.1 Strategy @: Develop new concepts
The first strategy is symbolized with @ because it is the most innovative and far-reaching
strategy and may lead to discovering alternative ways to fulfil the needs of users. In this
sense, it is not connected to any particular life cycle stage as it questions the product as a
whole and its function. It is a complex strategy, and perhaps the reader should go through all
the strategies and then come back to this one: it will make more sense and will be easier to
apprehend. In a brainstorming session, though, its useful to start by thinking out of the box
and this is what strategy @ is about.
Criterion @.1: Consumer needs and expectations/ integration of functions

In industrialized countries the satisfaction of consumers needs and expectations
continues to be predominantly associated to the increase of the use of products per
capita, resulting in the continuous creation of new needs where they, perhaps, dont
even exist. There are opportunities to revert this trend, designing products to perform
more functions in a better way and/or avoiding more needs.
One example is the From Freezer to Table concept, in which the product can be used
to store food in the freezer and refrigerator, to coke in the microwave, oven, and stove
(with direct flame) and to serve the food on the table. One product replaces the
functions that are normally performed by three different products (requiring three
times as much washing operations). Another example of function integration would be
tiles that remove pollutants in outdoor environment, especially nitrogen oxides, using
sunlight, humidity and the titanium oxide-based glazed surface of the ceramic tile.
Criterion @.2: Dematerialization: from products to services

The company may satisfy consumers expectations in a more adequate way, changing
or reformulating its existing products, in order to integrate or reinforce the products
service component, or to favour the sale of the services provided by the products.
More information about this criterion can be found in chapter 13 Design for
sustainability.
One example of this approach could be a renting service of ceramic table ware for
special occasions. This improvement option assumes that when several people make
joint use of a product without actually owning it, then the product is used more
efficiently. Another case would be the leasing of pavement, including elements such as
the initial installation of the pavement, tile renewal or replacement, flexibility to
reconfigure the interior scheme and end-of-life responsibility for the used tiles. This
service is already available in soft pavements.
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Criterion @.3: Product system

In the perspective of increasing the value of products, they must be considered in the
context of the global system in which they are inserted. Sometimes a product may be
considered harmful in itself, but its performance in the system context may provide
benefits in terms of sustainability and vice-versa. Therefore, one needs to guarantee
that the product development is linked with the entire system, within which the
product will be used. One example is the solar tiles project: Photovoltaic film in roof
tiles for energy generation.
8.2.2 Strategy 1: Select lower impact materials

The environmental aspect at stake is the use of hazardous, non-renewable or scarce materials.
On the basis of the materials used in the reference product and the processes necessary to
produce them, the possibility of using alternative materials with lower environmental impact is
analyzed. The implementation of this strategy is complemented by the InEDIC materials
database.
Criterion 1.1: Avoid hazardous substances in glazing and decoration processes
The components of glazes represent the main hazardousness problems in ceramic
products. Glazes are composed of frits, inorganic raw materials and pigments. In some
cases glazing may not be necessary; it depends on the aesthetical requirements of the
final product. In frits, the most hazardous elements are lead, boron compounds and
cadmium; thus whenever it is possible, frits without the elements of lead and cadmium
should be used.
The inorganic raw materials of ceramic products can be divided in:
Substances that do not raise major concerns (quartz, feldspar, kaolin and
talcum, although some of them present some risk of silicosis in their handling)
and,
Substances with labelling requirements.
Even if hazardous substances used in glazing and decoration are made inert through
the firing process, companies should bear in mind that their use in production should
be avoided, because their prior processing and transportation presents environmental
impacts and risks to human health and ecosystems.
Designers, in cooperation with the people responsible for materials choice and the
suppliers of frits and glazes, should search for less hazardous raw materials to be used
in the decorating process. The consultation of safety datasheets of these materials
provides valuable information. It should be mentioned that this information has been
revised and updated due to the entry into force of the REACH Directive, whose aim is
to improve protection of human health and the environment, through better and
earlier identification of the intrinsic properties of chemical substances.
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Criterion 1.2: Avoid other hazardous substances in the product

Apart from those used in glazing and decoration, there are no other hazardous
substances in ceramic products. But they may include parts made of materials other
than ceramics and in this case the design team should be aware of their hazardousness
(for instance, a chromium plated tea pot handle or fondue set base) and avoid them
(in the mentioned example, an option would be to choose metal parts without surface
treatment such as stainless steel). If the product is mono-material (ceramic only) this
measure/criterion does not apply.
Criterion 1.3: Use of sufficiently available resources

Scarce resources are:
Non-renewable resources whose availability is considered to be insufficient to
meet their rate of depletion
Renewable resources whose exploitation rate is higher than their renewing
rate.
In any case, there are advantages in considering their substitution by sufficiently
available resources whenever economically and technically feasible alternatives do
exist.
Clay is a material in abundance, so this criterion becomes an issue for ceramic
products, only when other materials or parts are incorporated in the product. If the
product is mono-material (ceramic only) this measure/criterion does not apply.
Criterion 1.4: Use of renewable resources

A natural resource is a renewable resource if it is replaced by natural processes at a
rate comparable or faster than its rate of consumption by humans. Solar radiation,
tides, winds and hydroelectricity are in no danger of a lack of long-term availability.
Renewable resources may also mean commodities such as wood and leather, if
harvesting is performed in a sustainable manner.
Ceramic raw materials are non renewable by nature. The use of renewable resources
is an option to be considered in multi-material or complex products, in which other
materials are used, like wood, cork and other. If the product is mono-material (ceramic
only) this measure/criterion does not apply.
Criterion 1.5: Use of local raw materials

The origin of raw materials is an important factor, due to the environmental impacts of
transport, namely those associated to the consumption of fossil fuels and the emission
of exhaust gases. Preference should be given to raw materials that are extracted near
the ceramic factory.
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8.2.3 Strategy 2: Reduce the use of materials

Reduction of material use means using the least possible amount of material, by developing
lean but strong product designs. This includes also the improvement of eco-efficiency of
materials use having in mind subsequent purposes, such as resource cascading; or reducing
the use of virgin materials through recycling. For more information see the InEDIC materials
database.
Criterion 2.1: Optimizing the products shape, size and/or weight

Using less material is a simple, direct means to decrease environmental impact, i.e.,
fewer resources extracted, less waste, less fuel consumption during firing and drying
and lower environmental load during transportation. Products are often deliberately
designed to be heavy or large in order to project a high quality image; however, this
can also be achieved through other techniques, i.e., creating a lean but strong design.
Adjusting the products or components dimensions to their function will result in a
savings potential that is possible to explore through ecodesign.
A successful example is the production of ceramic floor tiles with reduced thickness.
Another good example is the production of plates, dishes, saucers, jars, etc, with
reduced thickness, without any loss to their mechanical resistance.
Regarding the shape of the ceramic piece, this will influence the losses at polishing,
handling and de-molding, amongst others. More linear shapes make large scale
production easier; with fewer losses, less material is wasted.
Criterion 2.2: Resource cascading
Resource-cascading, the sequential exploitation of the full potential of a resource
during its use is one of the ways to improve efficiency of raw materials use. This means
that the design team should consider these sequential applications, when designing
the primary product, thus significantly extending a resources useful life through
repeated utilization. Further use of materials and/or components for two or more
applications should be considered when designing the product.
Example: In the cascade of paper (for packaging) certain additives and inks prohibit the
reuse of the fibres in products of a higher quality.
Criterion 2.3: Adequate quality of raw materials

The quality of raw materials should be exactly adequate for their function in the
production system. Very pure or high quality materials should not be used in products
with lower quality requirements.
Example: Purity or colour uniformity of the paste in bricks production is not a very
important feature; therefore a lower quality paste in this sense may be used, saving
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higher quality paste for more demanding purposes. This strategy is already quite
optimized in the structural sub-sector.
Criterion 2.4: Optimizing glazing and decorative materials

Glazing is done to provide the fired product with technical and aesthetical properties,
such as impermeability, easiness of cleaning, gloss, colour, surface texture and
chemical and mechanical resistance.
Glazing involves the consumption of raw materials and water. In the cases were the
glazing process cannot be avoided, reducing the glazing area or the thickness of the
glaze (while retaining the technical quality) allows for the reduction of materials
consumption. For example, in ornamental ware, the designer can choose not to glaze
(part of) the product.
Criterion 2.5: Reducing the use of plaster moulds

The consumption of plaster moulds can be reduced through the design of the product:
either by reducing the number of moulds needed to complete one product or by
extending the life time of the moulds.
Criterion 2.6: Use of in-house recycled materials

Use of recycled material from internal sources in accordance with the following
criterion may be a way of saving natural resources, decreasing the volume of
production waste and reducing costs. Recycled materials may, to a certain extent,
replace raw materials without compromising good quality. Most sectors of the ceramic
industry recycle materials such as off-cuts, trimmings and substandard articles back to
the raw material preparation stage.
Other examples in the ceramic industry are the valorization of waste water (generated
in cleaning operations, mainly in glaze preparation and glazing sections) or sludge
coming from the waste water treatment plant. Normally this sludge or waste water is
re-introduced in the milling process in the raw material preparation stage (spray drying
plants or atomizers). Air emissions should be monitored as they can be worsened due
to the use of recycled materials in the product, especially in the case of sludge.
Criterion 2.7: Use of recycled materials from external sources

The use of recycled materials from external sources is also an option for saving natural
resources and decreasing costs, although the environmental impact and costs of
transport may outperform their benefit. Also air emissions should be monitored as
they can be worsened due to the use of recycled materials in the product.
Nevertheless it is an option to be considered.
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An example is the use of plaster to make moulds for decorative ceramics and table
ware. The plaster, after use, can be recycled by the supplier, who collects used moulds
when delivering a new lot of plaster.
Examples of this measure are the incorporation of marble and granite sludge
generated in the ornamental stone industry, and the integration of bricks and tiles
from demolition waste in the ceramic body, use sludge from paper and pulp industry
in the thermo blocks manufacturing process, etc.
Criterion 2.8: Use of recyclable materials

The choice of recyclable materials in mono-material ceramic products is not an option
for the design team therefore, in this case this measure/criterion does not apply.
In the case of complex products, the choice of other materials should be done in such
a way that they result in high quality recycled materials. Regarding metals, for
instance, iron and steel are the world's most recycled materials, and among the easiest
one to reprocess, as they can be separated magnetically from the waste stream.
Aluminium is also one of the most efficient and widely recycled materials. As for
plastics, designers should avoid multiple types of plastics or choose those that are
compatible for recycling. For further information consult tables of compatibility of
materials for recycling.
8.2.4 Strategy 3: Reduce the environmental impact of production

The application of good practices and Best Available Techniques (BAT) in the ceramic industry
has a high potential to reduce the environmental burden of the sector and there are several
references on this matter, namely the BAT Reference Document (BREF for ceramics). For
further information see the InEDIC technologies database. In this chapter the focus is on the
role of design and development in improving the environmental profile of production solely.
Criterion 3.1: Reducing the energy consumption of the firing process

The most important energy use in ceramic tile manufacturing is thermal energy during
the firing stage; it represents approximately 55% of the total thermal energy
consumed in the tile manufacturing process, so the company should adopt measures
to minimize its magnitude. The designer may influence the firing times and promote
the reduction of energy consumption through the shape of the product and by
reducing its thickness and overall mass, if technically feasible.
In some cases, decorations applied after firing (second firing products) entail another
thermal treatment, so avoiding this type of decoration will lead to a decrease of the
total environmental impact and costs related to energy consumption.
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Criterion 3.2: Reducing the energy consumption of other production processes

The primary energy use in ceramic manufacturing is for kiln firing but, many other
processes, such as raw material preparation, and drying of intermediates and/or
shaped ware, are also energy intensive. Through product design it is possible to
influence not only the need and duration of drying operations, but also the number of
finishing operations (which consume energy too), thus influencing the energy
consumption of the entire process.
Criterion 3.3: Reducing air emissions

Whenever possible, the company should adopt measures to prevent or minimize air
emissions at outdoor and indoor levels. Generally speaking all process stages generate
some kind of emission; pollutants will depend mainly on whether they come from
combustion processes or dust extraction systems.
Product design can influence these aspects, through the reduction of firing cycles or
through the reduction of glazing as explained in previous checklists. In addition, the
selection of materials influences air emissions during the production. For example, the
chemical composition of the decorating materials (glazes, pigments and others) will
influence the chemical profile of the emissions generated during the firing process; the
introduction of organic materials in the ceramic body, such as natural fibers, cork
powder or others, while it brings potential benefits such as increased porosity,
reduction of weight, etc., it may on the other hand lead to the production of VOCs
(volatile organic compounds) and particles in the firing process.
Criterion 3.4: Valorization of waste from production

Some waste generated in the production process can also be perceived as a byproduct, because it can be re-introduced in the process as raw material in very early
stages (milling process). This strategy does not only prevent waste disposal, but also
saves input materials and is already known to the ceramic industry. One example of
this type of valorization is the sludge produced in the wastewater treatment plants,
which may be used for in-house production or by other ceramic companies.
Criterion 3.5: Waste prevention

Waste in production can be prevented when products are designed in such a way that
losses and finishing processes are avoided or minimized. For example, simpler shapes
should be preferred over complex ones, due to production losses. Another example
pertains the plaster moulds waste, one of the most important types of waste produced
in the ceramic industry. Ceramic product design can have a significant impact on the
quantity and /or size of plaster moulds necessary for production.
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8.2.5 Strategy 4: Promote environmentally friendly packaging and

logistics
This strategy is to ensure that the product is transported from the factory to the retailer and
end user in the most efficient manner. This relates to the packaging and the mode of transport
and logistics. If a project also includes a detailed analysis of the packaging, the packaging
should be regarded as a product itself, with its own life cycle.
Criterion 4.1: Avoid or minimize packaging

In ecodesign, the need for packaging at all is questioned. Designers should consider its
function and avoid, as much as possible, the use of packaging material as well as
decoration and/or excessive labelling.
For example, individual house ware products can be sold without packaging. In this
case, a special package for the transport from the producer to the retailer is needed,
but it can be integrated in a reusable system.
The design of the ceramic products influences the need of packaging. For instance,
stackable ceramic tableware sets reduce the amount of package needed. Also,
minimizing the ratio weight/volume will reduce the amount of packaging material.
Criterion 4.2: Returnable packaging system

In case the packaging cannot be avoided, a reusable package or returnable packaging
system should be considered. Companies should adopt single use packages only when
all other options are not feasible.
In the case of returnable packaging, this is a system in which the packaging is sent back
to the producer for a new utilization with the same or another purpose. Normally the
transport is assured by the producer or by the distributor. For example: products that
are sold individually in supermarkets can have a reusable packaging system established
between the producer and the supermarket.
Criterion 4.3: Reusable packaging system
In this system the packaging is designed to be used again with the same or another
purpose, without having to be returned to the producer. In this case, equilibrium
should be promoted between the package durability and weight/volume allowing for
optimization of the distribution systems performance.
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Criterion 4.4: Avoid the use of harmful substances in packaging

