Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY I
SCT 3013
NAME
LECTURER:
1120658
1120657
1120649
1120651
1120661
1120664
1120668
1120673
ii
TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENTS
PAGE
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
Chapter 3
3.1
Distillation Techniques
3.2
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
10
Conservative Techniques
10
4.1.1 Technique 1
10
11
Modern Techniques
13
Chapter 5
15
Conclusion
16
Chapter 7
References
17
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
If a woman puts on perfume and passes by people so that they can smell her fragrance,
then she is such and such, and he spoke sternly, meaning an adulteress.
Narrated by Abu Dawood (4173) and al-Tirmidhi (2786); classed As Saheeh by Ibn
Daqeeq al-Eid in al-Iqtiraah (126) and by Shaykh al-Albaani in Saheeh al-Tirmidhi.
CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF PERFUMES INDUSTRY
Perfume was first used by the Egyptians as part of their religious rituals. The two
principal methods used at this time was the burning of incense and the application of
balms and ointments. Perfumed oils were applied to the skin for either cosmetic or
medicinal purposes. During the Old and Middle Kingdoms, perfumes were reserved
exclusively for religious rituals such as cleansing ceremonies. Then, during the New
Kingdom (1580-1085 BC) they were used during festivals and Egyptian women also
used perfumed creams and oils as toiletries and cosmetics and as preludes to lovemaking (Lindqvist, 2012).
The use of perfume then spread to Greece, Rome, and the Islamic world. And it
was the Islamic community that kept the use of perfumes since the spread of
Christianity led to a decline in the use of perfume. With the fall of the Roman Empire,
perfume's influence dwindled. It was not until the twelfth century and the development
of international trade that this decline was reversed (Teixeira et al., 2013).
2.1
The history of perfume goes back to Egypt, although it was prevalent in East Asia as
well. Early perfumes were based on incense, not chemicals, so aromas were passed
around through fumes. The Roman and Islamic cultures further refined the harvesting
and manufacturing of perfumery processes to include other aromatic ingredients
(Teixeira et al., 2013).
The extraction of fragrances was perfected through steam distillation. In turn,
the Islamic cultural production of fragrances and distillation technology inspired the
scientific communities of western culture during the fourteenth century, especially in
France, which brought further cultivation of these raw materials and introduced
chemical-based perfume (Minematsu et al., 2013).
Modern innovation in the history of perfume can be credited to the West, but the
cultural conceptualization still belonged to Islam according to the hadith that mention
before from the prophet Muhammad
That is why; it is not surprising that Islamic cultures contributed significantly to
this industry (Hanafizadeh et al., 2010; www.the muslimweekly.com, May 30). In
Islamic culture, perfume usage was documented as far back as the 6th century Common
Era (CE). Al-Kindi (c. 801-873 CE - also known as Alkindus in the west), a Muslim
Arab philosopher and scientist, is considered by many as the father of the modern
perfume industry. He is known for his work in isolating alcohol and was the first to
describe the production of pure distilled alcohol from the distillation of wine (Teixeira
et al., 2013).
Al-Kindi invented many different scents by experimentally combining different
plants such as Solanum Jasminoides, Almond blossoms, orchid, Orchideen Zentrum
Celle and other materials in order to produce perfume products. One of his books, the
Kitab Kimiya' al-'Itr (Book of the Chemistry of Perfume) contains recipes for fragrant
oils, salves and aromatic perfume water. The process of distilling in order to extract
essential oils and fragrances was perfected by the Persian physician, philosopher and
alchemist (sometimes referred to as an Arabian), Avicenna, around the 11th century CE
(Hanafizadeh et al., 2010).
2.2
Venice was an important center for trade between the west and the east, and became the
main channel through which the raw materials for incense and perfume reached Europe
(Wright, 1985). It continued to play a primary role in the industry, within Europe, for a
few hundred years (Teixeira et al., 2013).
While distillation was already known in the 11th century (from the Islamic
world), many European scientists became fascinated with the process around the 13th
and 14th century. They were determined to separate the 'essential ' from the 'nonessential' parts of a compound.
