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THE CANTILEVER'

CONSTRUCTION

OF

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

BRIDGES

Jacques Mathivat

Professeu r au Centre des Hautes Etudes de la Construction, Pro/esseur a

[,Ecole Nationale de~ Ponts et Chaussees, Paris, France

Translated by

Mrs C. J. Emberson

A Wiley-lntersciencePublication

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LIST OF CONTENTS

This book is the translation by Mrs. C. J. M. Emberson of the French

original edition Conslruelion Par Eneorbellemenl Des Ponls En Beton

Preconlrainl by. Jacques Mathivat.

C

Editions Eyrolles, 1979

61, boulevard Saint-Germain, 7SOOS Paris, France

EngUlh translation copyright C 1983 by John Wiley &, Sons Ltd.

All nabtl reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced by uny means, nor

transmitted. nor translated into a machine languaae without

the written permission of the publisher.

Libra', o/Congrell Calaloglng In Publlcallon DaIQ:

Mathivat. Jacques.
Th' ~JJlti1cvcr construction of prfstrelsed concrete bridges.
Teanllation of: Construction par encorbcUemcnt des ponts en beton
precontraint.
Bibliography: p. 333.
1. Bridges, Cantilever-Design and construction.
2. Bridges, Concreto-Design and construction. 3. Bridges,

Prcfabricaled-Dcsian and constr~.ction. J. Title.

TG385.M3713 1~83
624"~3.~.
82-23744

ISBN 0 471 10343 8

............................... ,

vii

Chapter 1 General Background ..... ' . .

1. The Principle of Cantilever Construction
.
2. History
~
3. AdvantaJcs of the Process and Field of Application

Foreword

"

Chapt,r 2 Deck Desfsn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1. MttbodaofConstruction from Piers and Abutments

2. Or.anization of the Cantilevers: Choice of Hinged or
Continuous Qeam System
3. Span Distribution ............................
4. Forrp and Size of the Transverse Cross Section ..........
5. Loniitudinal Section of the Decks .. '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
6. Deck Cabling Arrangements .. ,..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
7. Final Adjustment oftbe Structure ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
8. Deflections the Balanced Cantilevers and Initial Compensating

Mathivat, Jacques
The cantilever constniction of prestressed concrete bridges.
1. Bridges, cantilever '2. Concrete beams
3. Prestressed concrete .
I. Title II. Construction par cncor~Ucment des ponts en beton
precontraint. English
. i-,\' . .
,.'

624' .35
TG38S

ISBN 0471 10343 8

Typeset by Pintail Studios Ltd., Ringwood, Hampshire.
Printed in Great Britain by Pitma~ Press Ltd., Bath, Avon.

21
33

47

S4

76

79

95

or

'Hog .........................................
9. Special Problems in Design and Calculation of Decks . . . . . . ..
Chapter 3 Delip for Deck StabDity during Construction

British Library Cataloguing In Publication DaJa:

2
13

1. Pier Structure and Deck Support Conditions

2. Piers with Flexible Diaphragms
3. Piers with a Double Line of Neoprene Be~rings
4. Deck Stability during Construction
S. Some Examples of Temporary Supports

97
J02

......,..

J26

126
J30

,..

J43

J59

..

J77

Chapter 4 Cantilever 'Construction by in situ Concreting of the Segments

J90

1. Different Construction Procedures for in situ Concreting of

Segments ...................... '. . . . . . . . . ..

J90

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vi

C.:onlents
2. Construction by Mobile Concreting Carriage Carried by the Deck
3. Other Construction Procedures using in situ Concreting of the
Segments

190

.................................

Chapter 5 C,antilevcr Construction Method by Assembling Precast

Segments

Advantages of Precasting .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Segments with Glued Match-cast Joints
.
Segment Precasting Methods
..
Methods of Segment Placing
.
S. Problems specific to Segments with Match-cast Glued Joints
6. Limits and EvoI ution of Construction by Prefabricated Segments .
1.
2.
3.
4.

Chapter 6 Cantilever Construction ofCable.. stayed Bridges ......

1. Transition between Cantilever Bridges and Cable-stayed Bridges
2. Difference between Cable Stays and Prestressina Cables of
Cantilever Bridges ..........................

209

212
2~.2

212
219

264
267

270
270
272

27S
..... ..... , .....
4. History and Inventory or Br.idges with Multipleinclined Cables . 278
5. Field of Application of Cable-stayed Bridges-Aerodynamic
3. Spacing of Stay Cables
Stability

...........................

282

6.. Nonlinear Behaviour of Cable-stayed Bridges , ..... 285

7. Longitudinal Structure-General Arrangement . , .. ~ ... .288 .
8. SusJ)Cnsion ........... .. , .. 29S
9. Towers ............................ 305

314

10. Transverse Cross-section of the Structure

, ........
319

11. Construction Problems . . . . . . . . . .

12. Tenlporary use of Cable-staying during Construction of Other
Types of Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
i

Bibliography

Index

The first prestressed concrete bridges to be built by the progressive cantilever

method were erected in Germany. a quarter of a century ago. This type of bridge
has seen such rapid development that it nO\'1 has a virtual monopoly for spans
from 60 to 1SO metres. The longest spans are. in Prance. 172 metres ror the two
main bays of the Gennevilliers bridge and, in Japan, 240 metres for the bridge at
Hanama. Two significant innovations may be credited to the French technique:
the elimination of articulation at the centre of the span. through the stiffness
provided by the prestressing or the two beams: and the prerRbrfc8tion or the
scgn1cnts.
From 1971 to 1975, the French Department of Works supervised the c'onstruc
tion of 73 bridges this type. representing 403 000 square metres of bridge deck,
while the motorway companies were responsible for 39 300 square metres. built

or

by the same method.