The designer should favour the use of packaging materials with no harmful substances
(such as printing inks, adhesives, etc.) because, they not only do they have a
detrimental impact on human health and environment, but also their presence creates
difficulties in the recycling process and hinders an adequate final disposal.
Criterion 4.5: Use of recyclable materials in packaging

When selecting materials, designers should also be concerned with their potential for
recycling. The use of recyclable materials in packaging is a complementary strategy to
the reusable package system and the use of recycled materials. Single-material
packaging should be preferred as it facilitates the recycling process. In addition, the
diversity of colours in packaging should not hinder the recycling process.
Criterion 4.6: Use of recycled materials in packaging

Recycled materials, with a good quality/price ratio should be used as much as possible.
The use of recycled materials in packaging will reduce the environmental impact of the
product, because it saves natural resources. The fact that there is more demand of
recycled paper fibres than is available, may hinder the implementation of this
criterion.
Criterion 4.7: Use of biodegradable materials in packaging
If biodegradable materials based on renewable resources are selected for packaging,
then the disposal process will be easier. For instance, uncoated cardboard with
minimal printing is biodegradable.
Criterion 4.8: Optimizing transport of products
In order to optimize the use of pallet space during transportation of all products, the
sizing of the products plus their packaging should be done according to the standard
pallet.
Criterion 4.9: Use standard packaging

The diversity of packaging formats creates waste and problems of space and inventory
to packaging producers and ceramic manufacturers. If the dimensions of standard
packaging are well suited to the product, designers should use it.
Criterion 4.10: Information on packaging waste management
The objective of this criterion/measure is to provide information so that the end
consumer or end user is able to deal appropriately with the packaging of the product
at the end-of-life. The design team should consider all the information that should be
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displayed in the packaging for that purpose (e.g. type of material, recyclability,
disposal information, etc.).
8.2.6 Strategy 5: Reduce the environmental impact in the use phase

This strategy concerns both the use of ceramic products and their application, in the case of
construction materials, such as tiles. The objective is to reduce the associated environmental
impacts through design options.
Criterion 5.1: Reducing indirect energy consumption
Recent legislation in the EU and the increasing awareness of consumers have
promoted the development of energy efficient products in the construction sector,
one of the main concerns in the last years. Ceramic products such as structural
elements and wall, floor and faade tiles can have a very important role in the energy
performance of a building. Although the product in itself, for instance a brick, does not
consume energy during use, it affects the energy consumption within the product
system. In the design of this kind of products, this is an important factor to address
and a potential distinctive feature highly appreciated by those implicated in the
construction business. Another example is that of ventilated faades, an external
building cladding method with various elements, among which ceramic tiles play a vital
role. The ceramic tiles form the ventilated air chamber, which allows the upward
movement of air, significantly improving the climatic performance of the building.
Criterion 5.2: Reducing indirect water consumption

Sanitary ware may be designed in such way that the water consumption is reduced or
grey water is reused.
Criterion 5.3: Reducing the environmental impact of cleaning and washing

The surface, the material and the shape of a ceramic product can have a direct impact
in the cleaning process. If a product is easy to clean or wash, the consumption of water
and cleaning agents is reduced and it is more hygienic for the contact with food, if this
is the case.
For instance, glazed and porous tiles with irregular surfaces are very difficult to keep
clean, especially outdoors. Mugs with hollow handles or tableware in general with
complicated shapes and curves are very difficult to wash as well.
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8.2.7 Strategy 6: Increase product durability

The objective of this strategy is to extend the technical and aesthetic lifetime of the product,
so that it will be used for as long as possible. Ceramic products are durable products, but
further improvements can be achieved through design. While this strategy may seem
unattractive for companies because they would sell less, it can be interesting and
competitive for certain types of products and market segments, where high quality and
durability are a strong sales argument.
Criterion 6.1: Reducing wear and any other loss of properties
Product design should consider the minimization of product wearing, through the use
of more resistant materials and structures, thus increasing the life span of the product.
Ceramic products are very resistant to wear, but in the case of complex products
designers should be aware of the technical lifetime of other materials used (for
instance, metal, wood and other parts used in tableware ceramics), so that the
technical life span of the product as a whole is not reduced. The manufacturer should
also provide information on the most appropriate uses for the product, so that its
properties remain intact as long as possible.
Criterion 6.2: Easy replacement of ceramic pieces

It is sometimes difficult to ensure the homogeneity of ceramic products and therefore
if a piece of tableware or a tile is broken the entire set sometimes needs to be
substituted. This results in pointless consumption of resources and production of
waste. Designers can overcome this problem by choosing a stable colour like white,
using non-plain colours or taking advantage of the heterogeneity of colours or glazes
as an aesthetical added value.
Criterion 6.3: Use of modular systems

The design of modular systems, such as floor tiles, that can be jointed without
adhesive materials saves resources, reduces building waste and facilitates the
replacement of pieces. One example is the raised technical floor, a construction system
installed on a metallic substructure at a certain height over the substrate that exempts
mortar or cementitious adhesives. Another way of installing ceramic materials on
floors is designated as dry installation. The method consists of a system where a
sheet of a plastic material is stuck or adhered in the back of the ceramic tile. Then,
each piece can be connected with other pieces in multiple unions, avoiding in this way,
the use of adhesives and facilitating dismantlement, in case of future reforms or
repairs. Nevertheless, it is necessary to emphasize that the fact of using diverse
materials in a piece, hinders separation processes during its recycling, but in turn,
facilitates enormously the reutilization of the same pieces in other places.
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Criterion 6.4: Timeless design

The objective of this measure is to avoid designs that may cause the user to replace
the product as soon as the design becomes unfashionable. Products design should be
as timeless as possible in order to fully reach its technical potential, avoiding a
premature disposal due to fashion related reasons.
Criterion 6.5: Strong product-user relation

Good design transcends changes in the technologies of production. On a societal level,
however, ideas of good design are dependent on the culture of the time. The
challenge for many companies and designers is to create products which users will find
attractive to purchase, use and maintain. The psychological life span is the time in
which products are perceived and used as worthy objects. Products should have the
material ability, i.e., technical and aesthetic life span, as well as the immaterial
opportunity to age in a dignified way. Most products need maintenance and repair to
remain attractive and functional. Users are only willing to spend time on such activities
if they care about a product. This measure aims at giving the product an added value in
terms of design and functionality, so that the user will be reluctant to replace it.
8.2.8 Strategy 7: Optimize the end-of-life system

Scrapped products constitute a valuable source of raw materials and therefore this strategy
addresses design options that facilitate material recycling at the end of the product life time.
This strategy applies to complex ceramic products, i.e., those that are made of other materials
besides ceramics, such as metals, plastics, wood, etc., and includes criteria or measures to
facilitate the recycling of those materials.
Criterion 7.1: Choice and variety of materials for easy recycling

All materials other than ceramics should be chosen bearing their recyclability in mind.
Most materials, especially different plastics, cannot be combined in material recycling,
hence the designers should consult compatibility information, so as not to impair the
recycling process.
Criterion 7.2: Easy disassembly

The actual recycling of recyclable materials used in the product is only possible if they
are easy to disassemble in the end-of-life. The consumer should be informed so that
he/she can easily separate a plastic or metal part, for example, and dispose of it in the
respective waste container. For example in the case of ceramic tiles the new system of
installation (technical raised floor, see chapter 1 Introduction) would allow to reuse
them at the end of their lifetime for example as aggregates or material filler.
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Criterion 7.3: Marking of materials for recycling

In order to guarantee problem-free sorting and recycling of materials, it is necessary to
be able to identify materials and packaging without time-consuming checking
methods. Clear marking will allow quick separation of materials.
8.3 Trade-offs between criteria

When environmental principles and criteria, presented in this chapter, are taken into account
in the product design process, environmental, economic and technical conflicts and practical
evaluation problems arise. This presents a real challenge in ecodesign: there may be an
economic conflict between the development of more durable products and the commercial
strategy of the company; or an environmental conflict arising from the development of extra
thin tiles which require new additives in the composition. Does the saving of raw materials
outperform the environmental burden due to such additives?
Before implementation, the ecodesign measures should be evaluated from an environmental,
economic and technical point of view and compromises will have to be made, keeping in mind
the companys strategy and motivating factors for ecodesign. Often enough, rough estimates
with regard to energy and material flows can be made without great expenditure and thus
sufficient information can be made available for assessing the environmental optimum. This
can only be confirmed in a rigorous way through quantitative life cycle assessment (see
chapter 6 Environmental analysis). The objective, however, should not be to find the
smallest common denominator in environmental terms, but rather to develop innovations in
order to fully resolve the aforementioned conflicts. Compromises always present second-best
solutions. Innovations, on the other hand, are all encompassing solutions in the life cycle of
products that provide a complete resolution of a conflict.
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9. Ecobenchmarking
9.1 What is benchmarking?
Benchmarking is the process of improving performance by identifying, understanding,
adapting and implementing best practices and processes found inside and outside an
organization. Benchmarking involves the creation of partnerships to exchange information on
processes and measurements, resulting in the setting of realistic improvement goals. Effective
benchmarking is a process of continuous improvement.
In simple words, "benchmarking is the practice of being humble enough to admit that
someone else is better at something and being wise enough to learn how to match and even
surpass them at it".
Benchmarking is a valuable tool for assisting a company's management in strategy
development. Companies that compare their performance against others and identify best
practices are more able to gain strategic, operational and economic advantages by improving
their mode of operations and processes. This will also lead to higher levels of competitiveness.
Almost any process or activity of an organization is a candidate for benchmarking; work
processes, products and services, support functions, organizational performance, strategies,
etc. Here we focus on benchmarking products, as this is the scope of the InEDIC manual.
The goals of a benchmarking study should be based on stakeholders needs, whether they are
internal (departments within an organization, higher management levels, employees) or
external (consumers, citizens, regulators, legislators, local and national environmental groups,
investors). Conducting a benchmarking study is immaterial if it is not designed to meet specific
stakeholder requirements.
9.2 Why benchmarking?

Benchmarking helps organizations understand and develop a critical attitude to their
own business processes. It helps overcome complacency (its OK the way it is) and
convince the non-believers;
Benchmarking promotes an active process of learning in the organization and
motivates change and improvement. It breaks down ingrained reluctance to change
and create momentum employees become more receptive to new ideas;
Through benchmarking, the organization can find sources for improvement and new
ways of doing things from outside sources (competitors, allies etc) without trying to
reinvent the wheel.
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9.3 What is environmental product benchmarking?

The purpose of environmental product benchmarking is to evaluate the environmental profile
of products and eco-efficiency "best-in-class" so as to use these practices as inspiration to
improve the organization's products.
Although the environmental benchmarking is a relatively unknown practice, its
implementation is spreading due to legal requirements and market conditions as well as the
principles of sustainable management of organizations. There is no standard for environmental
benchmarking on either an international or a European level.
In short, eco-benchmarking of products is:
A systematic method of identifying products with the best environmental performance
in the market.
One way to achieve economic and environmental improvements of products
A strong basis for creativity
9.4 Steps of eco-benchmarking of products

Step 1: Setting benchmarking objectives
Benchmarking objectives can be:
Learning from competition in general
Scoring against local competitors
Getting inspiration for environmental
improvements, stimulating creativity
Checking your improvement rate
improvements,
stimulating
creativity
Step 2: Selection of products

The products to benchmark can be:
Earlier models of your brand
Most successful commercial competitor(s)
Products with good known environmental performance
Products in a continuous development
The main criteria for the selection of product should be similar to the product under study:
price, size, functionality, generation, availability.
Step 3: Definition of functional unit

The functional unit is a basis for comparison. Its definition involves:
Definition of functional unit needs.
Selection of main functions.
Determination of usage scenario and location of use
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Step 4: Identification of focal areas

Focal areas reflect those product characteristics that are most important in an environmental
context. The main reasons to include a topic as a focal area are:
Environmental performance data (Emissions, resource use, toxicity)
Government perspective (Legislation, subsidies)
Customer perspective (Emotions, sentiments, pressure groups)
Step 5: Definition of benchmark parameters

The definition of indicators of eco-benchmarking allows measures the product performance
according to key areas.
To describe a key area, various indicators may be needed. It is recommended to use
quantitative indicators (W, %, kg).
Step 6: Disassembly session

Before the disassembly session, the company should:
Make sure it has the necessary equipment (tools, balance, stopwatch, magnet, and
camera);
Make a work plan to weight the product at the start;
Take measurements according to parameters;
Analyze the technical characteristics of the product;
Make notes and write down the good and bad solutions;
Use for example compatibility matrixes.
Step 7: Reporting findings

All relevant information collected must be summarized. Using specific marking or color code
can help identify which product scores best for a particular focal area or from an overall
perspective.
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9.5 Product innovation through benchmarking

Product innovation is the process of designing new products or upgrades to current ones. This
process can sometimes involve reverse engineering, which is dismantling competitors
products to identify strengths and weaknesses. Traditional benchmarking approaches involve a
large amount of time and resources. Steps include:
Identify performance metrics, practices and processes to benchmark;

Select a benchmarking project team (internal and external);
Identify companies to benchmark against;
Evaluate various data collection methods. Select the most appropriate methodology;
Approach potential benchmarking partners to participate;
Design the research questionnaire. Ensure questions are clear and unambiguous;
Plan and conduct qualitative and quantitative data collection sessions with partner
companies;
Analyze and prepare research report. Present data results both in text and graphically;
Present research findings to the management team and the key stakeholders;
Establish an action plan that addresses high priority areas of concern.
The most commonly reported challenge with benchmarking initiatives is achieving data
integrity. The result of the benchmark study is only as good as the inputs. Carefully design the
questionnaire, select high quality companies to benchmark against and put data validation
measures in place. By answering a few questions in the diagram below, a company can
determine whether it is a good candidate to conduct a Product Innovation benchmarking
initiative at a fraction of the cost of traditional methods.
Figure 9.1 Innovative process for benchmarking

Source: Stage-Gate International, 2011.
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10. Creative thinking

10.1 Creative thinking
This chapter will present a set of techniques to stimulate creative thinking. The use of the
techniques shown below, serve to help generate as many solutions as possible.
In general, there are many techniques regarding creativity available in the literature and on
the internet, of which selection should be based on what seems most comfortable to use and
on what seems to be most appropriate to the problem under investigation.
The aim of the creativity tools is to restress the creative thinking as such, or to create the
conditions to support the more intense work of the right side of brain, which is known as the
leading side for creative and intuitive thinking (whereas the left side of the brain is known to
be leading in logical and analytical thinking)6 (figura 10.1).
Figure 10.1: Brain functions
In our everyday life, we tend to use more our left cerebral hemisphere rather than our right
one, which is the reason for the existence of tools to stimulate creative thinking. One should
use these tools to gather as many ideas as possible, and should not kill them before they are
completely developed. It may so happen that the most stupid and crazy ideas might lead to
the ideas that are more appropriate for the solutions under investigation.
The creative process can be divided in the following stages:
1) Preparation problem definition and analysis
2) Intuitive phase incubation, illumination
3) Critical phase assessment and selection
The different functions of the human brain sides (Cerebral hemispheres) have been first discovered by Roger Sperry, Ph.D. in
the 1960-ties. It was discovered that the left side is responsible for logical thinking, language etc, while the right side for artistic
skills, creativity and intuition. In 1981 Roger Sperry received the Nobel Prize for Medicine for the research on the split brains.
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Criticism is part of the left brain side functions and should be used during the later stage of
the brainstorming, namely during the evaluation and selections of ideas, which is the
appropriate time for analysis and critical thinking (left side of brain).
10.2 How to stimulate creative thinking

