English Trainee Guide

18. Grammar Rules

Finding Errors just got easier. Here are few pointers which will help you find those
errors faster.
Word Class
To identify a Noun

Articles usually precede nouns making reference to them. (Helps in a context

ex, Close passage)
Ex: The _information__on the board is unclear.
Nouns usually end with tion, sion, ment, ance/ence, ty etc
Ex: commission, honesty, information, advancement, countenance,
innocence
Nouns are subjects and objects in a sentence and therefore answer the
question what?
Raj has a _fascination__for all things electrical . Raj has a what?
One word can have more than 2 or 3 noun forms.
Ex: promoter, promotion, promotability, promotiveness all these 4 words
are noun forms of the verb Promote.

To identify an adverb
Adverbs usually end with the suffix ly which is attached to the adjective. It
explains to what extent the action takes place and with what frequency.
Ex: Determinedly, offensively, intentionally, fascinatingly.
They finished the project exhaustedly with many elements sloppily completed.
To identify an adjective

Adjectives are describing words describing the noun. They usually end with
ful, ive, able, ible, nal,

Ex: Comfortable, exhaustive, promotional, helpful,

This chair is comfortable.

Some adjectives take up the past tense or the continuous verb tense form.

For ex: I had an exhausting day.

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He struggled against a determined enemy.

One word can have more than 2 or 3 adjective forms

For ex: Exhaustive, exhaustible, exhausted, exhausting all these 4 words are
adjective forms of the verb exhaust.

Conjunctions
Connecting words. Connects two parts of speech or two clauses.

Difference between as and because

As can also mean like, in the same way - for example, "She watched him as a cat
watches a mouse".
1 As is used to mean because, but it is also used when two events happen at the
same time.
In "I must stop now as I have to go out." it means because, but in "She watched
him as the train passed close to his house." it doesn't mean because.
2
in
or
She was as cool as a cucumber

to

the

degree

same

3 because.
The vase was smashed as Jenny knocked it over. ( obvious reason)
I went to bed early as I was exhausted.
4 even
Improbable as it seems, it's true

though

Because :
The reason is critical - I lost my job because of her
It

answers

the

question

why?

cant

come

because

Im

busy

Difference between But and However

However takes the meaning of nevertheless in a sentence whereas but is a

conjunction between two sentences and takes up the meaning of although and is
used to stress contradiction between two halves of the sentence.
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Ex: We waited for him for a long time but he did not turn up.
We were supposed to go the party last night; however, it was called off much to
our surprise.
As but is generally used as a conjunction, a sentence should not begin with but.
However is followed by a semicolon, comma or full stop in a sentence.
The book is expensive; however, it's worth it.

Difference between except, unless and until

Except brings in the meaning of other than or exclusion

For ex: They didn't open their mouths except to complain.

An admission fee is charged, but children are excepted.

Unless brings in the meaning of except on the condition that or except under
the circumstances that

For ex: We'll be there at nine, unless the train is late.

They'll sell it unless he hears otherwise.

Until refers to upto the time that or when

For ex: We walked until it got dark

I lived with my parents until I was 18.

Prepositions Review the doc on Preposition meaning and usage

available in the Learn Section under English.

In, At and On are prepositions of time and place showing the time and date
of events, activities and situations and positions of people, places and things.

At three o'clock/ At the cinema Specific time and place

in June/ In the shop Time period for seasons, months, years, enclosed areas,
cities, states, countries.

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on Monday / On the wall On a day or On that date and touching the surface of
smthng.

For & Since explain how long an event, activity or situation has continued

I am going to study abroad for 4 years for+ a period of time

I have been sick since last night since + a point of time + past tense

During & While explain a period of time in which an event, activity or

situation took place.

I used to watch a lot of movies during my school days during + a noun or

phrase.
While I was listening to music I finished my assignment while + sub+ verb

Before & After explain accurately the timing of an event, activity or

situation.

Let me finish before you say anything.

I will go through the material after the session.

By, Until and Till describe a time limit for commencement or completion
of an activity.

Please be there by 10a.m

I lived with my parents until I was 18.
From-----to/till defines the beginning and end of a period of time, present, past
or future
I work from 1:00 p.m to 09:00 p.m one week in a month.
Pronouns

A reflexive pronoun is a special kind of pronoun that is usually used when

the object of a sentence is the same as the subject. So a sentence should not
ideally begin with a reflexive pronoun
For ex: Myself Rani Incorrect
Im Rani Correct

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I am
teaching myself to
play
Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself.
Relative Pronouns

the

piano.

