Muscle physiology: Lab 2

Action Potential: self-propagating electrical impulses produced by muscle and nerve cells.
Resulted from the Na and K movement across cell membrane.
Resting membrane potential: membrane potential (electrical difference-mV between in-cell
and out-of-cell) when muscle and nerve cells are at rest
Muscle contraction
1. Nerve action potential reaches the synaptic knob
2. Knobs membrane becomes more permeable to interstitial calcium ions present in the
synaptic cleft.
3. Ions diffuse into the knob and activate the secretory vesicles containing
neurotransmitters.
4. Neurotransmitters bind to docking protein of presynaptic membrane and release ACh
into the synaptic cleft
5. The sarcolemma at the synaptic cleft is folded into a motor end pate and contains ACh
receptor sites.
6. ACh binds to receptor, the muscle fiber responds by producing a muscle action potential
which spread across the entire muscle fiber surface and along the T-tubule
a. Na flood through Sodium channels in the sarcolemma (muscle fiber cell
membrane) into muscle cells, and leads to depolarization (membrane become
less negative).
b. At the peak of depolarization, sodium channels close and potassium channel open,
with K ions exiting the fiber and causing repolarizes to resting potential.
7. The electrical current travels along the sarcolemma and down the transverse tubules
inside the muscle fiber.
8. Current stimulates the release stored calcium ions from the cisternae of the sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
9. Calcium floods the sarcoplasm inside the muscle fiber, contraction occurs.
10. Muscle fiber relaxation: Fibers produces AChE (acetylcholinesterase), which
deactivates Ach, sarcolemma no longer produces an action potential. Active transport
pumps calcium ion in the sarcoplasm back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
a. Calcium ion unbind troponin and tropomyosin moves into place to block the
active sites on actin. This blocks cross-bridge attachment, and thin filaments
slide outwards away from the middle of each sarcomere.
The sliding filament theory (current muscle contraction model)

During muscle contraction, filaments slide past on another, causing the fibers (sarcomere
chain) to shorten.
Thin filaments (mainly protein actin) are pulled inward by the pivoting of myosin heads
of the thick filaments.
Zone of overlap increase during muscle contraction.
H-Zone: (within A zone) mainly myosin thick filament with no thin filament overlap,
shorten during contraction

I-Band: mainly actin protein (thin filament with no thick filament overlap) shorten
during contraction

Z-Line: boarder of sarcomere. Within I-Band. Z-lines move closer together during
contraction.
A-Band: entire length of a thick filaments. Remains the same during contraction.

The contraction involves 5 chemical steps.

1. Active-site exposure: active site is located on the thin filament where myosin head can
bind to an actin molecule.
a. At Rest: Troponin holds tropomyosin molecules in pace to cover the active sites
on the actin filaments.
b. Stimulation: Calcium ions rush into sarcoplasm (passive?), bind to troponin and
cause the tropomyosin to roll away, in-turn exposing the active site to myosin
heads. Active site remain exposed as long as calcium ions are bound to
troponin molecules, so tropomyosin molecules unblock active site.
2. Cross-bridge attachment: actin and myosin have a strong affinity for each other. Once
active sites on actin molecule are exposed, the myosin heads chemically bind to the sites.
3. Pivoting: myosin head uses stored energy to pull thin filaments toward the M line of the
sarcomere, causing the entire muscle fiber to contract. Myosin are depleted of stored
energy and release the ADP and phosphate into sarcoplasm.
a. At Rest: myosin heads split ATP and become energized by storing the energy
released from the split
4. Cross-bridge detachment: ATP molecule binds to each head and cause it to back out
of active site. The heads are now ready to be reenergized for another attachment-pivoting
sequence.
5. Myosin reactivation: myosin heads reenergize by splitting ATP to return to resting
position. ATPase is located on the myosin head.
a. Attachment, pivoting, detachment, and reactivation sequence repeats until all
calcium ions are removed from sarcoplasm and returned to the sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
Type of Muscle Contraction
Motor unit: any group of muscle fibers controlled by the same motor neuron. Contract together
when stimulated. One motor neuron can control multiple fibers
All-or-None Principle: muscle fibers are said to be on for contraction or off for relaxation
Twitch: Single stimulation-contraction-relaxation event. Single action potential occurs in the
neuron, only a small amount of ACh is released.small amount of calcium ions are released.
Myogram: recording of muscle contractions for compassion. Fast-> slow twitches: eye,
gastrocnemius, and soleus.