Think like Einstein: dont follow the rules
A problem cannot be solved with the same thinking that created it.
A. Einstein
If one attempts to discover the genial solutions, then there is only one universal principle to
use: forget the rules, since they are expected to be always correct, thus delaying new thinking.
This situation is similar to riding the railway tracks: it is OK where tracks are available, but the
rail roads are not everywhere. It is often just but the mindset of participants that hinders new
and original manner (e.g. to get out of the nine dots, in Figure 10.2).
Can you go beyond the boundaries to link all dots (figure 10.2) in 4 straight lines, without lifting
your pencil from the paper?
Figure 10.2 - Nine dots puzzle

(The resolution of the puzzle is available at the end of chapter)
Sometimes the funniest and craziest idea generates the best results, and should thus be
allowed to be developed further.
To use the so-called Einstein thinking for problem solving, additional tools are available (he
would not have needed them, but the rest of us still need some guidance).
10.3 Lateral thinking

There are two approaches to creative thinking: programmed (or scheduled) thought (if it
serves the intended meaning, the word thinking is more appropriate here) and lateral
thinking. Scheduled thinking uses logical and structured ways to create new products or
services. Lateral thinking, a concept developed and popularized by Edward De Bono, uses
techniques such as random stimuli and brainstorming to reach the intended solutions.
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10.3.1 Random stimuli

Randomly selected nouns
Use any randomly selected nouns to find a solution. Ask friends/colleagues for the words that
first come in their head, and then use them to reach a solution.
You have to fight the hunger, you live in New York, and the noun for finding a solution is a
paperback novel. How would that help? Maybe a tragic novel would raise awareness and
money from the rich to be devoted to the poor regions?
Or what if in the fight against hunger, the only tool you would have would be a nail?
What would you do? Which ideas does it create?
Randomly selected verbs

The same principle with the one mentioned under item 10.3.1.1. above can also be used with
the randomly selected verbs. Randomly select a word by reading the results of a dice throw
from the list (table 10.1). Such lists can be created randomly and according to the particular
requirements of each problem, this is just an example. What associations does the verb create
with the solution of the problem?
Table 10.1 - Selected verbs
Number
Verb
Eat
Run
Jump
Split
Play
Give away
These are well adapted and known techniques. Use the ideas from the first section to enrich
and stimulate the brainstorming sessions.
10.3.2 Brainstorming
A well-known tool in searching for new ideas is brainstorming (tool 10 of the InEDIC Manual).
Brainstorming sessions are held in all companies from time to time. Several people with
expertise in different disciplines come together as a team and try to come up with an answer
to a question asked by the group itself without any restrictions, during a time frame of
approximately 30 to 60 minutes (figure 10.3).
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Figure 10.3 - Brainstorming session: searching solutions
Brainstorming is a useful tool in the search for environmental improvements.

Sometimes during a single brainstorming session, concrete results are not achievable,
especially when the problem is complex, such as the search for environmental solutions. In
many cases any failure observed should not be attributed to the method, as it is only a
technical approach to solve a problem, but to the way the session was conducted (see rules
and example of a brainstorming session, tool 10).
It often becomes necessary to gather more information about the various aspects of the stated
problem.
The new information can then be introduced at a later meeting. (Figure 10.4).
Figure 10.4 - Brainstorming session: adding information

Brainstorming is a learning technique and it generally requires several sessions to solve a
problem.
Many variations of brainstorming have been devised. Some of them are the Brainwriting, the
Pin-board method and the Individual brainstorming.
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Brainwriting
This variant intends to take advantage of the solitude participants might prefer, and requires
that everyone writes down or draws their ideas on paper, after a short discussion.
The 6-3-5 method is a technique whereby six participants set down three ideas on paper
(figure 10.5). These ideas are then passed on to the next participant (as per the seating of the
group) after five minutes. The second person then looks at the solutions and in turn thinks up
three new ideas. Having the group work in this way generates 108 ideas in a short time.
Figure 10.5 - Brainwriting
These ideas are subsequently assessed and the results are then fed back to the group. The
whole group then decides what should how these ideas can then be used or improved.
The pin-board method

Another variant is the so-called pin-board method. Each participant is given a pad of selfadhesive notes to write his/her ideas on. These pieces of paper are then stuck on a wall or a
board (figure 10.6).
Each participant is at liberty to gain inspiration from what their colleagues have already stuck
on the wall and to write down his/her own ideas. If there is sufficient creativity in the group,
enough openness and daring, the entire wall will shortly be covered with creative solutions.
Figure 10.6 - Pin-board method

When everyone has finished, the ideas are discussed. It is also useful to ask two members of
the group to evaluate the ideas systematically.
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Individual brainstorming
Some people think better when they work alone. In this case it can be very useful to use a
mind map to sort and develop the generated ideas, such as the one shown in figure 10.7
below.
Figure 10.7 - Individual brainstorming
10.4 Other creativity techniques for problem solving

10.4.1 The morphological box
When searching for ways to improve an existing product it can be particularly beneficial to
use the morphological box technique (See example of the method and application of this
technique in tool 13 of the INEDIC Manual)
A morphological box can also be used to improve the ideas that have emerged during a
brainstorming or brainwriting session. Table 10.2. shows a morphological box filled out for
transportation packaging of ceramic products, such as tableware.
Table 10.2 - Morphological box (filled in for transportation packaging of ceramic products)
Attribute
Existing product
Alternatives
Packaging material
cardboard
bio plastic
plastic
cardboard
Means of protection
compartments
pre-shaped
foam
paper shred
airbag
shavings
chips
Packaging shape
square with cuts
cylindrical
hexagonal
triangular
Packaging color
various colors
natural
square
without
cuts
same as
company
local
coloring
idea
improved
idea
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10.4.2 Drawing
It is possible to use drawing as one of the tools for stimulating creativity. However, most of
the people that have never attended an art school or special courses, would struggle with it,
because the so called left regime, or logical working of the brain is usually dominant. To be
able to draw nicely, there is a need to switch to the right regime, e.g. the intuitive part of
the brain. One of the techniques developed by Prof. Betty Edwards7 while working with nonartistic students is to draw upside down. Select a rather complicated drawing, turn it upside
down and then let yourself (or others) draw it as it is (figure 10.8).
Figure 10.8 Inverted image
You will be surprised by the result (figure 10.9), which would not have been achieved if the
drawing was displayed in the correct position.
Figure 10.9 Result of the inverted image exercise
This kind of exercise allows the right side of brain to enter into working mode, since in our
everyday activities we tend to be more left side oriented and therefore find it hard to
generate genuine solutions to arising problems.
10.4.3 Improvements
7
Dr. Betty Edwards (born 1926) taught and conducted research at the California State University, Long Beach until she retired in
the late 1990s. During her time there, she founded the Center for the Educational Applications of Brain Hemisphere Research. Her
work has been widely cited in scholarly journals. She is also an art instructor whose classic work Drawing on the Right Side of the
Brain (originally published in 1979) has greatly influenced the teaching of drawing.
http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Betty_Edwards
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Creative thinking
It is a creative technique aiming to improve the use and performance of existing products or
services. This technique (examples of which are available in table 10.3) focuses on identifying
the less obvious attributes of things.
Table 10.3 - Examples of improvements of an object or a service
Simplify, remove complexity
Reduce or eliminate drawbacks, bad side
Apply to new use
effects
Automate
Make more elegant
Reduce Cost
Provide better shape, style
Facilitate use, understand
Provide better sensory appeal (taste, feel,
Reduce fear to own, use
look, smell, sound)
Make safer
Provide better psychological appeal
Provide better performance and more
(understandable, acceptable)
capacity
Provide better emotional appeal (happy,
Make faster, less waiting
warm, satisfying, enjoyable, fun, likable,
Provide more durability, reliability
"neat")
Improve appearance
Aim toward ideal rather than immediate
Create more acceptance by others
goals
Add features, functions
Provide larger capacity
Integrate functions
Make portable
Make more flexible, versatile
Make self-cleaning, easy to clean
Increase / Reduce weight
Improve accuracy
Increase / Reduce size
Make quieter
Make more powerful
www.virtualsalt.com/crebook2.htm
10.4.4 Modifications
This technique comprises the identification of new ways and uses for objects, other than
those for which they were created (as per table 10.4 below).
Table 10.4- Examples of insights for further ideas
Objects
Other use
Hair clip
Bookmarker
Balloon
Water container
Plastic plate
Frisbee
10.4.5 Metaphors
Another creativity technique is the metaphors, which is simply about borrowing ideas from
other fields (figure 10.10). If brainstorming sessions or other creativity techniques do not
result in acceptable solutions, metaphors can be used to establish connections between
different objects and ideas, even between those which appear absurd. The use of metaphors
can generate radically new ideas.
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Figure 10.10 - Rolled up newspaper
Figure: 10.11 - Future Design Laptop - Rolltop 2.0
These connections can be used to create the structures of a new thought. Look, interpret and
relate what surrounds stimulates creative thinking and increases human capacity to generate
original ideas and innovative. (figure 10.11).
10.4.6 Learning from nature: biomimicry

The basic idea of biomimicry8 is to copy/learn from nature, where natural systems and
structures can serve as sources of inspiration for technical solutions in ecodesign (table 10.5
and figure 10.12)
Table 10.5 - Sources of inspiration for technical solutions
Sources of inspiration
Spiders make strong and tough silk
without using high heat, high pressure
or toxic chemicals.
Technical solutions
This can be used in parachute
wires, suspension bridge
cables, structures, protective
clothing etc.
Figure 10.12 - Self-cleaning surfaces using the characteristics of a Lotus Flower
Biomimicry is a science that studies natures models and then imitates or takes inspiration from these designs and processes to
solve human problems. www.biomimicry.net
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10.4.7 User research

Understanding perceptions, thoughts and actions of users is a major goal of observational
studies, used in user-centred design (figure 10.13).
Figure 10.13 - Video record of daily activities

This technique, which consists of video recording of the activities carried out within a certain
context, can be performed in specialized laboratories (to determine theoretical or useful
conclusions) or in real situations, such as in people's homes or their workplaces.
10.4.8 Role play

One of the best ways to change the way people understand reality is to look at it from a
different point of view.
Figure 10.14 - Human-in-the-loop simulation of outer space
This technique consists of simulating a particular situation (figure 10.14) or a story and aims
at creating the opportunity to relate and interact directly with a problem or an idea, thus
learning by the experience.
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10.5 Nine dots puzzle

Figure 10.15 shows the solution of the nine dots puzzle.
Figure 10.15 - Nine dots puzzle resolution
10.5.1 Lessons to be learnt from this puzzle

Look beyond the offered definition of the problem.
Analyze the definition to find out what is allowed and what is not.
Are there any real rules to the problem anyway? (it is especially valid in human related
problems to understand that there are only perceptions, not physical rules).
Do not accept other people's definitions of problems; they may be either wrong or
biased or irrelevant.
If a problem definition is wrong, no solution will solve the real problem, despite how
many of them are offered.
Investigate the boundaries
What are the boundaries within which the solution must fit?
Are the boundaries perceptions or reality?
What are the possibilities if one pushes the boundaries?
What are the benefits/drawbacks incurred by small boundary changes?
Hard work is not the solution
Repeating the same wrong process again and again with more vigor does not work.
You can be very close to a solution without actually reaching it.
Thought is the solution.
Physical hard work will not work.
in http://www.brainstorming.co.uk/puzzles/ninedotsnj.html
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Environmental management systems and ecodesign
11. Environmental management

11.1 Introduction
Many companies in the ceramic sector implement management systems to ensure their
continuous improvement in areas such as quality, environment and health and safety. Most of
them seek the certification of their systems according to standards, in order to show the
market and stakeholders in general that their commitments and efforts in these areas are
maintained over time and validated by a third party. The link between these management
instruments (especially quality management systems, QMS, and environmental management
systems, EMS) and ecodesign is often overlooked: in the case of QMS (ISO 9001:20089), the
integration of environmental criteria in product realization only occurs if it is demanded by
clients as a quality criterion; in the case of EMS, ISO 1400110 and EMAS11 imply that
environmental aspects of an organizations activities, products and services are identified and
classified, which means that product design or realization as a management process should be
controlled within the EMS; nevertheless, practice shows that the environmental efforts
companies undertake, tend to focus on manufacturing processes resulting in a huge potential
of improvement related to the design phase to be lost; unlike ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and EMAS
do not include an explicit chapter on design management.
Being aware of this fact, ISO Technical Committee 207 on Environmental Management
launched in 2008 the project of setting up a new standard of the ISO 14000 family on
incorporating ecodesign in EMS: the future ISO 14006. A previous national standard with the
same objective had successfully been launched by Spain (UNE 150301), which was the kick off
to ISO 14006.
At the ISO level, ecodesign has been dealt within a Technical Report published in 2002: ISO/TR
14062, but in this case the ecodesign activities are not put in a management system
framework.
ISO 9001:2008. Quality management systems Requirements.