Difference between that and which

Use which (surrounded by commas) if a group of words adds information.
Use that if it limits the set of things you're talking about. In other words, if you
remove which the meaning of the sentence will still remain intact but if you remove
that, there will be something amiss.
Classes that are held on Wednesdays are in building 206.
Leap years, which have 366 days, contain an extra day in February.
Refer to the video Pronouns under the Learn English section for personal
pronouns and their object forms.
Articles
We do not use the definite article with
a)
b)
c)
d)

General words like life, flowers etc

Names of persons on the singular, relatives
Public buildings, institutions, means of transport (indefinite)
Names of countries in the singular, summits of mountains, continents,
towns
e) Single islands
f) Parks, lakes, streets
g) months, days of the week (indefinite)
We use the definite article
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

General words ( definite)

Family names in the plural
Public buildings, institutions, means of transport (definite)
names of countries in the plural; mountain ranges; regions
groups of islands
name with of-phrase; oceans; seas; rivers. For ex: the Statue of Liberty,
The Nile etc
g) months, days of the week (definite)

Differences between the definite and the indefinite article

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a) First vs Subsequent Rule : The general rule states that the first mention
of a noun is indefinite and all subsequent references to this noun are
definite and take the.
A man is walking down a road. There is a dog with the man.
Three special groups of nouns are considered definite in reference even if
they have not been mentioned in the preceding sentence or clause.
The first group consists of nouns which refer to shared knowledge of the
situation or context. For example, in Canada you can say
The Prime Minister will arrive tomorrow
because there is only one Prime Minister in Canada, and so it is clear to
whom you are referring. Similarly, if there is only one hospital in the town,
you can say
He's been working in the hospital for two years.
But you couldn't say this in Toronto, where there are many hospitals. You
would have to name the particular hospital in your first reference to it:
He's been working at Toronto General
says the hospital is in a FINANCIAL mess.

Hospital

for

two

years.

He

The second group consists of nouns referring to unique objects:

e.g., the sun/the earth/the Pope/the sky/the equator
Superlative adjectives and unique adjectives form the third group.
Because there can be only one of these (only one of a series can be the
tallest or the best or the first), they take the definite article:
Mexico City is the most populous city in the world.
I enjoyed the first part, but I was disappointed at the end.
She is the principal researcher.
b) To refer to a form of entertainment in general, use the definite article:
I enjoy seeing the ballet.
To refer to a particular event, use the indefinite article:
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I saw a good movie last night.
c) Use the definite article to refer to the whole transport system, rather than
to an individual vehicle:
How long does it take on the bus?
The subway is quicker.
[if you use the construction "by PLUS means of transport," there is no
article: I go bysubway].
d) Certain nouns refer to either a place/object or to an activity.
When they refer to an activity, do not use the definite article:
Activity
I go to bed at 11 o'clock.
Object
Don't jump on the bed.
Activity
She went to school for many years.
Object
The school was too small.
Activity
Many families eat dinner together.
Object
The dinner was delicious.
Activity
I shower before breakfast.
Object
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The breakfast was delicious.
Activity
They are at church.
Object
The church is very old.
Activity
She is in class.
Object
The class is in Room 102.
Noun Numbers

"the number" is a singular collective noun.

"The number of applicants is steadily increasing."

"A number," on the other hand, is a plural form:
"There are several students in the lobby. A number are here to see the president."

The word following the phrase one of the (as an object of the preposition of)
will always be plural.

One of the reasons we do this is that it rains a lot in spring.

One of the students in this room is responsible.

Tenses
When it comes to Tenses watch out for signal words in the context

For the Simple Present these are adverbs of frequency: always, often,
usually, sometimes, seldom, never

Other phrases of time can occur, like: every day, every week, every year, on
Mondays, after school

For the Simple Past these are expressions of time in the past.

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Yesterday, last weekend/week/year, a month ago, in 2002.
Modal Verbs

Modal Verbs are always followed by the base form of the verb meaning the
1st verb form.
He could do it ( Do,did, done)
He may not make it ( make, made, made)

Difference between may and might

May may have more percentage of possibility than might
May is more likely and might is less likely but this is a flexible rule.
I may go to the movie/ I might go the movie
May is used for permission
May I be excused?/ May I help you with your luggage?
Use Might in the past tense
I might have been sleeping when you called used in statements where
things could have happened but didnt

Difference between shall and should

Shall a requirement that is mandatory// an obligation
Used by laws and regulations
Something that will take place in the future We shall arrive tomorrow
An order, promise, requirement You shall leave now// He shall answer for
his misdeeds
Suggestions Shall we go out for dinner
Asking advice Where shall we meet?
Offering to help Shall I shut the door?
Should ( past tense of shall)
A guideline or a recommendation
You should brush your teeth after every meal
You should not do that
People with high cholesterol should eat low fat foods.
Someone is knocking the door, shall I answer it ? - Offer
Someone is knocking the door, should I answer it? asking advice
I shall go now A decision
I should go now suggestion to oneself.