Each twitch has:

o Latent Period: Time from initial stimulation to the start of muscle contraction.
Muscle fibers are stimulated by ACh -> release calcium ions. Exposes active sites,
leads to cross-bridge attachment.
o Contraction Period: myosin head pivot to shorten fiber and produce muscle
tension. Cycles through attach-pivot-detach-return sequence.
Increase in calcium ions in sarcoplasm: more cross-bridges are formed
and tension increases during contraction.
o Relaxation phase: ACHe inactivates ACh and calcium ions are actively
transported to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The thin filaments passively slide back
to resting position, and muscle tension decreases.

Contraction type (doesnt determine the overall tension a muscle produces)

Treppe: muscle contraction with complete relaxation between each stimulus. Repeat muscle
stimulation, calcium ion accumulate in sarcoplasm, causing the first 30-50 contractions to
increase in tension.
Wave Summation: Increasing the frequency at which a skeletal muscle is stimulated. If the
muscle is stimulated a second time before it has completely relaxed from a first stimulation, then
the two contractions are summed. Increase in tension with each summation. Ie. More calcium
ions in the sarcoplasm and more cross-bridges.
Incomplete tetanus: further increase in frequency of stimulation, to produce peak tension with
short cycles of relaxation
Complete tetanus: increase frequency of stimulation until relaxation phase is completely
eliminated. All muscle work require complete tetanus to do work.

Isometric contraction: muscle length is relative constant but muscle tension changes. Ie.
Maintain posture
Isotonic contraction: constant tension while the length of the muscle changes. Is. Flex
arm while holding book.

Muscle strength: depends on the number of motor units activated.

Recruitment: stimulates more motor units to carry or move a load placed on a muscle. Tension
increases as more motor units contract.
Fatigue: the force of contraction decreases as fibers lose the ability to maintain complete tetanic
contraction. Caused by decrease in cellular energy and oxygen sources in the muscle and an
accumulation of waste products. Low ATP levels, build-up of lactic acid (by product of anaerobic
respiration).

Cardiovascular physiology Lab 3

Cardiac Cycle: one complete heartbeat. Each atrium and ventricle contracts and relaxes once.

Systole: the contraction phase of a chamber. Squeezing of chamber walls cause an

increase in blood pressure in the heart and arteries
Diastole: the relaxation phase of a chamber. Relaxation of chamber wall causes decrease
in blood pressure in the heart and arteries.
~75 cardiac cycles/minute

Phases of Cardiac Cycle: 8 seconds

1. Atrial systole (1 second): atrial systole pumps 30% of blood, fluid pressure and gravity
force the remaining 70% of blood into relaxed ventricles.
2. Atrial diastole and Ventricular systole (~4 seconds):
o Phase I ventricular contraction push atrialventricular valves closed. Semilunar
valves are also close.
o Phase II: Ventricular pressure exceeds pressure in pulmonary artery and aorta, the
semilunar valves are open, and blood is ejected.
3. Ventricular diastole (~4 seconds):
o Early: ventricles relax, pressure in ventricles drops, blood flows back against
cusps of semilunar valves and forces them closed. Blood flow into the relaxed
atria
o Late: all chambers relaxed, ventricles fill passively.
AV valves are open, blood fill from atrial to ventricle.
SL valves are closed to prevent backflow of blood from aorta into the left
ventricle (pulmonary valve), and from the pulmonary artery to the
right ventricle (aortic valve).