ISO 14001:2004. Environmental management systems Requirements with guidance for use.
11
EMAS EC Regulation 1221/2009. Eco-management and audit scheme.
10
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Therefore, there was a gap to be filled by ISO 14006, shown in figure 11.1.
Figure 11.1 Relationship between the standards and the areas of knowledge.
Source: Adapted from ISO/DIS 14006
This chapter of the InEDIC Manual will focus on the relationship between ecodesign and
management systems, taking ISO 14001 requirements and ISO 9001 clause on design and
development as the starting point. However the requirements of ISO 14001 and ISO 9001 will
not be transcribed here, so readers should consult these standards while reading this text. Put
in simple terms, in this chapter the product and life cycle orientation is highlighted in the ISO
14001 requirements, where relevant, and the environmental dimension is added to the ISO
9001 clause on design and development.
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Notes:
(1) Requirements in italics: no additional guidance is necessary as the original text in the standard fully
covers the needs of ecodesign activities.
(2) Emergency preparedness and response (ISO 14001) is not relevant in the context of ecodesign and
therefore was excluded from the picture.
(3) D&d: design and development
Figure 11.2 The continual improvement cycle based of ISO 14001:2004 and the design and
development clauses of ISO 9001:2008
This chapter follows closely ISO 14006 (draft international standard version as of April 2010),
and is complemented by a verification list (tool 15 of the InEDIC Manual) that can be used by
companies that perform design and development of their products and implemented or are in
the process of implementing an EMS.
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11.2 ISO 14001 and ecodesign

11.2.1 Scope definition
The company should include product design and development within the environmental
management system scope, since it has a major influence on the environmental impacts of
products.
11.2.2 Environmental policy

ISO 14001 requires companies to establish and implement, at the highest management level,
an environmental policy. The integration of ecodesign considerations in the policy means that
the policy commitments:
Are adequate to the nature, scale (dimension) and significant environmental impacts
of the products life cycle, and not just the manufacturing process. For example, a
bricks company may commit itself to improve the energy performance of its products
in the use phase;
Include the observation of the legal and other requirements related to the
environmental aspects of the products. For instance, a floor tiles industry may wish to
subscribe eco labeling standards and include a policy statement in this direction;
Include the continual improvement of the environmental performance of the products
throughout their life cycle, not shifting adverse environmental impacts from one life
stage to another, unless it results in the reduction of the negative environmental
impacts in the entire life cycle;
Include the continual improvement of the ecodesign process.
11.2.3 Planning
Environmental aspects
Under ISO 14001, organizations should identify the environmental aspects of their activities,
products and services that they can control and those that they can influence, and determine
which of them are significant, i.e., have significant environmental impacts. This requirement is
explicitly applicable to products and their life cycle (where environmental aspects can be
controlled or influenced), although in the annex ISO 14001 states that a detailed life cycle
assessment is not required. In any case, companies should establish a reproducible and
consistent method to evaluate environmental aspects (both inputs such as consumption of
materials, energy and water, and outputs such as waste, emissions and others) and related
environmental impacts (such as climate change, air pollution, resources depletion, toxicity,
acidification, etc.) of their products.
In ceramics, relevant aspects are raw materials consumption (clay, feldspar, sand, carbonates,
etc.), water consumption, energy consumption (both electricity and fuels like natural gas, fuel
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oil, sawdust), air emissions (particles, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, fluorine, chlorine),
wastewater emission, noise, and waste (broken pieces, sludge, refractory, maintenance
materials, etc).
For further guidance on qualitative and quantitative life cycle assessment, see chapter 6
Environmental analysis.
When a company is performing the eco(re)design of an existing product, the evaluation of the
significance of environmental aspects should be done on the basis of the reference or initial
product. When the company is performing the ecodesign of a completely new product, the
evaluation should be done on the basis of a similar product existing on the market or a
hypothetical reference.
The results of the evaluation should be taken into account in setting environmental objectives
for the product which is the object of ecodesign and therefore are an important input to the
design process.
Legal and other requirements

When identifying legal requirements, the company should pay special attention to those
related to the environmental aspects of its products through the life cycle, and take them into
consideration in the design and development processes. The same applies to other
requirements not imposed by law but to which companies abide, such as future policy
developments, environmental standards demanded by clients or consumers, eco labeling
schemes, etc.
In ceramics the main relative legislation areas are the ones related to: air emissions, water and
wastewater, noise, waste, prevention and control of risks of serious environmental accidents,
Integrated Pollution and Prevention Control (IPPC), environmental assessment, emissions
trading, volatile organic compounds (not applicable in most industries) and chemical
substances.
Objectives, targets and programmes

Objectives and targets are the drivers of continual improvement of the EMS and of the
environmental performance of activities, products and services.
When establishing and reviewing their objectives and targets within the EMS, companies
should include the environmental improvement of products performance over the life cycle.
This is a key input to the ecodesign process, in balance with other product-related objectives
such as function, price, aesthetics, etc. The objectives and targets should be defined taking
into account the results of the environmental evaluation, legal and other requirements, and,
when technically and economically possible, focus on the significant environmental aspects.
The objectives and targets should be documented.
Besides these performance oriented objectives and targets, those managerial objectives and
targets that lead to the improvement of the ecodesign process in itself are also interesting and
useful for companies.
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For achieving objectives and targets, companies should implement programmes with defined
responsible people, means and time frame; an ecodesign project that the company performs
should be included in those programmes.
Regular updating (follow up) of objectives and targets ensures continuous improvement.
11.2.4 Implementation and operation

Resources, roles, responsibility and authority
When establishing roles, responsibilities and authorities within the EMS, special attention
should be paid to those people involved in the environmental performance of products,
primarily those working in product design and development. Companies should define,
document and internally communicate their roles, responsibilities and authorities.
The resource needed to implement and maintain the EMS, must consider human resources
(organizational structure), infrastructure technology and technical resources, and financial
resources.
Competence, awareness and training

In order to successfully implement ecodesign as a systematic strategy to improve the products
environmental profile, companies need qualified staff in the concepts, methods and tools.
Therefore, the training and competence needs assessments that companies perform in the
framework of their EMS should include the staff responsible for product design and
development. These people should be competent in ecodesign.
The identification and significance evaluation of environmental aspects along the life cycle of
products, either quantitative or qualitative, requires specific skills and competence. Even in the
situation where the company chooses to outsource these studies, competent personnel to
interpret the results of these studies is necessary and this should be addressed in this clause of
the standard.
Finally, awareness raising activities should include the environmental aspects and impacts of
products and life cycle thinking.
The InEDIC project was developed to address knowledge needs on ecodesign in the ceramic
sector and can therefore be used as a training, competence building and awareness raising
tool in companies of this industry. Companies from other sectors may find very useful
information in this project too.
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Communication
Internal communication should include the products environmental performance and related
activities in the context of the EMS, and take place among the various levels and functions of
the organization including the departments responsible for product design and development.
As for external communication, companies should have procedures for receiving, documenting
and responding to relevant communications related to the products environmental profile
and ecodesign from external interested parties. In addition, companies may choose to
proactively communicate externally about their products significant environmental aspects
throughout the life cycle.
Although it is not a requirement of ISO 14001, the external communication may also include
information about actions to improve environmental performance of the product during its life
cycle, like guidance for proper use, maintenance and end-of-life treatment of the product
among others.
There are many standards that can help companies to address and shape external
communications, such as the ISO 14020 series (Environmental labels and declarations), ISO
14063 (Environmental communication) and ISO 21930 (Sustainability in building construction
Environmental declaration of building products). For more information see chapter 12
Green marketing and communication.
Operational control
The operational control should cover the operations with significant environmental aspects.
Operational controls may take various forms, such as procedures, work instructions, physical
controls or any combination thereof.
The operational control procedures of ceramic industries normally focus on water and
wastewater management, waste management, air emissions, noise, handling and storage of
chemical products such as oils, solvents and glazes, subcontracting and purchasing.
In order to ensure that the design and development process is carried out under specified
conditions, the company should establish, implement and maintain one or more documented
procedures for that purpose. Chapter 2 Ecodesign project step-by-step may be used as a
basis for such procedures. ISO 9001 requirements for design and development are also a
useful way to address such procedures, but they lack the environmental component, which is
covered in the text below.
Applicable design and development procedures should be communicated to suppliers,
including subcontractors. In case the company outsources design activities, it is important to
ensure consistency with internal procedures.
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Design and development planning

Ecodesign should be an integral part of design and development planning procedures. The
company should determine how environmental considerations are integrated in the design
and development stages, which environmental criteria should be used in the review,
verification and validation of stages and environmentally related responsibilities and
authorities for design and development.
Design and development inputs

Besides functional and performance requirements, applicable statutory and regulatory
requirements as well as information derived from previous similar designs, environmental
requirements that respond to the environmental objectives and targets of the product should
be included in the inputs of the design and development processes, as environmental product
specifications.
Design and development outputs

The outputs from the design and development processes should be provided in a form suitable
for verification against the inputs (for instance, the environmental product specification). The
output information can be included in the documents intended for external communication
and can specify the characteristics of the products that are important to its environmentally
friendly use, disposal and recycling.
Design and development review

At appropriate stages, systematic reviews of design and development should be performed
according to planned arrangements. The review should verify that the design and
development of the product has not resulted in the shift of environmental impacts from one
stage of the life cycle to another, or from one category to another, nor that new
environmental aspects and impacts have been created unless it results in the reduction of the
total environmental burden throughout the life cycle.
The same methods, assumptions and criteria that were used for the initial identification and
evaluation of the environmental aspects of the product (see Planning Environmental aspects)
should also be used during the design and development review. The results should be used to
update the identification and evaluation of environmental aspects, if relevant.
Design and development verification

Verification should be done by checking the detailed design, sometimes a prototype, against
the environmental objectives and targets set by the environmental product specification and
the environmental product performance data.
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Design and development validation

Validation should be performed through testing the behaviour of the final product against the
environmental product specification in normal use conditions.
11.2.5 Checking
Monitoring and measurement
The organizations must develop a systematic approach to monitor and measure their
environmental performance, and provide data to support or evaluate operational controls,
their objectives and targets, their environmental performance and the performance of their
EMS.
Monitoring involves collecting information, such as measurements or observations, over time.
Monitoring and measurement should include information on:
the environmental impact of products along the life cycle
the ecodesign process and how it is managed and up taken by the company;
This information is crucial for the company to assess the achievement of its environmental
objectives and targets and to perform the review, verification and validation of its design and
development processes. For this purpose, indicators should be defined; for further guidance
see chapter 6 Environmental analysis and ISO 14031:1999 on environmental performance
evaluation.
Evaluation of compliance
The evaluation of compliance includes legal and other requirements related to the
environmental aspects of the products related to other life cycle stages besides production
activities.
11.2.6 Management review

The management review should assess opportunities to improve the environmental
performance of the companys products and its ecodesign process, and should result in
decisions and actions to implement them, consistent with the companys commitment to
continual improvement.
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Green marketing and communication
12. Green marketing and

communication
12.1 Green marketing
According to the American Marketing Association (Green Markets International, 2011), green
marketing is the marketing of products that are presumed to be environmentally safe. Thus
green marketing incorporates a broad range of activities, including product modification,
production process changes, packaging changes, as well as advertising modification. Other
similar terms used are Environmental Marketing and Ecological Marketing.
Decisions taken at the time of purchase can have an important influence on environment. It is
therefore essential to be a responsible consumer and to assess the environmental performance
of each product purchase. That way, the customer can strongly influence the market, by
increasing social demand towards greener products. On the other hand, the responsibility also
lies with enterprises supplying environmentally preferable products.
12.1.1 Definition and importance

Green marketing is a holistic and responsible management process that identifies, anticipates,
and fulfils stakeholder environmental requirements. In other words, green marketing is about
satisfying organisational objectives and consumer needs, while at the same time it improves the
environmental profile of products by adding value.
Green marketing confirms environmental awareness of producers and consumers (whether
public or private) and produces a positive reaction in the market, since it breaks the vicious
cycle: consumers do not buy ecological products because none is offered or there is no offer of
ecological products, because there is no demand for them (Chamorro and Rivero, 1999).
True green marketing is about environmental issues becoming as much a strategic
organisational focus of the producing organisation as are quality or customer service, and this
will usually require a change in the overall organisational mind-set as well as in behaviour.
Green marketing has to accomplish the task of communicating consistent information about the
potential environmental benefits of the product to the user as well as the associated
improvement promises regarding overall environmental quality.
Green marketing is a horizontal process which should be considered during the entire process of
ecodesign and even beyond it.
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12.1.2 European context. Green procurement

Although the first cases of green procurement appear in the U.S., the European Union has
worked on this and other related concepts, in parallel. As a result of this work, the European
Strategy for Sustainable Development was developed and adopted by the European Council in
Gothenburg in 2001 (CEC COM(2001) 264) and revised in 2009 (CEC COM(2009) 400). This
strategy considers Green Public Procurement as one of the main instruments available to local
authorities and public administrations to implement sustainable development projects aimed at
reducing the environmental impacts of consumption and production processes and to promote
economic growth and social cohesion, so that public procurers can reach solutions with
combined profits for the economy, employment and the environment.
The Integrated Product Policy (IPP) defines green procurement as a procedure where
environmental considerations are included in the definition of the contract scope, in technical
specifications, in the selection and award criteria and the execution of the contract clauses.
In 2001, Green Paper on IPP or Integrated Product Policy and in 2003, a communication which
further elaborated it were published. IPP establishes a new paradigm of growth and improved
quality of life through wealth creation and competitiveness through the use of products with
lower environmental impact.
Green procurement ensures that the product or service purchased was obtained through
processes that have lower environmental impact and reduced resources and energy
consumption during its life cycle. Green procurement also facilitates treatment or final disposal
at the end of the products life, where waste is created.
IPP also considers the three pillars of sustainable development, through the consideration of
economic, social and environmental impacts of products and services.
Green marketing in private companies

Marketers recently focused heavily on green marketing tactics, as firms look for green
business partners and businesses jump on the corporate social responsibility bandwagon.
Companies tout their sustainability efforts, flaunt responsibility of their production processes
and practices, and engage in other green marketing methods (Environmental Leader, 2009).
A newly-released study shows that customers reward companies that use so-called green
marketing messages. While marketers are known to chase trends, it appears that the increased
spending on green advertising and marketing is primarily due to firms finding distinct additional
marketing and advertising advantage with green messages. The report, Green Marketing: What
Works & What Doesnt A Marketing Study of Practitioners, is the fruit of a series of surveys
conducted by daily trade publication Environmental Leader along with a group of marketing
trade publications (Businesswire, 2010).
Case studies of public green procurement

The European Commission has taken measures to increase the level of Green Public
Procurement Contracts based on an on-line study, analyzing the most widely used
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environmental specifications in more than 1,000 criteria (EC GPP, 2011). The conclusions
obtained can be differentiated into three parts:
By participating countries: the countries that deal with the larger number of
environmental criteria are, Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Netherlands,
Sweden and the UK;
By the obstacles encountered at the level of implementation of the "Green
Procurement";
the potential perception that green products can be more expensive, lack of
knowledge on the bases of recruitment, lack of managerial and political support,
lack of tools and information and limited training, both by buyers and sellers,
referring to knowledge and use of eco-labels, as well as the stimulation of analysis
tools such as life cycle assessment;
By group of products concerned: analyzing the environmental impact of different
product groups, concluding that 10 product groups are the best for "Green
Marketing", among which, are those related to the construction sector.
The European Commissions objective is to create a database, to gather all information available
on the subject, to give practical solutions and to clarify that it can be implemented at any time
and without obstacles, while complying with the Directives 2004/17/EC and 2004/18/EC, and
their specifications, clarifications and restrictions on the use of eco-labels.
In Europe, many governments have begun to include environmental, social and ethical issues in
their procurement legislation; the addition of these criteria results in direct environmental and
social benefits, ranging from the reduced consumption of natural resources to improving public
awareness, through the new requirements imposed on public procurement by the
implementation of this new legislation.
With respect to purchases and procurement under the aforementioned environmental
standards, priority has been given to computer equipment, cleaning products, recycled paper,
vehicles, construction, textiles, energy efficiency, furniture and transportation.
12.1.3 Concepts related to green marketing and market analysis

Strategic green marketing
Strategic green marketing requires substantial and fundamental change in the organisational
philosophy and practise. During the strategic marketing process, management has the task of
recognising, analysing and influencing opportunities for and threats to the business, associated
with its environmental claims. The basic principles related to strategic green marketing are:
follow the latest fashions, trends, developments and future legislation; consider the opinion of
all relevant stakeholders; not only talk, but also act green; look for continual improvements;,
open the company to the public and provide transparent and reliable information.
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Tactical green marketing