The perfume industry around this time (approximately 1300 CE) benefited as a
result of all this activity, and the fragrance production center of Grasse, in the south of
France, began to develop. During this period the Black Plague, dated from 1347 CE to
1351 CE, began to take its toll (Teixeira et al., 2013). The various crusades that stirred
Europe (11th century to the end of the 13th century) lured European knights into the
Holy Land, resulting in the interesting additional consequence of stimulating the
perfume industries of Europe (Wright, 1985).
In 1370 the first alcohol-based perfume was created for Queen Elizabeth of
Hungary who was known for her famous toilet water - also referred to as Hungary
Water. The primary ingredient of this toilet water, it was claimed, was rosemary. Some
have argued that this was the secret to Queen Elizabeth's beautiful skin, which she
retained into old age (Wright, 1985).
The importance of perfumers grew together with the extravagance of their rich
and noble consumers. Most productions, however, came to a halt when the French
revolution occurred. The attack on the aristocracy, and the strong association of
perfume with that class, led many manufactures to cease their work. The industry reemerged with the rise of Napoleon, who was happy to adopt many of the habits of the
old aristocracy. Some of the companies that developed during this time still exist today
(Minematsu et al., 2013).
In the early 1800s, perfumers started to use a much higher degree of alcohol in
an effort to maximize the process of making perfume. Another major step, which
dramatically affected the perfume industry, was the first attempt to reproduce
synthetically the scent of some fruits and plants. These innovations enabled the creation
of modern day perfumes (Teixeira et al., 2013).
Today, the world history of perfume came to a head. France is still the perfume
center of modern-day Europe, which trades with the United States. Perfumery is now a
world conglomeration and serves as a major division of the world fashion industry. The
history of perfume is now globally involved (Hanafizadeh et al., 2010).
CHAPTER 3
CONTRIBUTION OF ISLAMIC SCHOLARS IN PERFUMES INDUSTRY
Over the centuries, people have enjoyed perfume from various kind of fragrance. This is
the result of hard work of two talented chemists, Jabir ibn Hayyan was born in 722 and
al-Kindi was born in 801 who helped lay the foundations and established the perfume
industry. Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and
filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be
collected in the form of water or oil.
While, Al-Kindi was the real founder of the perfume industry as he carried out
extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to
produce a variety of scented products. A vast number of recipes for a wide range of
perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals had been elaborated by Al-Kindi . A witness
who was reported on his work in the laboratory said `I received the following
description, or recipe, from Abu Yusuf Yaqub b. Ishaq al-Kindi, and I saw him making
it and giving it an addition in my presence. The writer goes on in the same section to
speak of the preparation of a perfume called ghaliya, which contained musk, amber and
other ingredients which reveals a long list of technical names of drugs and apparatus.
Musk and floral perfumes were then brought to Europe in the 11th and 12th
centuries from Arabia, through trade with the Islamic world and with the returning
Crusaders. Those who traded for these were most often also involved in trade for spices
and dyestuffs. There are records of the Pepperers Guild of London which go back to
1179 and their activities include trade in spices, perfume ingredients and dyes.
3.1 Distillation Techniques
Distillation can be defined as the process of separating liquids through differences in
their boiling points and was invented around the year 800 by Islam's foremost scientist,
Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He was transformed alchemy into chemistry and already invented
many basic processes and apparatus that are still in use today such as liquefaction,
crystallisation, distillation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation and filtration.
As well as discovering sulphuric and nitric acid, he also had invented the
alembic still, giving the world intense rosewater and other perfumes and alcoholic
spirits even though drinking them is haram and forbidden in Islam. Ibn Hayyan
emphasised systematic experimentation and was the founder of modern chemistry.
Figure 1: Arabic manuscript held in the British Library showing the distillation
process in a treatise of chemistry. The British Library, London.
According to Jabir Ibn Hayyan, the process of distillation of perfumes occur
when plant material is placed in boiling water and then the essential oil containing the
fragrance will evaporate with the steam. The steam is then condensed back into water,
where the oil floats on top and can be collected. The process may be repeated to obtain
even purer oil. Late in the nineteenth century the process was much improved with
steam distillation, under which the steam was condensed in narrow pipes passing
through cold water.