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You shall do what I tell you Command/ Order
You should do what I tell you Strong advice
Would and Could
Would and could as modals indicate logical possibility with would being stronger than
could.
For ex: Changing these settings could produce more favorable results - a logical possibility
in the future
she would meet us at the corner - future intention

Degree of Comparison
Do not use more along with a comparative adjective formed with -er nor
use most along with a superlative adjective formed with -est (e.g., do not write that
something is more heavier or most heaviest).
For ex: My sister is the most tallest in our family Incorrect
My sister is the tallest in our family - Correct
I can run more faster than you Incorrect
I can run faster than you Correct

Difference between so, very and too

Very - emphasizes the adjective
So - emotional expression of very and is more than often followed by that (used to
denote both negative and positive things)
Too - to denote something negative esp when the result or outcome is problematic
E.g: The river is so dirty that it smells
The change was so gradual that nobody noticed it
The traffic was moving so slowly that he arrived three hours late.
Alex makes me so angry!
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The room was very small
he seems very interested in everything.
She wears too much make-up
The soup is too salty
Understanding Perfect Participle
Having + past participle is the form of perfect participle.
For e.g.
Having read the book the boy came out of the room.
Having done his homework he went out to play
Having failed twice, he didn't want to try again.
In the above examples, if you see, there is a time gap between the actions. It happens
one after the other.

Is it necessary to use 'who' after those

It's not mandatory to use ' who' after those in every sentence.
For e.g:
Don't be afraid of those people
Not all crimes are committed for those reasons
All those in favor held up their hands.
Yes, who is followed by those in sentences but it depends on the entire context and what
you're trying to convey.
For e.g. Happy are those who know the value of health
Luck comes to those who look for it.
Can 'Islands' be plural?
Fiji islands - a group of more than 800 islands are of volcanic origin. Since there is more
than one island it is plural however Fiji is an independent state located on the Fiji islands.
Likewise the Hawaiin islands are a large group of eight major islands, one of which is the
Hawaii island.
Difference between Past Participle and Perfect Participle
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Past Participle indicates past or completed action or time. The past participle is often
used when we want to express a passive action. Is formed by adding d or ed to the base
form of regular verbs and various other ways for irregular verbs.
to form the passive voice:
e.g - her hair was well brushed
As an adjective:
e.g. The bored man went to sleep during the discussion
To form a verb phrase as part of the present perfect tense
e.g. I have learnt English/ he has forgotten the pencil
Perfect participle is used to form an active sentence with the past participle. There is a
time gap between the actions. It indicates completed action.
Form : having+ past participle
E.g. Having read the book the boy came out of the room.
Having done his homework he went out to play
Having failed twice, he didn't want to try again.
Difference between Present Participle and Present Continuous
Form :
Present Participle (P.P)- Verb form with an 'ing' ending. e.g - singing
Present Continuous (P.C) - A form of the verb ' to be' + a present participle. e.g. is singing
Usage:
Present participle - P.P cannot stand alone as the main verb, it requires a subject and a
predicate.
Anu, singing her favorite song - Incorrect
I remember Anu singing her favorite song at the get together - Correct
Present Continuous - P.C is used for ongoing actions i.e. actions occurring at the time of
speaking and for actions that take place for a short period of time.
Anu is singing her favorite song. ( the verb in P.C may itself serve as the predicate of a
sentence.

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How to Identify the Object in a sentence?
Objects receive the action and usually follow the verb
Direct Objects receive the action.
For ex: Ravi threw the paper. Ravi is the subject, threw is the verb and the direct object
is paper which receives the action, threw.
Indirect objects is when the subject does something to something or someone else. For
ex, Arun bought Ritu a watch. Arun - Subject, watch - direct object , receives the action,
bought and Ritu is the indirect object.
Then you have objects of prepositions
We talked about the rains.
Here rains is the object of the preposition about.
For direct objects identify the action verb and ask the question what? or whom?
An indirect object answers the question "to whom?", "for whom?", "for what?"...
Difference between affect and effect
Affect means to have an influence on or cause a change in something and mostly used as
a verb. starts with 'a' - action
Ex: Rising oil prices affect nearly everyone.
Ex: Some experts think that video games affect children's brains negatively.
Another meaning is to move or touch ; act or arouse your emotions
ex: His speech affected my outlook on life.
ex: His laziness affected everyone at work.
Affect is rarely used as a noun but in the field of psychology it refers to an emotional
state.
Effect on the other hand is a noun. It means a result or outcome of something.
Ex: Her emotional outburst was purely for effect.
The protest had no effect
Subject Object and Predicate