Tactical green marketing is typified by shifts in functional activities, such as production, pricing,
promotion and distribution. In this case, there is little if any change in organisational activities
and (short-term) attention can be paid to single marketing instruments.
Product
Products that are offered to the market have to fulfil mainly two criteria compared to competing
available products: they have to be greener throughout their life cycle AND they should have the
same or better performance, quality and functionality levels. Characteristics of green products
being offered for sale extend the physical products themselves; they also include packaging,
branding and services that accompany these products. Aiming to produce environmentally
friendlier products, companies first have to examine and evaluate the environmental impacts of
the products entire life cycle. There are many strategies to improve the environmental
performance of any product (see chapters 1 and 2 of the Manual) and there are different
options for marketing any green product (e.g. eco-labels).
Distribution of a product
Distribution decisions are related to the entire life-cycle of a product from the supply of inputs,
through manufacturing, packaging, distribution to the end user and finally product disposal. The
aim of product distribution (logistics) is the delivery of a product in the time, location and
volume requested by the customer. Logistic decisions also involve the use of transportation
packaging as well as systems for returned goods and the use of decentralized production
locations. Turning the distribution process more green is about saving logistics resources (e.g.
using different transportation systems and grouping bundling solutions for products) and about
reducing environmental impacts from transportation (i.e. short distances decrease the volume
of pollutant emissions).
Green pricing
Green pricing is a very complex issue. Although green products are often priced higher than
traditional goods, this does not always mean they cost more, especially when all costs
associated with these goods are considered. It usually means that initial expenses for green
products are frequently higher, but long-term costs are lower (e.g. energy saving light bulbs).
Moreover, quite often traditional products are not priced to include all environmental costs
(externalities). In many cases these externalities of traditional products are subsidized by society
and result in lower prices for consumers. In contrast, all costs related to less harmful products
are passed on to the consumers, usually in the form of a higher price. Green pricing of goods
needs to ensure that environmental value is considered important by and is adequately
communicated to consumers.
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Promotion
The final part of the green marketing refers to the process of informing consumers about the
products. It involves the communication of aspects of the product, such as price, location,
services etc.
Promotion may include a large number of activities, such as educating the consumer by
promoting responsible consumption, appealing to the consumers self-interests, organising
exhibitions, seminars and conferences or providing product performance and quality
reassurance, to name but a few. It is very important to establish product and company
credibility by using understandable and verifiable claims, considering third party certification
and/or the environmental impact of marketing methods.
12.2 Communication tools

12.1.4 Introduction, definition and importance
An ecodesigned product can have an independent environmental seal of approval which will
raise the level of consumer recognition. The environmental improvements achieved by a
product or service can be communicated to customers, companies in the supply chain, or to
other stakeholders through different communication tools or eco-marketing mechanisms.
One green marketing tool is eco-labelling - it is a way to mark the products which are
environmentally friendlier and therefore help consumers make their decisions. Eco-labelling
schemes can be voluntary or mandatory, single attribute certifications, hazard/warning labels,
report cards and information disclosures, etc or any combination thereof.
International Standardisation Organisation (ISO) has classified eco-labels in three types: Type I or
certified eco-labels, Type II or Environmental Product Self-declarations, or Type III
Environmental Product Declarations.
Eco-labelling is a distinction that informs and encourages consumers to choose products and
services with lower environmental impact. By buying products bearing eco-labels, consumers
encourage manufacturers to produce such products and services.
There are several reasons why these kinds of distinctions are successful in building materials,
including ceramic products:
They help demonstrate mandatory specifications imposed by legislation of some
countries in construction matters, in which new construction is required to include a
minimum number of eco-labelled products.
They demonstrate compliance to environmental standards required by certain voluntary
certification of sustainable building.
They provide proof of compliance to environmental standards required by the
specifications of green public and/or private procurement. Currently, building products
are considered one of the priorities of European Green Procurement policies, so it is
important that producers are aware and able to demonstrate the environmental profile
of their offers.
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12.1.5 Background and European context

The major challenge currently faced by economies is to integrate environmental sustainability
with economic growth and welfare. This is one of the key objectives of the European Union,
which has realized the potential of this process to reduce the consequences of climate change
by reducing energy and resource demands.
It is time to change to an efficient economy in terms of energy and resources. Sustainable
production and consumption maximize business potential to transform environmental
challenges into economic opportunities and offer better outcomes for consumers. The challenge
is to improve overall environmental performance of products throughout their life cycle, to
boost demand for better products and production technologies and to help consumers make
objective and reliable choices.
In order to achieve a reduction in the environmental impact of industries, different governments
and competent authorities have enacted laws aimed at controlling discharges, waste
management and air emissions of industrial sectors.
Nowadays, a wide range of European and national policies exist, promoting production and
consumption of eco-efficient products. These policies are an integral part of the renewed
Sustainable Development Strategy (CE SDS, 2011) which reinforces the long-term commitment
of the European Union to sustainable development and promotes the development of initiatives
and instruments to this end at a European and global level.
Initially, these laws and measures have evolved in a more prohibitory form (limitation of the
discharge to the environment) with penalties that affected business at end of the line. However,
this legislative framework has not yielded the anticipated environmental success, given the
environmental degradation observed. Thus since the mid-eighties, the European Union and
other administrations and institutions have been working on how to create various positive
tools, which will reward preventive actions. These tools were implemented, among other
actions, through eco-labelling systems and environmental management systems, and should
be voluntary.
More recently, as a last step in this evolution of European environmental policies, on July 16,
2008 the European Commission presented the Sustainable Consumption and Production and
Sustainable Industrial Policy (SCP/SIP) Action Plan (CEC COM(2008) 397). This Plan includes a
number of proposals relating to sustainable consumption and production that will help improve
environmental performance of products and increase demand for sustainable goods and
production technologies. This plan also aims at encouraging the European industry to take
advantage of innovation opportunities.
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12.1.6 Eco-labels based on ISO

As mentioned in section 12.1.1 of this chapter, ISO has classified eco-labels in three types: Type I
or certified eco-labels, Type II or Environmental Product Self-declarations, or Type III
Environmental Product Declarations. Table 12.1 summarises the main characteristics of the
three types of eco-labels.
Definition
Is LCA required?
Need to be verified
by an independent
third party?
The eco-label
informs about
Standards
Table 12.1 Eco-labels according to ISO

Environmental
Certified EcoProduct Selflabels
declarations
(Type I)
(Type II)
Indicate that the
Developed by
product or service
manufacturers,
within a product
distributors and other
category is preferable
interested parties to
because it has less
communicate
environmental impact
environmental aspects
of their products or
services
No
No
Yes
Not required but
increases credibility
Global environmental
benefit
ISO 14024
Improvement on a
specific environmental
aspect
ISO 14021
Environmental
Product
Declarations
(Type III)
Show standardized
information regarding
the life cycle of
products.
Yes
Not required but
increases credibility
Environmental profile
(life cycle)
ISO 14025
ISO 21930
prEN 15804
Logo
Communication to
final consumer
Communication
between companies
Green procurement
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Certified Ecolabels (Type I)

These are voluntary of multiple criteria programs, and are implemented by an independent third
party which verifies the right to use these environmental labels on products, indicating that a
product of a particular product category is good for the environment, according to certain
considerations based on its life cycle. These programs follow ISO 14024:2001, regarding
Environmental labels and declarations - Type I environmental labeling - Principles and
procedures. They can be addressed by the public or private sectors and can be national, regional
or international. The purpose of environmental labeling programs Type I is to contribute to a
reduction of environmental impacts associated with products, by identifying those products that
meet specific criteria thus ensuring the predominance of a global environmental program Type I.
This global environmental program is about an interactive process that includes: stakeholder
consultation, the selection of product categories, the development, revision and modification of
environmental criteria for products, identification of the functional characteristics of products as
well as the definition of certification procedures and other administrative elements of the
program.
Environmental Product Self-declarations (Type II)

Type II Ecolabels are self-declarations made by the manufacturers, importers, distributors,
retailers or any other party likely to benefit from these allegations, in order to communicate
some aspects of environmental improvement, usually a single environmental improvement.
These ecolabels do not require verification by an independent third party, though such an
accreditation increases their credibility.
According to ISO 14021:2001 Environmental labels and declarations -- Self-declared
environmental claims (Type II environmental labelling), it is possible to self-declare:
Compostables, Biodegradables, Designed for disassembly, Extended life product, Recovered
energy, Recyclable, Recycled content, Pre-consumer material, Post-consumer material, Recycled
material, Recovered [reclaimed] material, Reduced energy consumption, Reduced resource use,
Reduced water consumption, Reusable, Refillable, Waste reduction.
Environmental Product Declarations (EPD or Type III)

Type III environmental declarations present quantified environmental information about the life
cycle of products based on independently verified Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies.
Verification of these assertions must be made under specifically agreed upon guidelines for each
product category, known as Product Category Rules (PCR).
As conceived in the UNE-ISO 14025:2010 Environmental labels and declarations -- Type III
environmental declarations (EPD) are intended for business to business communication,
although their use is not limited.
EPD enable comparisons between products that perform the same function, so this ecolabelling
is helpful in Green Procurement.
Type III Ecolabelling programmes are managed by (a) program operator(s), such as a company or
group of companies, trade association or industry trade associations, public authorities or
agencies, or an independent scientific body or other organization.
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12.1.7 Eco-labels for ceramic products

Type I. Certified eco-labels.
The eco-labels for ceramic products are as following:
Table 12.2 Certified eco-labels for ceramics
Programme
Product category
EU Eco-label
Distintiu de Garanta
Qualitat Ambiental
Coverings
de
Ecomark
(Japan)
China ecolabelling
Recycled aggregate products

Raw materials and recycled glass products
Tile-blocks
Building products using recycled materials
Sanitary ceramics
Clay pigeons
Ceramic ware, glass ceramic ware and glass
dinnerware in contact with food
Low lead release ceramic tableware
Blocks for architecture
Green Label
Hong Kong
Flooring materials
Ceramic tile
Building products using recycled materials
Korea eco-labelling program
Urinals
Eco-logo
(Canada)
Water conserving products
Hong Kong Eco-label
Ceramic for buildings
EU eco-label for ceramic coverings has only succeeded in Spain, France but especially in Italy
where more than ten companies (around 30 models) have been accredited.
Environmental Product Self-Declarations or Type II eco-labels

Currently, these types of labels are gaining ground in all ceramic products, especially those with
a recycled content and reduced resource consumption. Unfortunately, these types of eco-labels
do not require certification, so it is not possible to identify a registration site where companies
or labelled products are gathered.
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Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) or Type III eco-labels

The type III eco-labels for ceramic products are as following:
Table 12.3 Environmental product declarations for ceramics
Programme
Product category
Other non-metallic mineral products. Roofs
EPD Sweden
Other non-metallic mineral products. Clay construction
products
DAPc Spain
Ceramic coverings
IBU Germany
Floor coverings
BRE environmental profiles UK
LCA environmental profiles
FDES France
Building products
MRPI The Netherlands
Building products
RT Finland
Eco-profile of the product
Bidet toilet seat
EcoLeaf Japan
Porcelain products
Toilets and urinals
NHO Norway
Building products
In Spain, a new programme for building products has been developed, promoted by the
Catalonian Government and CAATEEB (Professional Association of technical architects and
building engineers of Barcelona). This programme is called DAPc, and the ceramic tile is one of
the first two products to obtain Product Category Rules (PCR). These PCR contain the necessary
guidelines for the Life Cycle Assessment required to determine the environmental profile of the
product as determined in the Environmental Product Declaration (EPD). At the moment, 5
companies have this eco-label and they are the first ones in Spain to obtain an EPD in DAPc;
however, many companies are interested and in the process of being awarded this label. One of
the main reasons for this increased demand is the adoption of certain laws that enforce the
inclusion of a number of materials with some environmental distinctions (Ros et al., 2010,
Benveniste et al., 2011).
Recently, a new organisation, AENOR, is creating a new system for Environmental Product
Declarations for all types of industries. At present, the sector of ceramic tiles manufacturers is in
advanced talks to be one of the first sectors included in this EPD system.
In Portugal, there is also an example of a project (Almeida et al., 2010a, 2010b) which aims to
develop a PCR and EPD (Environmental product declaration) for ceramic materials based on
ISO14025 and ISO21930. The project was performed by CTCV12 by the request of APICER13 . For
more details on the life cycle analysis, please refer to chapter 6 Environmental analysis.
12
13
CTCV Technological Centre of Ceramics and Glass

APICER Portuguese Association of the Ceramic Industry
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Design for sustainability
13. Design for sustainability

13.1 Introduction
Sustainability is not only about the environment. Sustainable development challenges
companies and other organizations to rethink their processes and products so that they are
environmentally sustainable, economically feasible and socially fair. Therefore, while the
integration of environmental considerations into product development (i.e., ecodesign) is an
important strategy to reduce environmental impacts of products, design for sustainability is a
more holistic and far reaching strategy.
In 1987, the United Nations released the Brundtland Report, which included what is now one
of the most widely recognised definitions:
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it
two key concepts:
the concept of 'needs', in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to
which overriding priority should be given; and
the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization
on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.
In previous chapters, consideration was given on various environmental and economic
dimensions of product design, including different strategies and criteria that help organizations
systemize their knowledge about the products environmental impacts and support decision
making. However, it is not yet clear how to attain sustainability and address social aspects in
product development?
The agenda of social design is inspired by, among others, Victor Papaneks idea that designers
and creative professionals have a responsibility and are able to cause real change in the world
through good design. Already in the 1970s he wrote about his ideas for ecologically sound
design and designs to serve the poor, the disabled, the elderly and other minority social groups
(Papanek, 1971).
In contrast to the current practice of ecodesign, where in most of the cases only incremental
environmental improvements to existing products and services are achieved, design for
sustainability aims at radical improvements in the different dimensions of sustainability. It is a
matter of what to consider (i.e., the traditional features plus social and environmental
concerns) and how far to go.
In chapter 4 Innovation, different types of innovations are presented; design for
sustainability challenges companies to apply function and system innovations (types 3 and 4)
in order to deal with the ecological limits of the planet. Marginal improvements in products
performance are not compatible with the rate of degradation of ecosystems and resources
depletion in the medium and long terms.
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In this last chapter of the InEDIC project, the idea is to revisit this topic, on the one hand, and
to address the subject of radical innovation and social criteria in design, on the other; this way
some hints are provided on new trajectories that companies and designers may wish to
consider for their future developments.
13.2 Design for sustainability inspired by ISO 26000