Lab Activity 1: listening to heart sounds

Auscultation: listening to internal sounds of the body. Soft bone and tissue overlying heart
deflect the cardiac sound waves located lateral to the valves.

Auscultation of heart: evaluate valve function, and heart sounds

o S4: Contraction of atria.
o Lubb: S1, closure of AV valves during contraction (systole) phase of
ventricles.
o Dupp: S2, closure of SLvalves at the beginning of relaxation (diastole)
phase of ventricles.
o S3: blood flowing into the ventricles from the atrium through the AV in
the late phase of ventricle diastole

Murmur: holes in chamber walls, as blood pass through. Or turbulent flow in heart chamber.

Stethoscope: amplify sounds to an audible level. Bell: flat metal disk placed on skin, contains
diaphragm touch skin to amplify sound.
Lab Activity 2: determining blood pressure
Blood pressure: Measure of the force the blood exerts on the walls of the systemic arteries.
120/80 mm Hg for males, 110/70 mm Hg for females

Systolic pressure: left ventricle constrict to pump blood through the semilunar
valve into the aorta
Diastolic pressure: when the left ventricle relax, and less blood flow into the
aorta.

Sphygmomanometer: inflatable cuff to measure blood pressure.

Pressure gauge to read pressure

Rubber bulb to inflate the cuff
Valve close/ open to hold/release pressure, respectively.
Orientation arrow: line with antecubitis
Placed just above elbow, inflated to 160 mm Hg to compress and block blood flow from
bronchial artery.
Stethoscope is placed on antecubital region, and pressure is gradually vented from cuff.
Pressure in cuff is slightly less than pressure in the brachial artery, blood spurts through
the artery and the turbulent flow makes korotkoffs sounds.
The pressure on the gauge that match the first sound is the systolic pressure
As more pressure is relieved from the cuff, blood becomes less turbulent.
Pressure at the last faint sound is the diastolic pressure.

Hypertension: High salt intake leads to increase in blood volume (osmosis), and high blood
pressure.
Effect of posture on BP
Supine posture (on back): higher BP for both systolic and diastolic
Effect of exercise on BP

Mean arterial pressure (MAP):

o First determine pulse pressure: difference between diastolic and systolic
pressures. Systolic-diastolic=
o 1/3 pulse pressure + diastolic pressure= MAP

Lab activity 3: measuring the pulse

Pulse/pressure waves: determine the heart rate. It is the change in vessel diameter from
ventricular systole, bp increase to expand arterial walls, and then ventricular diastole, bp
decrease to relax artery diameter.

Pulse is felt at various pressure points:

o Radial artery on the lateral forearm just superior to the thumb.
o Common carotid artery in the neck
o Popliteal artery of the posterior knee.

Activity 4: Biopac: Electrocardiography

Electrocardiogram (ECG): a recording of impulses: seconds x-axis, amplitude and intensity
(mV) on y axis

Isoelectric line: straight baseline

P wave: atria depolarize for contraction. Atrial systole occur 0.1 second after
depolarization
Q-R-S complex: depolarization of the ventricles, repolarization of atria (undetected).
Next is ventricle systole
T-Wave: ventricle repolarization

Intervals: include wave and return to baseline.

P-R interval: includes the start of p wave and the start of Q-R-S complex
Q-T interval: start of Q wave to the start of T wave. From ventricular depolarization, to
ventricular repolarization

Segment: baseline recording between any two waves

P-R segment: time for impulse to travel from AV node to the ventricles.
S-T segment: delay between ventricular depolarization and repolarization.

Arrhythmias: irregular heartbeat.

Activity 5: Biopac: electrocardiography and blood volume
Plethysmogram: recording of how the volume of blood at a given pressure point in the body
changes as a pressure wave passes through the point. Wave flow along the arteries, the vessel
walls will first expand and then rebound to its original size.