3.2
In the early middle Ages, a major step in the history of perfume has occurred. This
happened when the Arabs has developed a technique due to the development of the
large-scale distillation of plants. It is found that the wide areas of Persia were put to
growing the roses in order to get the rose oil. Hence, Baghdad of the Arabian Nights
tales became a city of fragrances. Figure 3.1 shows an example of product available in
the market nowadays which is using the rose oil.
Figure 3.1
Besides that, musk was found to be the new powerful scent materials. It was
even mixed into the mortar, which then was used to build new mosques and palaces.
This was done due to the purpose of making them scented. Later, the Muslims also
improved its production and continued to use perfumes in daily life and in practicing
religion. This happened with the rise of Islam. The Muslims used musk, roses and
amber, among other materials. Musk and amber which were used in the making of oil
fragrances and candles are shown in the Figure 3.2 below.
Figure 3.2
White musk and amber used for the making of oil and candle
Source: http://www.candle-shack.co.uk/white-musk-amber-fragrance-oil/
In addition to that, it was mentioned in the Islamic culture that the usage of
perfumes has been documented as far back as the 6th century and its usage is considered
as a religious duty. Until late in the nineteenth century, almost entirely the preparation
of liquid scents was a matter of blending fragrant oils extracted from plants. However, a
few ingredients from animal origin were also used as well.
10
CHAPTER 4
DEVELOPMENT IN TECHNIQUES OF PERFUMES MAKING
There are some differences in making perfume by using traditional techniques and
modern techniques which are ancient world used oils as the carrier medium for perfume
while in modern perfume making, an alcohol is usually the carrier medium, with
essential oils added for fragrance combined with fixatives, coloring agents and
preservatives.
4.1 Conservative Techniques
Perfume-making is a labor-intensive process, requiring great talent, skill and patience. It
can take over two weeks to make a small batch of a single perfume.
Before the mid-19th-century, when the first synthetic perfume chemicals were
introduced, natural essential oils, absolutes and tinctures were the basis of the
perfumer's art. Today the perfume industry relies mainly on synthetic chemicals; natural
essential oils and absolutes are used only in small quantities to add richness, depth and
class to the fragrance. So creating perfumes only from natural eo's and absolutes is a
great privilege.
It also means that by using only natural eo's and absolutes, we are working with
materials rich with their own depth, beauty, character and class. Commercial perfumers
often combine hundreds of synthetic chemicals in precision-measured amounts to get
the effect they want. The simple perfumes we make, on the other hand, get their unique
appeal from the natural complexity of the oils and absolutes we use.
4.1.1 Technique 1
From twenty-five to three-hundred and fifty pounds of flower petals are
collected and placed inside a deg. The choosing of flower is very important to have a
nice fragrance of perfume. From the deg, a long bamboo pipe leads downward to a
copper recepticle that contains sandalwood oil. Water is added to the deg, and the lid is
sealed down with a mixture of cotton and clay.
11
The deg sits over a fire and contains no modern gauges or thermostats. As the
steam collects, it condenses and flows into the receiving vessel.
The fire must be constantly monitored to keep the correct temperature. Too
much heat will burn the flowers. It will also create too much pressure which can
explode the clay seal around the deg. The low heat and pressure preserves the fragile
fragrance oils better than the hotter steam distillation method used to obtain essential
oils.
The receiving vessel sits in a pool of water and is continually rotated by hand to
blend the oils and keep them from overheating. Throughout the day, the master distiller
monitors the deg and receiving vessel by feeling them with his hands and listening to
the sounds from inside. When necessary, wet towels are rubbed over the vessels to cool
them down.
At the end of the day, the distillation is stopped. Overnight, as the oil cools
down, the water separates from it. In the morning, the water is poured off from the oil
and put back into the still. Freshly picked flowers are added, and the process begins
anew. This process will be repeated for fifteen to twenty days, until the sandalwood oil
is completely saturated with the fragrant oil of the flowers and this is the perfume that
already complete all the process (Payam, 2010)
4.1.2 Production Process According to Ancient French Methods
1. The first step of the production : STEAM DISTILLATION
Through distillation, we extract the essence of a flower. This must be done quite
soon after the picking up of the flowers when they are still fresh. Here is a drawing of
how distillation with an alembic works:
12
Along with essential oils extraction, alembic also allows the recuperation of
distilled water. Only distilled rose water and orange flowers are used. It takes a huge
quantity of flowers to obtain a tiny amount of oil:
2.
tuberose or daffodil. Due to its high cost, it has been replaced by another technique
called solvent extraction. Nowadays, only artisan perfumers endeavor to keep this
traditional process but with a low yield and a lengthy duration, it is not commercially
viable.