Recent developments on sustainability management, namely the publication of ISO 26000
Social responsibility in 2010, bring a new framework for addressing the impacts of
organizations decisions and activities on society and the environment. According to this
standard, organizations are urged to adopt a transparent and ethical behaviour that:
Contributes to sustainable development, including health and welfare of society;
Takes into account the expectations of stakeholders;
Is in compliance with applicable law and consistent with international norms of
behaviour; and
Is integrated throughout the organization and practiced in its relationships.
ISO 26000 is a very comprehensive and up-to-date guidance document on the implementation
of social responsibility by organizations, finalised after a 6-years development process based
on international consensus among some 400 experts from 99 countries, representing the main
stakeholder groups. The Discovering ISO 26000 brochure, issued by ISO (2010), explains the
need of this standard in the following terms:
An organizations performance in relation to the society in which it operates and to its
impact on the environment has become a critical part of measuring its overall performance
and its ability to continue operating effectively. This is, in part, a reflection of the growing
recognition of the need to ensure healthy ecosystems, social equity and good organizational
governance. In the long run, all organizations activities depend on the health of the worlds
ecosystems. Organizations are subject to greater scrutiny by their various stakeholders.
These concerns apply to the daily operations of an organization and to its strategic decisions
regarding new products, services or even business models. ISO 26000 proposes that an
organization may recognize and manage its social responsibility in an effective way by
considering seven core subjects:
organizational governance,
human rights,
labour practices,
the environment,
fair operating practices,
consumer issues and
community involvement and development.
It states that these core subjects cover economic, environmental and social impacts that
are most likely to occur during business operations and should therefore be addressed by
organizations. One possible approach to cover all relevant criteria in design for
sustainability is to use this very same categorization (figure 13.1).
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Figure 13.1 The seven core issues of social responsibility according to ISO 26000
The figure indicates that all issues should be taken into account (the holistic approach) and
that they are interdependent. Nevertheless, the first one, organizational governance, will not
be used as a design approach because its nature is somewhat different from the other core
issues. As a matter of fact, effective organizational governance enables an organization to take
action on the other core issues, as its about the way organizations make and implement
decisions in pursuit of their objectives. One could say that the adoption of a product-oriented
environmental policy or ecodesign procedures, for instance, such as presented in Chapter 11
Environmental management systems and ecodesign are elements of good governance; but
this will not be tackled as a design for sustainability approach in itself.
Human rights
Human rights embrace two broad categories: civil and political rights (such as the right to life
and liberty, equality before the law and freedom of expression) and economic, social and
cultural rights (such as the right to work, to eat, to enjoy the highest attainable standard of
health, to be educated and to attain social security). While states have a duty and
responsibility to respect, protect and fulfil human rights, it is widely acknowledged that nonstate organizations can affect individuals human rights and hence have a responsibility to
respect them or even proactively contribute to their fulfilment.
How can product and service design support the respect of human rights?
Victor Papanek advocated that designers and creative professionals have a responsibility and
are able to cause real change in the world through good design. Already in the 1970s he wrote
about his ideas for ecologically sound design and designs to serve the poor, the disabled, the
elderly and other minority social groups.
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Labour practices
Labour practices include any policy or practice affecting conditions of work performed within,
by or on behalf of the organization, including subcontracted work. The principles involved in
this topic include the everyones right to earn a living by freely chosen work, and the right to
just and favourable conditions at work.
How can product and service design promote sound labour practices?
The choice of materials and production processes has a direct impact on the well being of
people in their workplace. By avoiding the use of toxic substances and dangerous equipments,
the designer is directly influencing health and safety of workers.
The environment
The InEDIC manual on ecodesign provides detailed information on how to address
environmental concerns in product design. No additional guidance will be provided here.
Fair operating practices

This issue concerns ethical conduct in an organizations dealing with other organizations:
government agencies, partners, suppliers, contractors, customers, competitors and
associations of which they are members. It includes the following aspects: Anti-corruption
practices; responsible political involvement; fair competition; promotion of social
responsibility in the value chain, through responsible procurement and purchasing decisions;
respect for property rights, including traditional knowledge.
How can product and service design promote fair operating practices?
The inclusion of social responsibility criteria in procurement or purchasing of raw materials or
components will affect the designers work, as these criteria may limit the designers choice of
suppliers or, in a more constructive perspective, provide a platform for co-finding better
alternatives or even new solutions for the product.
Apart from this, designers also have a very important role in respecting property rights and
traditional knowledge through their ethical conduct of practice.
Consumer issues
Organizations providing products and services to consumers have responsibilities, such as
providing education and accurate information, using fair, transparent and helpful marketing
information, promoting sustainable consumption and designing products and services that
provide access to all, are safe and cater, where appropriate, to the vulnerable and
disadvantaged.
How can product and service design protect consumers?
This is of course a field where design plays a central role. Some considerations are:
Minimize health and safety risks in the design of products by:
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Identifying the likely user groups, the intended use and the reasonably
foreseeable misuse of the product or service, as well as hazards arising in all
stages and conditions of use of the product and/or service;
o Estimating and evaluating the risk to each identified user or group;
o Reducing the risk by providing (i) inherently safe design, (ii) protective devices
and (iii) information to users.
Contribute to sustainable consumption by offering consumers products and services
that remain socially and environmentally beneficial throughout their entire life cycle.
This is at the core of the entire InEDIC project. See also section 13.3 Product-service
systems.
Community involvement and development

Organizations have a relationship with the communities in which they operate, and should
therefore acknowledge the communities value and help promote higher levels of well being
within these communities. Historical and cultural characteristics make each community unique
and influence the possibilities of its future. Community development is the result of social,
political and economic features and depends on the social forces involved.
Issues of community development to which an organization can contribute include the
creation of jobs, the diversification of economic activities and technological development, the
increase of income through local economic development initiatives, the promotion of
education, the preservation of local culture and arts, etc.
How can product and service design promote community involvement and development?
Product and service design may promote local economies, materials, technologies and knowhow and thus support communities in their development.
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13.3 Product-service systems

In recent years the answering machines became virtually obsolete since the telephone
operators provide voice mail services. One is able to track who called, to hear the recorded
message, save it for a certain period of time and call back automatically. For the user this is a
far better choice from a practicality point of view and in economic terms as it is not necessary
anymore to buy the equipment. As a matter of fact, what does the consumer really need to
own an answering machine or to be able to use the function of receiving phone messages?
This is a classical example of the replacement of a tangible product (the answering machine) by
a service (voice mail) and it is often used to illustrate the potential sustainability benefits of
servicing. Instead of thousands of answering machines being manufactured, distributed, used
and disposed at the end of life, the already existing phone is enough. Moreover, consumer
satisfaction is higher.
Servicing (or increasing the service content in business, while the material product gets less
important) is a trend in modern economies which has raised the attention of sustainability
experts. A demanded Factor 4 or greater reduction on environmental impact is hard to
achieve by modifications to existing products only. The idea behind broadening the view from
product to service and system design is to integrate and optimise product functions or to
replace the product with a service (Tukker and Tischner, 2006).
This section is about product-service systems (PSS), which is equivalent to servicing or
functional thinking. The terminology PSS is adopted here because there are no pure products
(where no services are required, since at least distribution is usually necessary) nor pure
services (since in the provision of a service, physical goods are normally involved). Productservice systems, which have a high potential for sustainability, are based on business models
that combine the delivery of products and services in order to add value to and meet the
needs of users in a more sustainable way.
Of interest here, are those examples where the service component is increased in order to
provide an innovative, more sustainable way of fulfilling a given need (which inherently makes
good business sense).
In product-service systems, the sustainability potential is far superior to that of traditional
business models, whether at environmental, economic and/or social level. The example of the
answering machine/voice mail replacement certainly does not illustrate all types of PSS. As a
matter of fact, the servicing trend does not mean that physical products are being replaced by
immaterial services on a large scale. Often companies are adding services (e.g. after sales
assistance) to the products they sell as a differentiation strategy in mature product markets to
increase competitiveness. A possible categorization of PSS is presented in table 13.1.
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Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Categories of PSS

14
Sources: SusProNet project ; Tukker and Tischner, 2006 and Tukker, 2003 (modified)
Categories
Ownership of the product
Category A: Product The product is owned by the
oriented Services
user/consumer
Category B: User
oriented Services
Product is owned by the

service provider who sells
functions instead of products,
by means of modified
distribution and payment
systems
Category C: Result
oriented Services
There is not a pre-determined

product involved in this
category
14
Examples
Product extension service, the value of
a product is increased through
additional services, e.g. upgrading,
repair, guarantees, financing schemes,
supply of consumables, etc.
Advice and consultancy concerning the
most efficient use of the product.
Vertical Integration, modified
delivering strategies to supply products
to customers, retailer and/ or
customer who get directly involved in
the process of production, e.g.
production on demand.
Leasing. The provider retains
ownership and often is responsible for
maintenance, repair and control. The
leaser pays a regular fee for the use of
the product and normally has an
individual and unlimited access to the
leased product.
Renting or Sharing, similar to leasing
but the user does not have unlimited
and individual access to the product.
The same product is sequentially used
by different users.
Pooling, which is similar to sharing but
there is a simultaneous use of the
product.
Activity management, the supplier
gives incentives for the customer to
consume
more efficiently and optimises a
system e.g. by using modified payment
systems, e.g. contracting.
Functional result, products are
substituted by new solutions; the
delivery is a result which is not related
to a specific technology system
anymore. Examples are pest control
service instead of pesticides, delivery
of a pleasant climate instead of
selling heating or cooling equipments,
etc.
Thematic Network on Product Service Development: www.suspronet.org.
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Chapter 13
The PSS concept has been a matter of great attention for environmentalists due to its potential
to decouple revenues from material flows and to increase resource productivity. Stahel (2000)
for instance suggests that higher resource productivity can be reached through:
Sufficiency solutions (organising operations so that need for a good or service is
reduced or eliminated without compromising consumer demands e.g. not washing
unused hotel bath towels) (equals Category C, result-oriented PSS);
Systems solutions and more intensive utilisation of goods (these tend to go together
and cover selling utilisation, results or function instead of goods e.g. leases, carpooling, shared use of roads, railways etc.) (equals Category B, use-oriented PSS);
Longer utilisation of goods, using techniques such as product life extension,
remanufacture, reuse e.g. for furniture, automotive parts etc. (equals Category A,
product-oriented PSS).
But PSS are not environmentally sustainable per se. One important obstacle against ecoefficiency of services is transport intensity and it is therefore especially important to address
transportation-related aspects of service provision (Tukker and Tischner, 2006). Another
drawback for eco-efficiency of PSS relates to users being less responsible to carefully use any
product of the User Oriented Category, than they would be if they would actually own it (e.g.
in leasing) (Tukker, 2003).
Generally speaking the sustainability potential of PSS increases from category A to category C.
According to Tukker (2003) product-oriented services have probably only marginal
environmental benefits, due to better maintenance and extended life time of the product and
the same applies to activity management. Radical changes cannot be expected since the
technology system remains the same; it is simply managed in a more efficient way. Renting,
sharing and pooling can lead to higher environmental gains, especially if the burden is related
to the production of the product, since less units are necessary when the product is used more
intensively. In the case of pooling, the potential benefit is even higher, as consumables in the
use phase are beneficial for more persons at the same time. Leasing can lead to worsening the
environmental profile as mentioned before. The most promising PSS in environmental terms is
the function oriented PSS, which gives the service provider higher degrees of freedom to
design a low impact system.
Finally it should be stated that the exploitation of the environmental benefits of PSS is limited
by its market acceptance and dimension. Functional result services raise uncertainty and
liability questions that deter successful development and implementation. As for sharing and
pooling, market acceptance is still limited, due to low intangible user value (sense of
ownership and prestige).
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Chapter 13
13.4 Synthesis: From ecodesign to design for sustainability

Design for sustainability has evolved from the concept and methodology of ecodesign and is
currently being applied successfully by numerous organisations and companies, with
significant economic and environmental benefits. This new designing approach is based on a
strong social component, using it as a key factor in longterm strategies.
This implies that companies act in a responsible manner, incorporating environmental and
social factors in product development and adopting innovative ways to meet consumer needs.
The following figure illustrates the evolution of the eco-design approach to design for
sustainability, focusing on technological aspects, functional aspects and the timeframe and
types of impacts considered.
Figure 13.2 The challenge: from ecodesign to design for sustainability.