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A complete sentence will have a subject and a predicate. The subject is one who does the
action answering the questin who or what and the predicate is the part that expresses
what is said about the subject and will contain the verb.
For ex: Puja smiled. Puja - subject smiled - predicate
The object is part of the predicate.
For ex: I gave Puja the answer.
Subject - I
Predicate - gave Puja the answer
Direct Object - the answer (answers the question - gave what?)
Indirect object - Puja. (answers the question - to whom I gave it ?)
Usage of 'Them'
Them is used either as a direct object of a verb - We saw them at the conference (We saw
,who?)
or an indirect object of a verb - We gave them a round of applause (To whom?)
or as the object of a preposition - This letter is addressed to them.
In all of the above examples, 'them' is substituting someone who is not present in the
context.
For e.g: 'I collected as many questions as I could find them'
In the above example, there is no need for 'them', as 'questions', which is the direct object
is already stated in the context.
Difference between while and when
while is used when two longer actions happen simultaneously and the focus is on the
activity.
For ex: She stayed with me while she was looking for a house.
While I was out she was trying to reach me on the phone.
When is used to refer to specific time periods and the activity occurs nearly the same time
or shortly after another activity.
For ex: I'll call you when I get there
When I was young I was sick all the time.
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Difference between later and later on
'Later' and 'later on' are both used to express later on in time. While you can substitute
later on with later almost always but it is incorrect to substitute later with later on in the
below examples.
For ex: 'See you later'
' I arrived later than she did'
However you can use either later or later on in examples like these.
I'll be going to the bank later /later on in the day.
Nominative and Accusative Case
Nominative Case - Is used for the subject of the verb, one that denotes who or what does
the
action.
I,
You
,
he
,
she
,
it,
we
,
they
Accusative Case - Is used for the object of the verb , one that receives the action - me,
you,
him,
her,
it,
us,
them
For ex: He offended me - He - Nominative - subject of the verb, me - Accusative - object
of the verb
3 cases - Nominative/ Objective / Possessive
1. Subjective or Nominative case: These nouns are used as the subject of a sentence or
used as a predcate noun that follows a 'be' verb
Example: Raj drove to the store. Raj is a subjective noun, he is the one who drove to the
store.
Leena sang for many years. Leena was the one doing the singing. Leena is the subjective
noun.
Predicate Noun
The teacher was the speaker - The speaker is renaming who the speaker was and it is
linked by 'was' - be verb
Sonali is a Poet - Poet is the predicate noun as it renaming who Sonali is and it id linked by
the verb - 'is'.
2. Objective Case : Nouns are referred to as objective when they are used as direct
objects, indirect objects or objects of a preposition.
Direct objects receive action in a sentence - Ask the question what or whom to identify
them
Show him the phone now - Show whom the phone? - Him. Him is the direct object.
My brother threw a basket. Threw what?. A basket. Basket is the direct object.
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Indirect Object: Indirect objects receive the direct object. To identify them, identify the
direct object first and then ask who received that direct object.
Sai threw his brother the football. The verb is throw, throw what? The football which is the
direct object. Threw it to whom? His brother who is the recepient of the direct
object(football) and therefore is the indirect object.
Objects os a preposition: The object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun that follows
the preposition
He eats with me. With is the preposition so me is the object of the preposition
3. Possessive case: Nouns are considered possessive when they show ownership
Sai's bag was huge. Sais is the possessive noun showing ownership of the bag
It is our idea. - our is in the possessive case.
Collocations
Collocations are partly or fully fixed expressions that become established through repeated
context-dependent use. In simpler words, they are merely two or more words that often
go together. They are of different types.
1. adjective + noun - 'excruciating pain'. Pain is the noun form and excrutiating is the
adjective describing the pain.
2. noun+ noun - a surge of anger, in this phrase surge is the noun meaning 'a sudden
rush' and anger is also a noun.
3. verb+ noun - commit suicide - commit is the action word (verb) and suicide is the noun.
4. adverb+ adjective - completely satisfied - 'completely' is the adverb modifying the
adjective ' satisfied'
5. verb+prepositional phrase - burst into tears - the
prepositional phrase 'into tears'.

verb ' burst' clubbed with the

6. verb + adverb - wave frantically - wave is the verb and frantically is the adverb showing
the extent or how he/she waved.
So, these expressions have been repeatedly used by people in specific contexts.
Other examples would be fully aware, regular exercise, round of applause, plane took off,
give a presentation, filled with horror, burst into tears, whispered softly, vaguely
remember, crystal clear, middle management, cosmetic surgery, nuclear family , the list is
endless.
Be aware of expressions used repeatedly, those are collocations.

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