Cold enfleurage consists of using refined lard, spread on both sides of the glass
of a frame (chassis) on which petals of flowers are placed and left for anything between
48 hours and 1 week. The scent of the petals discharges into the lard and they are
regularly replaced by fresh ones. The process can last for several weeks and is very
delicate. 1 kg of lard can absorb about 3 kg of flowers scent. Once the scent has
impregnated, the lard is collected with a spoon and slowly melted then decanted in ethyl
alcohol. The lard is introduced in a centrifuge with alcohol, dissolving the odor
molecules. The blend is then cooled down to get rid of the scented lard through
filtration. This costly technique has been abandoned in Grasse in the 1930s.
Warm enfleurage is a very ancient Egyptian method where lard was being
melted in a big pan through the bain-marie process (double boiler) in which fresh
flowers were added. This was blended for 2 hours. The next day, the old flowers were
removed with a flat sieve and replaced with fresh flowers. This process was repeated at
least 10 times. When the lard could not absorb the scent of the flowers any longer,
filtration was done to separate the lard from the flowers. The result was a scented paste
called pommade which was then processed in the same way as cold
effleurage. Flowers such as Rose Centifolia, violet, orange flowers and cassia were
dealt with in this way.
13
3.
Cold expression
This process is used for citrus fruit such as lemon, bergamot and mandarin consists of
pressing the fruit peel to obtain the essential oil. Traditionally, the peel was pressed to
burst out the layers containing the essential oil through scraping them on metallic picks.
Later on, a new process called through sponge was developed whereas the peel was
pressed several times on a set of natural sponges attached to a clay pan. The expression
was done through a rotating movement of the hand. The expressed blend was collected
by squeezing the sponges and then decanted to separate the essential oil from the
aqueous phase which also contained wastes from the laceration of the layers of the peel.
4.2 Modern Technique in Perfume Making
In modern world, five techniques of extraction had been used in order to get an essential
oils or perfume making which are steam distillation, solvent extraction, enfleurage,
maceration, and expression. Then, the materials will be blending to get long lasting
perfume.
Extraction
Oils are extracted from plant substances by several methods which are steam
distillation, solvent extraction, enfleurage, maceration, and expression. In steam
distillation, steam is passed through plant material held in a still, whereby the essential
oil turns to gas. This gas is then passed through tubes, cooled, and liquefied. Oils can
also be extracted by boiling plant substances like flower petals in water instead of
steaming them. Furthermore, in solvent extraction, flowers are put into large rotating
tanks or drums and benzene or petroleum ether is poured over the flowers to extract the
essential oils. The flower parts then dissolve in the solvents and leave a waxy material
that contains the oil, which is then placed in ethyl alcohol. The oil dissolves in the
alcohol and rises.
For this step, heat is used to evaporate the alcohol, which once fully burned off
will
leave
higher
concentration
of
the
perfume
oil
on
the
bottom.
During enfleurage, flowers are spread on glass sheets coated with grease. The glass
sheets are placed between wooden frames in tiers. Then the flowers are removed by
hand and changed until the grease has absorbed their fragrance. Maceration is similar to
enfleurage except that warmed fats are used to soak up the flower smell. As in solvent
extraction, the grease and fats are dissolved in alcohol to obtain the essential oils.
14
The last technique is expression where it is the oldest and least complex method
of extraction. By this process, now used in obtaining citrus oils from the rind, the fruit
or plant is manually or mechanically pressed until all the oil is squeezed out. Figure 4.2
below shows on how oils are extracted from plant substances by steam distillation,
solvent extraction, enfleurage, maceration, or expression.
15
CHAPTER 5
EFFECTS OF ISLAM CONTRIBUTION IN PERFUMES MAKING TO THE
MODERN WORLD
16
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
Let us remember our great and glorious heritage by briefly surveying what Islam has
already contributed to the world's civilization, education, culture and to scientific
development. Perfumes industry was one of the highlighted contributions from Muslim
scholars to the world today. The development of the perfumes industry was basically
initiated from the great Alchemist Al-Kindi and Jabir Ibn Hayyan once before.