Source: Spangenberg et al., 2010 (modified).
Page 137
Tools
Annex tools
In the website of the InEDIC project (www.inedic.net) the following tools are available to
support the implementation of ecodesign, either in full or in simplified version:
Tool 1 Investigation of motivation factors for ecodesign: This tool helps the project team,
together with the support group and top management, to identify why ecodesign is important
for the company and therefore streamline the ideas on which product groups to work on and
what kind of improvements are necessary to be made.
Tool 2 Product selection/ecodesign potential questionnaire: This questionnaire aims at
supporting the ecodesign team in choosing the target product(s) for the ecodesign project, so
that the choice lies on the product(s) with higher potential for improvement and which are
strategically more adequate.
Tool 3 Design brief: The tool supports the development of the design brief. The design brief
is an essential document for the good understanding of the design problem to be tackled
because it provides the designer all the information needed for the development and
presentation of solutions that meet the needs and expectations of the company.
Tool 4 Market analysis: This tool provides guidance for the market analysis process, in order
to determine the current and future market potential of the reference product; it may also be
applied to the new ecodesigned product. It includes the analysis of previous and future
markets, the analysis of markets attractiveness according to the Porters Five forces model
and the SWOT analysis.
Tool 5 Environmental inputs and outputs worksheet: This tool is used to quantify the inputs
and outputs of materials, energy and water along the life cycle of the reference product (for
the defined functional unit). It is normally used for the environmental assessment of the
reference product and provides data for a quantitative life cycle assessment and for filling in
the MET matrix (tool 6). It can also be used to validate the new ecodesigned product from an
environmental point of view.
Tool 6 MET matrix: The MET matrix is a qualitative or semi-qualitative environmental
analysis method that is applied to get a general view of the inputs and outputs in each phase
of the product life cycle and to identify the main environmental aspects and possible
environmental improvement options. It is organized according to three environmental aspects
categories along the life cycle: materials (M), energy (E) and toxicity (T).
Tool 7 Economic profile assessment: This tool is useful for identifying the stages of life cycle
that are more problematic or more promising from the financial point of view. It is used for the
reference product as well as to the new ecodesigned product and it complements tool 12.
Tool 8 Product analysis worksheet Synthesis: The objective of this tool is to help
systemising and visualizing the results of the environmental, economic and market analysis
performed for the reference product. It should be used as an input to the brainstorming.
Page 138
Tools
Tool 9 Ecodesign checklists for ceramics: This is a qualitative tool, which allows an easy
integration of eco-efficiency criteria in the product development process. It closely follows the
ecodesign strategies and measures or criteria as presented in chapter 8, but introduces a
scoring system which provides, simultaneously, an evaluation of the reference product and
ecodesign hints for the new product concept.
Tool 10 Brainstorming: A well-known tool in searching for ideas is brainstorming.
Brainstorming sessions are held in all companies from time to time. Several persons with
expertise in different disciplines come together and try to come up with an answer to a
question asked by the group itself. This is a useful tool in searching for environmental
improvements and innovative solutions for the product.
Tool 11 Economic feasibility assessment of ecodesign: This tool is useful to asses the
economical viability of the proposed ecodesign measures and strategies. The tool follows the
structure of the ecodesign strategies presented in tool 9 and chapter 8, and lists the estimated
cost variation of each measure.
Tool 12 Improvement options evaluation matrix: The purpose of this matrix is to evaluate
the improvement ideas for the product that were generated during the brainstorming session
on what concerns their technical, financial, market and environmental feasibility.
Tool 13 Morphological box: This is another creativity tool. When searching for ways to
improve an existing product it can be particularly beneficial to use the morphological box
technique. It can also be used to improve the ideas that have emerged in a brainstorming or
brainwriting session.
Tool 14 Ecodesign evaluation questionnaire: this questionnaire evaluates the results of the
ecodesign project as well as of the new product. In addition, it provides support for an action
plan approach for further developments in ecodesign.
Tool 15 Environmental management systems and ecodesign checklist: with this tool it is
possible to check if product development and life cycle elements are adequately integrated in
the environmental management system and if there are environmental considerations in the
design and development procedure. Similarly to an audit checklist, it allows for assessing and
recording the level of implementation.
Databases: In the projects scope two databases were developed in order to provide
designers, environmental staff and product development staff, information on environmental
issues, best available techniques, ecodesign practices and information regarding recycled
materials and substitutes that could be used in the ceramics industry.
Technologies database: This database consists of a set of technical datasheets for
each operation of the ceramic process to the four sub-sectors covered. Each
datasheet contains a description of the operation, its relevant environmental
aspects, best available techniques for improving their environmental performance
and ecodesign measures that could be adopted.
Materials database: This database is divided into three categories: (i) Recycled
materials considered as by-products from the internal process (internal source) that
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Tools
can be used as raw material in new ceramic products, (ii) Recycled materials
considered as by-products from an external sources which can be used as raw
materials as well and (iii) substitute materials, which can replace a specific material
used in the ceramic process promoting the improvement of environmental product
performance of the product.
Page 140
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practice. Environmental issues report no 20. Copenhagen: European Environmental
Agency, 2001.
BOXWELL Jr., R. J. Benchmarking for Competitive Advantage. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 225.
ISBN 0-07-006899-2. 1994.
JONES N. Benchmarking for competitive advantage, PHS Management Training. 2004.
KEMPNER, D.E. The Pilot Years: The Growth of the NACUBO Benchmarking Project. NACUBO
Business Officer, 27(6), 21-31, 1993.
LYNCH-STEWART, P. Using Ecological Standards, Guidelines and Objectives for Determining
Significance: An Examination of Existing Information to Support Significance Decisions
Involving Wetlands. Final Report: March 31, 2001, Lynch-Stewart and Associates,
Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2001. www.ceaaacee.gc.ca/0010/0001/0002/0001/toc_e.htm
McNAIR, C.J., LEIBFRIED, K. H. J. Benchmarking: A Tool for Continuous Improvement. Harper
Business, 1992.
SARKIS, J. Corporate environmental benchmarking. Benchmarking. An International Journal,
vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 91-94, 2003.
SPARF, A. M. Comparing Environmental Performance. Environmental benchmarking for SMEs in
the Nordic tourism industry. Masters Thesis, University of Iceland. Department of
Geology and Geography Environmental Research Institute, 2005.
Stage-Gate International. Getting Started: A Typical Approach to Benchmarking, 2011.
WIERSMA Y.F. Environmental benchmarks vs. Ecological,Benchmarks for assessment and
monitoring in Canada. Is there a difference?, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment,
Springer, 100: 19, 2005.
WILSON, W. G., SASSEVILLE, D. R. Sustaining environmental management success. Best
business practices from industry leaders. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p.266, 1999.
BENYUS, J. Biomimicry - Innovation inspired by nature. New York: Harper Perennial. 2002.
BRAMSTON, D. Idea searching. United Kingdom. Ava publishing, S.A. 2009.
De BONO, E. Lateral thinking: creativity step by step. Harper & Row. 1970.
EDWARDS, B. The New Drawing on The Right Side of the Brain. Penguin Putnam. 1979.
LAWSON, B. How Designers Think: The design process demystified. Burlington, Architectural
press. 2006.
Sites:
http://www.edwdebono.com/index.html
http://www.brainstorming.co.uk/puzzles/ninedotsnj.html
http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook2.htm
Page 147
References
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http://www.biomimicry.net
http://www.flickr.com
Chapter 11 Environmental management systems and ecodesign
AMMENBERG, J., SUNDIN, R. Products in environmental management systems: drivers,
barriers and experiences. Journal of Cleaner Production 13, 405-415, 2005.
BREZET, H., ROCHA, C. Towards a model for product-oriented environmental management
systems. In: Charter M, Tischner U, editors. Sustainable Solutions. Sheffield: Greenleaf
Publishing;. p. 243 e 61. 2001.
ISO/DIS 14006. Environmental management systems Guidelines for incorporating ecodesign
(draft international standard).
NP EN ISO 14001:2004. Sistemas de gesto ambiental Requisitos e linhas de orientao para
a sua utilizao.
NP EN ISO 14031:1999. Gesto ambiental Avaliao do desempenho ambiental Linhas de
orientao.
NP EN ISO 9000:2005. Sistemas de gesto da qualidade Fundamentos e vocabulrio.
NP EN ISO 9001:2008. Sistemas de gesto da qualidade Requisitos.
ROCHA, C., SILVESTER, S. Product-oriented environmental management systems (POEMS).
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REGULATION (EC) No 1221/2009 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 25
November 2009 on the voluntary participation by organisations in a Community ecomanagement and audit scheme (EMAS).
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(Spanish standard).
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EMAS competent body in Portugal: http://www.apambiente.pt/
EMAS competent body in Spain: www.marm.es
EMAS competent body in Greece: www.minenv.gr
Portuguese Institute of Quality: www.ipq.pt
Spanish Association of Standardization and Certification: www.aenor.es
Greek Standardization Organization: www.elot.gr
EMAS Technical Implementation and Verification project: http://www.idec.gr/etiv/
ISO standards on management and leadership:
http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/management_and_leadership_standards.htm
EMAS site, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/emas/index_en.htm
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Chapter 12 Green marketing and communication

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Novembro 2010(b).
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FULLANA I., PALMER, P. Impactos ambientales del ciclo de vida de las baldosas
cermicas. Anlisis sectorial, identificacin de estrategias de mejora y comunicacin. 10
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Chapter 13 Design for sustainability
ISO 26000:2010 Guidance on social responsibility.
ISO. Discovering ISO 26000. 2010.
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Product-Life Institute, Geneva. 2000.
TUKKER, A. Eight Types of Product-Service Systems: Eight Ways to Sustainability? Business
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TUKKER, A.; TISCHNER, U. (eds.). New Business for Old Europe. Product-Service Development,
Competitiveness and Sustainability. Greenleaf Publishing. 2006.
UNITED NATIONS. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987.
Page 150
Glossary
Glossary (in alphabetical order)

Benchmarking
It is an ongoing, systematic process for measuring and comparing the work processes of one
organization to those of another, by bringing an external focus to internal activities, functions,
or operations.
Source: KEMPNER, D.E. The Pilot Years: The Growth of the NACUBO Benchmarking Project.
NACUBO Business Officer, 27(6), 21-31, 1993.
The goal of benchmarking is to provide key personnel, in charge of processes, with an external
standard for measuring the quality and cost of internal activities, and to help identify where
opportunities for improvement may reside. Benchmarking is analogous to the human learning
process, and it has been described as a method of teaching an institution how to improve
Source: McNAIR, C.J., LEIBFRIED K. H.J. Benchmarking: A Tool for Continuous Improvement.
Harper Business, 1992.
Best Available Techniques (BAT)
Best Available Techniques represent the most advanced stage in the development of
technologies employed and their methods of operation, which can be implemented in the
relevant industry under conditions that are economically, as well as technically acceptable, and
which provide the most effective protection of the environment as a whole.
Source: Directive 2008/98/Ec Of The European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November
2008 on Waste and repealing certain Directives.
Biodegradable materials
A biodegradable material is capable of being completely broken down under the action of
microorganisms into carbon dioxide, water and biomass. It may take a very long time for some
materials to biodegrade depending on their environment (e.g. wood in an arid area versus
paper in water), but they ultimately break down completely.
Source: http://csds.pratt.edu/greenGlossary.php
Certified Ecolabels (Type I)
These labels indicate that the product or service bearing them within a specific product
category is preferable, because it has less environmental impact. These programs are
voluntary and need to be verified by an independent third party.
Cost Structure
The expenses that a firm must take into account when manufacturing a product or providing a
service. Types of cost structures include transaction costs, sunk costs, marginal costs and fixed
costs.
Cumulative Energy Demand (CED)
Amount of energy consumed directly or indirectly during the life cycle of a product. The goal of
the CED index is to calculate the total primary energy input for the generation of a product,
taking into account the pertinent front-end process chains.
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Glossary
Dematerialization
In economics, dematerialization refers to the absolute or relative reduction in the quantity of
materials required to serve economic functions in society (www.wikipedia.pt). The
replacement of physical products by services or product-service combinations which are
capable of fulfilling the users needs is a dematerialization strategy.
Design and development
Set of processes that transforms requirements into specified characteristics or into the
specification of a product, process or system. The terms design and development are
sometimes used synonymously and sometimes used to define different stages of the overall
process of turning an idea into a product.
Sources: ISO 9000:2005. Quality management systems Fundamentals and vocabulary and
ISO/TR 14062. Environmental management Integrating environmental aspects into product
design and development.
Discount rate
Is an interest rate a central bank charges depository institutions that borrow funds from it.
Discounted cash flow
By discounting the future cash flow (i.e., using an interest rate that reflects the fact that money
in the future is worth less than money now), one can calculate, for example, net present and
net future values. The interest rate is a means of reflecting the opportunity cost of tying up
money in the proposed investment (from Economist.com 2007).
Discounting
Converts cost (and revenues or value) occurring at different times to equivalent (net) costs at a
common (or determined) point in time.
Ecodesign
Integration of environmental aspects into product design and development with the aim of
reducing adverse environmental impacts throughout a products life cycle.
Source: ISO/DIS 14006:2010. Environmental management systems Guidelines for
incorporating ecodesign.
Strategies that can be followed for ecodesign. In this manual, 8 ecodesign strategies are
presented and discussed:
Develop new concepts
Select lower impact materials
Reduce the use of materials
Reduce the environmental impact of production
Promote environmentally friendly packaging and logistics
Reduce the environmental impact in the use phase
Increase product durability
Optimize the end-of-life system
Ecoindicator
The Ecoindicator scores are based on an impact assessment methodology that transforms
inventory table data into damage scores, which can be aggregated (depending on the needs
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Glossary
and the choice of the user) to damage scores per each of three comprehensive damage
categories, or even to one single score.
Eco-innovation
A term used to describe products and processes that contribute to sustainable development.
Eco-innovation is the commercial application of knowledge to elicit direct or indirect ecological
improvements. It is often used to describe a range of related ideas, from environmentally
friendly technological advances to socially acceptable innovative paths towards sustainability
Eco-labelling
It is a way to distinguish the environmentally friendlier products, so that the consumers
decision processes are facilitated.
End-of-life (EoL) system
Set of processes a product may go through when its useful life time has ended, including
disassembly, refurbishing, recycling, incineration and final disposal.
Environmental benchmarking
It is effectively a tool for analysing environmentally related practices and indicators, leading to
superior environmental performance, while also enhancing economic performance. In other
words, benchmarking helps companies achieve good environmental performance by learning
from 'best-in-class' companies. The scope of environmental benchmarking should include all
areas of a company's activities and not be restricted solely to those activities that have an
obvious environmental impact. Therefore it may include an assessment of environmental
management systems (EMS), management performance, environmental accounting, resource
and waste management, product environmental quality, environmental education and
training, customer relations and emergency response.
Environmental impact
Simplified, an impact is any change, positive or negative, to air, water, land, ecosystems and
human health as a result of any action.
In organizational environmental management, environmental impact is defined as any change
to the environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an
organization's activities, products or services.
Source: Adapted from ISO 14001:2004. Environmental management systems Requirements
with guidance for use.
Environmental management system
Part of an organization's management system used to develop and implement its
environmental policy and manage its environmental aspects. A management system includes
organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes
and resources.
Source: ISO 14001:2004. Environmental management systems Requirements with guidance
for use.
Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs or Type III)
Ecolabel Type III contains the environmental profile of the life cycle of products determined by
a Life Cycle Assessment. Verification of assertion must be made under specifically agreed upon
guidelines for each product category, known as Product Category Rules (PCR).
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Glossary
Environmental Product Self-declarations (Type II)

Self-declarations made by the manufacturers, importers, distributors, retailers or any other
party likely to benefit from these allegations in order to communicate some aspects of
environmental improvement, usually a single environmental improvement. These ecolabels do
not require verification by an independent third party, though such an accreditation increases
their credibility.
End-of-life processes
End-of-life processes pertain all processes occurring after the completion of the use phase in
the life cycle of a product, such as collection, disassembly, re-use, recycling, composting,
landfill and/or incineration.
External cost
This has two different meanings:
1) Cost of externalities, as welfare effects. Being nonmarket effects, they are measured
through other means, such as surveys on societys willingness to pay for benefits
received.
2) Cost, as market cost, not directly borne by an organization in terms of costs of labour,
capital, and taxes, but as costs for purchases from other firms in the system, covering
the internal costs of these other firms.
External effect (or the externality effect)
The effect of an economic activity on the welfare of individuals that is not reflected in the
market prices related to this activity. Most economists focus nowadays on environmental
externalities, but other externalities may be determined as well, like the effects of knowledge
created by schooling and research on the welfare of others.
Externalities
Value changes caused by a business transaction but not included in its price.
Factor X
Factor X is an index that compares value increase (sometimes expressed in terms of quality of
life) and environmental impact reduction of a new product, to those of the product being
evaluated, thus illustrating the improvement in terms of a multiple (factor).
Green marketing
Is a holistic and responsible management process that identifies, anticipates, satisfies and
fulfils stakeholder environmental requirements. In other words, green marketing is about
satisfying organisational objectives and consumer needs while at the same time it improves
the environmental profile of products by adding value.
Green procurement
A procedure where environmental considerations are included in the definition of the contract
scope, in technical specifications, in the selection and award criteria and the execution of the
contract clauses.
Governance
In the case of a business or of a non-profit organization, governance relates to consistent
management, cohesive policies, guidance, processes and decision-rights for a given area of
responsibility.
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Glossary
Hazardous substances
Solids, liquids or gases that can harm people, other living organisms, property, or the
environment. They are often subject to regulations.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org
Inflation correction
Adjustments for changes of the general level of pricing over time.
Internal cost
Cost directly borne by an individual or organization when supplying or consuming a product,
paying for the value added by the firm (capital and labour costs). Complement of external cost.
LCA (Life Cycle Assessment)
Compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a
product system throughout its life cycle. ISO 14040 and 14044 provide a generic framework.
LiDS wheel: is a tool to design an environmental friendlier product. Its a way of evaluating the
new product by using the old design as a benchmark. The LiDS wheel consists of 8 points to
improve a product.
Life cycle
Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product system, from raw material acquisition or
generation from natural resources to final disposal.
Source: ISO 14040:2006. Environmental management Life cycle assessment Principles and
framework.
Life cycle assessment
Compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of
a product system throughout its life cycle.
Source: ISO 14040 Environmental management Life cycle assessment Principles and
framework.
Life cycle thinking (LCT)
LCT means thinking in terms of the entire life cycle of a product. It is a principle, not an
evaluation tool such as life cycle assessment.
Source: Adapted from TISCHNER, U., SCHMINCKE, E., RUBIK, F., PRSLER, M. How to do
ecodesign? A guide for environmentally and economically sound Design. Edited by the German
Federal Environmental Ministry. 2000.
Logit analysis
The purpose of logit analysis is to quantify potential sales of any particular product. It takes
survey data on consumers purchasing intentions and converts it into actual purchasing
probabilities. So, logit analysis defines the functional relationship between stated purchasing
intentions and preferences, and the actual probability of a purchase. A preference regression is
performed on the survey data. This is then modified with actual historical observations of
purchasing behaviour. The resultant functional relationship defines the purchasing probability.
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Glossary
Lower impact materials

Materials that use less resources and produce less pollution compared to conventional
materials over their life cycle.
Source: http://www.cleanenergyprinciples.com/industry-resources/glossary/
Market analysis
Market analysis is a tool companies use in order to better understand the environment in
which they operate. So, it is a kind of evaluation of the market for a company's goods and
services.
Marketing management
Marketing management is a business discipline focused on the practical application of
marketing techniques and on the management of a firm's marketing resources and activities.
As a consequence, the marketing management process consists of analyzing market
opportunities, researching and selecting target markets, developing marketing strategies,
planning marketing tactics, and implementing and controlling the marketing effort.
Marketing mix
It entails the most appropriate combination of marketing elements that result in the sale of a
particular product. The marketing elements pertain four distinct business functions,
sometimes called the Four Ps: product, price, place (of distribution) and promotion. All these
functions are considered in planning a marketing strategy and any one may be enhanced,
reduced or changed in some degree in order to create the strategy necessary to efficiently and
effectively sell a product.
Market share
Market share is a key indicator of market competitivenessthat is, it indicates how well a firm
is doing against its competitors. It enables management to judge not only total market growth
or decline but also trends in customers selections among competitors.
Material Input per Service Unit (MIPS)
The MIPS concept can be used to measure eco-efficiency of a product or service and can be
applied in all scales from a single product to complex systems. The calculation takes into
account materials required to produce a product or service. The total material input (MI) is
divided by the number of service units (S).
MET/W matrix - Materials, Energy, Toxicity (and Waste):
Overview of inputs and outputs through qualitative and quantitative analysis during which
critical points are detected.
Modular system
An approach that subdivides a system into smaller parts (modules) that can be independently
created and then used in different systems to facilitate multiple functionalities.
Nominal value
A magnitude stated in terms of the current period.
Organizational governance
System by which an organization makes and implements decisions in pursuit of its objectives.
Source: ISO 26000:2010.
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Glossary
Present value
Is the value on a given date of a future payment or series of future payments, discounted to
reflect the time value of money and other factors, such as investment risk.
Present Value Determination
A procedure that discounts a future value (FV) into its present value (PV) equivalent, by
accounting for the opportunity cost of money.
Product benchmarking
It is the process of designing new products or upgrades to current ones. This process can
sometimes involve reverse engineering which is taking apart (dismantling?) competitors
products to find strengths and weaknesses.
Product category Rules (PCR)
Contain the necessary guidelines for the Life Cycle Assessment required to determine the
environmental profile of the product as determined in the Environmental Product Declaration
(EPD).
Source: BOXWELL Jr., R. J. Benchmarking for Competitive Advantage, New York: McGraw-Hill,
pp.225. ISBN 0-07-006899-2, 1994.
Product development
The process of taking a product idea from planning to market launch and review of the
product, in which business strategies, marketing considerations, research methods and design
aspects are used to take a product to a point of practical use. It includes improvements or
modifications to existing products or processes.
Source: ISO/TR 14062. Environmental management Integrating environmental aspects into
product design and development.
Product-service systems
A product-service system (PSS) is a combination of products and services in a system designed
to fulfil specific client demands and needs.
Source: Tukker and Tischner, 2006.
The PSS concept has been a matter of great attention for environmentalists and sustainability
experts, due to its potential to contribute to decouple revenues from material flows.
Product system
Collection of unit processes with elementary and product flows, performing one or more
defined functions, and which models the life cycle of a product.
Source: ISO 14040 Environmental management Life cycle assessment Principles and
framework.
Quality management system
Set of interrelated or interacting elements that organizations use to direct and control how
quality policies are implemented and quality objectives are achieved.
Source: ISO 9000:2005. Quality management systems Fundamentals and vocabulary.
Real value
A magnitude adjusted for the effects of inflation.
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Glossary
ReCiPe Method
The primary objective of the ReCiPe method is to transform the long list of inventory results,
into a limited number of indicator scores. These indicator scores express the relative severity
of an environmental impact category. In the ReCiPe method, indicators are determined at two
levels:
1. Eighteen midpoint indicators
2. Three endpoint indicators
Recyclable materials
Materials that can be collected, separated and processed to be used as raw materials in the
manufacturing of new products.
Source: http://www.epa.gov/osw/wycd/catbook/you.htm
Recycled materials
A product's material recovered from pre- or post-consumer waste.
Source: http://www.ecodesign-company.com/documents/BestPracticeISO14021.pdf
Recycling
Any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into products, materials or
substances whether for the original or other purposes. It includes the reprocessing of organic
material but does not include energy recovery and the reprocessing into materials that are to
be used as fuels or for backfilling operations.
Source: Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November
2008 on waste
Renewable resources
A natural resource qualifies as a renewable resource if it is replenished by natural processes at
a rate comparable to or faster than its rate of consumption by humans. Solar radiation, tides
and winds are perpetual resources that are in no danger of long-term scarcity. Renewable
resources may also include commodities such as wood, paper, and leather, if harvesting is
performed in a manner that does not deplete the health of system from which they are
harvested.
Source: Adapted from http://placersustain.org/fairfield%20strategic%20plan.pdf
Requirement
Specification which establishes criteria to be fulfilled.
Resource cascading
The sequential exploitation of the full potential of a resource during its use. Further use of
materials and/or components for second or more applications. This method extends the useful
life of a resource by repeatedly utilizing it.
Returnable packaging system
Systems design to allow the reuse of a packaging a certain number of times before it is
discarded.
Revenues
Inflows or other enhancements of the assessment of an entity, settlements of an entitys
liabilities, or a combination of both, deriving from delivering or producing goods, rendering
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Glossary
services, or engaging in other activities that constitute the entitys ongoing major or central
operations.
Social responsibility
Responsibility of an organization for the impacts of its decisions and activities on society and
the environment, through transparent and ethical behaviour that
contributes to sustainable development, including health and the welfare of society;
takes into account the expectations of stakeholders;
is in compliance with applicable law and consistent with international norms of
behaviour; and
is integrated throughout the organization and practiced in its relationships.
Source: ISO 26000:2010.
Stakeholder
Individual or group that has an interest in any decision or activity of an organization.
Source: ISO 26000:2010. Guidance on social responsibility.
Strategic green marketing
Strategic green marketing is about recognising, analysing and influencing opportunities for and
threats to the business associated with its environmental claims. The basic principles related to
strategic green marketing are: follow the latest fashions, trends, developments and future
legislation; consider the opinion of all relevant stakeholders; not only talk, but also act green;
look for continual improvements, open the company to the public and provide transparent and
reliable information.
SWOT analysis
It is a strategic planning method used to evaluate the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,
and Threats involved in a project or in a business venture. It involves specifying the objective
of the business venture or project and identifying the internal and external factors that
promote or hinder that objective.
Tactical green marketing
Tactical green marketing is typified by shifts in functional activities such as production, pricing,
promotion and distribution. In this case, there is little if any change in organisational activities
and (short-term) attention can be paid to single marketing instruments.
Trade-offs
A trade-off is a situation that involves losing one quality or aspect of something in return for
gaining another quality or aspect. The environmentally-oriented design of products often leads
to trade-offs which make it difficult to decide between a certain material or method. Examples
of trade-offs are:
Durability versus product innovation
Product miniaturization versus ease of dismantling
Use of high value, durable materials versus inexpensiveness
Pollutant reduction during use versus material efficiency
Source: Adapted from TISCHNER, U., SCHMINCKE, E., RUBIK, F., PRSLER, M. How to do
ecodesign? A guide for environmentally and economically sound Design. Edited by the German
Federal Environmental Ministry. 2000.
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Glossary
Transfer payment
Payments between governmental and private entities or organizations, involving taxes and
subsidies. Payments for public services, such as waste management services, may fall under
this heading, if paid (for example) by a local municipality from taxes or levies.
Value added
The difference between the cost of product purchased and the proceeds of products sold, as
gross value added, being the costs of labour and capital, including profits. Net value added is
obtained by subtracting depreciation from gross value added.
Waste prevention
Reducing the amount of waste generated at the source and reducing the hazardous content of
that waste automatically simplifies its disposal. Waste prevention is closely linked with
improving manufacturing methods and influencing consumers to demand greener products
and less packaging.
Source: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/prevention/
Yield
Describes the amount of cash returned to the owners of an investment. Normally it does not
include price variations, at the difference of the total return. Yield applies to various stated
rates of return on stocks (common and preferred, and convertible), fixed income instruments
(bonds, notes, bills, strips, zero coupon), and some other investment type insurance products
(e.g. annuities).
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ANNEX I. Notions in adjusting for the

time dimension
Adjustments to estimated values are necessary because incremental costs and benefits from a
given decision are not realized immediately.
In finance, the net present value (NPV) or net present worth (NPW) of a time series of cash
flows, both incoming and/or outgoing, is defined as the sum of the present values (PVs) of the
individual cash flows. When all future cash flows are incoming (i.e. coupons, principal of a
bond etc.) and the only outflow of cash is the purchase price, the NPV is simply the PV of
future cash flows minus the purchase price (which is its own PV). NPV is an essential tool in
discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis, and is a standard method to account for the time value of
money and to appraise long-term projects. Used for capital budgeting, and widely throughout
economics, finance, and accounting, it measures the excess or shortfall of cash flows, in
present value terms, once financing charges are met.
The NPV of a sequence of cash flows takes as input the cash flows and a discount rate or
discount curve and outputs (yields) a price; the converse process in DCF analysis, taking as
input a sequence of cash flows and a price and inferring as output a discount rate (the discount
rate which would yield the given price as NPV) is called the yield, and is more widely used in
bond trading.
Each cash inflow/outflow is discounted back to its present value (PV). Then they are summed
up. Therefore NPV is the sum of all terms,
Where
Vt represents the cash flow of each period t.
I0 is the value of the initial investment.
n is the number of periods considered.
The interest rate is k. When the equation is equal to 0, k is renamed IRR (Internal Rate of
Return), which refers to the return the project yields.
The K rate is that you can see amended in line with the opportunity cost. If the project is at
risk, they shall refer to the type of fixed income, so that the NPV is estimated that the
investment is better than investing in something safe, with no specific risk. In other cases, use
the opportunity cost.
The result of this formula if multiplied with the Annual Net cash inflows and reduced by the
Initial Cash outlay, will yield the present value of the investment; however, if the cash flows
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Annex
are not equal in amount, then the previous formula will be used to determine the present
value of each cash flow separately. Any cash flow within 12 months will not be discounted for
NPV purposes.
NPV is an indicator of how much value an investment or project adds to the firm today. With a
particular project, if Rt is a positive value, the project is in the status of discounted cash inflow
in the time of t. If Rt is a negative value, the project is in the status of discounted cash outflow
in the time of t. Projects with a positive NPV but with an appropriately tolerable risk could be
accepted. This does not necessarily mean that they should be undertaken since NPV at the
cost of capital may not account for opportunity cost, i.e. through the comparison to other
available investments. In financial theory, if there is a choice between two mutually exclusive
alternatives, the one yielding the higher no-no should be selected.
Table A.7.1 Interpretation of the NPV
If...
It means...
Then...
NPV > 0
the investment would add value

to the firm
the project may be accepted
NPV < 0
the investment would subtract

value from the firm
the project should be rejected
the investment would neither

gain nor lose value for the firm
We should be indifferent in the decision whether to

accept or reject the project. This project adds no
monetary value. Decision should be based on other
criteria, e.g. strategic positioning or other factors,
not explicitly included in the calculation.
NPV = 0
The internal rate of return of an investment or project is the annualized effective compounded
return rate or discount rate that makes the net present value of all cash flows (both positive
and negative) of a particular investment equal to zero.
In more specific terms, the IRR of an investment is the interest rate at which the net present
value of costs (negative cash flows) of the investment is equal to the net present value of the
benefits (positive cash flows) of the investment.
Internal rates of return are commonly used to evaluate the desirability of investments or
projects. The higher a project's internal rate of return, the more desirable it is to undertake the
project. Assuming all other factors are equal among the various projects, the project with the
highest IRR would probably be considered the best and undertaken first.
A firm (or individual) should, in theory, undertake all projects or investments available with
positive IRRs. Investments may be limited by availability of funds to the firm and/or by the
firm's capacity or ability to manage numerous projects.
On the other hand, the consideration of opportunity costs is one of the key differences,
between the concepts of economic cost and accounting cost. Assessing opportunity costs is
fundamental to assessing the true cost of any course of action. If there is no explicit accounting
or monetary cost (price) attached to a course of action, or the explicit accounting or monetary
cost is low, then, ignoring opportunity costs may produce the illusion that the investments
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Annex
benefits cost nothing at all. The unseen opportunity costs then become the implicit hidden
costs of that course of action.
Opportunity cost is the cost related to the next-best choice available to someone who has
picked among several mutually exclusive choices. It is a key concept in economics. It has been
described as expressing "the basic relationship between scarcity and choice." The notion of
opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that scarce resources are used efficiently.
Thus, opportunity costs are not restricted to monetary or financial costs: the real value of
output forgone, lost time, pleasure or any other benefit that provides utility should also be
considered as opportunity costs.
Page 163

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InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

Motivating factors .......................................................................................................................... 39

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

Economic analysis ........................................................................................................................... 69

Ecodesign strategies ....................................................................................................................... 79

10.1 Creative thinking ......................................................................................................... 99

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

10.4.2 Drawing ............................................................................................................. 105

Environmental management systems and ecodesign ................................................................. 110

11.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 110

Green marketing and communication ......................................................................................... 119

12.1 Green marketing ....................................................................................................... 119

Design for sustainability ............................................................................................................... 129

Introduction .............................................................................................................. 129

Annex tools .............................................................................................................................................. 138

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

Figure 1.1 Criteria for product development, including environment

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

Table and ornamental ware;

1.2 The importance of ecodesign

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

Difficulty to understanding ecodesign by most client/users;

1.3 Life cycle thinking

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

Figure 1.2 Product Life Cycle

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

1.4 Environmental considerations in ceramic products

Some tile manufacturing

Wall and floor tiles

The ceramic industry has

Light ceramic tile sheet by Revigres

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

Designer: Dulce Fernandes

Companies have been

Raised Technical Floor is a

Ceramic wall and roof tiles

Direct sales system

Technical raised floor by Porcelanosa

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

2. Ecodesign project step-by-step

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

2.2 Step 1: Ecodesign project planning

2.2.2 Setup the project team

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

Involvement and role in the ecodesign project (indicative examples)

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

2.2.3 Investigate the motivation factors for ecodesign

2.2.4 Select the target product

2.2.5 Define the design brief

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

2.2.6 Establish the ecodesign plan

2.2.7 InEDIC resources

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual

2.3 Step 2: Product analysis

2.3.2 Market analysis

2.3.3 Environmental analysis

InEDIC Ecodesign Manual