Perfumes today are widely used all over the world and the manufacture
processes to produce it are different way than previous centuries. Contributions from
Islamic Cultures helped in the development of perfecting fragrances from steam
distillation and the introduction of raw ingredients. Both ingredients significantly
influenced the western perfumery developments in particularly chemistry. The
chemistry knowledge is a very important procedure into the making of perfume due to
careful mixing of chemicals.
During the golden ages of Islam, Spain under the Islamic rule were advances in
industry and perfumes industry is the one of it advancement findings. As stated before,
perfumes were already cultured in Islam world due to encouragement from the prophet
Muhammad SAW and its new development on process making by Muslim scholar was
a big step of an improvement.
17
CHAPTER 7
REFERENCES
A.K. Sharma and Seema Wahad, 2010. Agriculture Diversification: Problems and
Perspectives.
Advameg. 2015. How perfume is made. [Online].How Products Are Made Web Vol.2.
Accessed 30 May 2015 from http://www.madehow.com/Volume-2/Perfume.html
Bauer, K., Garbe, D., Surburg, H. 1997. Common Fragrance and Flavor Materials:
Preparation, Properties and Uses (3rd Ed.). Germany: Wiley-VCH pp. 1-2.
Elena Vosnaki. 2012. A short guide to extraction techniques and aromatic materials
rendered. [Online]. FRAGRANTICA PAGE. Accessed 30 May 2015 from
http://www.fragrantica.com/
Hanafizadeh P; Ravasan A. Z; Khaki H. R. 2010. An expert system for perfume
selection using artifial neural network. Expert System with Applications, volume
37, issue 12, pp. 8879-8887.
http://www.glogster.com/mage1724/science-mind-map-chapter-6/g6mgmujhjhtkpmtddirigia0 2005 0:43 31052015
http://www.themuslimweekly.com/fullstoryview.aspx?
https://lesparfumsdisabelle.com/https://lesparfumsdisabelle.wordpress.com/2010/06/19/
making-perfumes-according-to-ancient-french-methods-production-process/
Lindqvist A; 2012. How is commercial gender categorization of perfumes related to
consumers preference of fragrances? J. Social and Behavioral Sciences, volume
65, pp. 370-374.
Minematsu S; Xuan G; Wu X. 2013. Determination of vanillin in vanilla perfumes and
air by capillary electrophoresis. J. of Environmental Sciences, volume 25,
supplement 1, pp. S8-S14.
Morgan and Tabitha, 2005. Bronze Age perfume discovered.
P. Hanafizadef, A.Z Ravasan, H.R.Khaki. An expert system for perfume selection using
artificial neural. 2010. 37(12)
Perfumes-Development of an Industry. Accessed on 31 May, 2015 from
https://perfumeknowledge.wordpress.com/
Salim T S Al-Hassani, Honour Chairman Foundation for Science, Technology and
Civilisation, UK.The advent of scientific chemistry. Accessed on 31 May, 2015
from http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/advent-scientific-chemistry
18
Strathern and Paul, 2000. Mendeleyevs Dream The Quest For the Elements.
Teixeira M. A; Rodriguez O; Mata V. G; Rodrigues A. E. 2009. The diffusion of
perfume mixtures and the odor performance. J. Chemical Engineering Science,
volume 64, issue 11, pp. 2570-2589.
Teixeira M. A; Rodriguez O; Mata V. G; Rodrigues A. E. 2013. Chapter 1- A product
engineering approach in the perfume industry. Perfume Engineering, pp. 1-13.
Teixeira M. A; Rodriguez O; Mata V. G; Rodrigues A. E. 2013. Chapter 2- Design of
perfumes. Perfume Engineering, pp. 15-60.
Teixeira M. A; Rodriguez O; Mata V. G; Rodrigues A. E. 2013. Chapter 3Performance of perfumes. Perfume Engineering, pp. 61-94.
Wikipedia. 2015. History of perfumes. Islamic [Online]. Accessed May 2015 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_perfume
Wright C. 1985. The perfume industry of Mycenaean Pylos. Goteborg:P. Astorms
Forlag, pp. 13-14.