....................................

.........................................

FOREWORD

232

333

336

The advantages of this type of bridge which have led to its rapid development
are essentially four in number.
First, the elimination of the arch. which means that noodwaters and con
tingencies arising from burst dnrns can be accommodated. as the waterway is not
impeded. Thi~ technique is well suited to the use of very high piers, the construc
tion of which has become more economieal through the use of sliding formwork.
Accordingly it has competed with. and virtually eliminated, large concrete arches.
Secondly, the scgrncnts can be prefnbricntcd, where the number required is sut'
ficiently large to make this worthwhile. Prefabrication has several advantages
the segments being factory made are of superior quality to those made at site and.
by the time they are ~rcctcd, a considerable amount of shrinkage has already
taken place, so that the prestressing is applied to hardened concrete.
The speed of operation permitted by this procedure should be noted; with
segments cast in place, it is normal to complete two sections per week on each
beam, or in exceptional cases two pairs per week; with the prefabricated method,
three to four sections a day can be achieved.
vii

Foreword

viii

Finally, the net cost has permitted successful competition with steel in what was
once its exclusive domain. Furthermore, one should note the use of the technique
for railway bridges and the possibility of extending its application by the use of
lightweight concrete.

Bridges built by the progressive cantilever method present unusual design

problems. The sheer volume of calculations involved is considerably more than in
other types of works. It stems from the large number of sections which have to be
checked and the development of the static diagram of the work during ita cons
truction. It also arises from the fact that the construction has to take account of
the time factor, because of the overall duration of the project, during which the
nonelastic properties of the materials have already begun to appear. The effects of
creep of the concrete and relaxation of the steel lead to delicate problems of
control of the beams and the continuous redistribution of stresses in the
stru ctures.
The development of such structures could not have progressed to such a high
degree without the systematic use of complex programs performed on the most
advanced computers.

Foreword

ix

the experience accumulated over a period of abOUI fifteen years. It will be of the
greatest value to civil engineers and should lead to further advancements.
MARCEL HUET,

Ingenl!!"' Generai des Poms et Chaussees

Preside'" de Seclion
au Consell Olmeral des Ponts el Chaussees
Presldenl de "Assoclallon
Fran~aise des Pants el Charpenles

In the realm of major works the design concept is intimately bound up with the
construction methods, and mention should be made orthe essential role played by
contractors in the rapid and constant development of prestressed concrete bridges
'
built by the progressive cantilever method.
. .!
As always in the engineer's art, progress comes from the exploitation of the
valuable feedback given by each achievement, the analysis of difliculties
encountered and the incidents overcome, either during the building phase or when
the bridge is in service. The following four points can be mentioned, to which the
greatest importance should be attached:
-

the continuity of the cable ducts, the correct evaluation of friction losses,
and the quality of grouting of the prestressing cables;
the spreading of the concentrated loads in the prestressing cables;
the introduction of a temperature gradient in the actions applied to the
structure;
and the redistribution of the hyperstatic stresses caused by concrete creep.

Professor Jacques Mathivat has directed the concept and construction of a

large number of progressive cantilever bridges, and in this way he has been one of
the leading architects of the evolution of this bridge-building technique. Today, he
has an international reputation in the field. His book represents a synthesis of all

......

: ... ~.

,CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL BACI<GROUND
Bridges faU into three categories according to their longitudinal supporting
structure, namely girder bridges. arch bridges and cable bridges (suspension
bridges and cable-stayed bridges). They can also be designated either by the main
component(s) o[ their cross section such as reinforced concrete slab bridges. T
beRm bridges. box girder bridges. ctc.... or by the position or these componen ts
with regards to the roadway: bridges with beams below carriageway, bridges \v1th
side beams.
None of these classifications adequately fits the large prestressed concrete
bridges in which the method 0/ construction determines both design and calcula
tions. It is therefore common practice to group large prestressed concrete bridges
in four main types. each of\vhich corresponds to a standard building method:
-

bridges with concrete precast beams;

incrementally launched bridges;
bridges built on self-supporting and selflaunching centring;
cantilever bridges (or bridges made of a succession of cantile\'cr~).

This book deals exclusively \vith cantilever construction; thi~ process has been
developed extensively in the last twenty years and at prescnt ;t encompasses ~
broad spcctrurn which includes 1110st or t he major prestressed concrete bridges.

THE PRINCIPLE OF CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION (fig. 1.1)

Cantilever construction consists in building a bridge deck hy {/ succession of scg
nlents. where each scgnlent plnced carries the weight of the n"ext seglnent and. on
occnsion, the weight of the formwork or of the construction plant.
Each section or segntenl is integrated with the previous one as soon as it is
strong enough; it then becomes self-supporting and, in its turn, is the starting base
for a nC\'J segment. The stability of the resulting cantilever is secured, at each step
or con~truction, by pre~tressed cnblcs which increase in length, and v/hich are set
in the upper fibres of the beam.

The cantilever cOllstructioll ofprestressed concrete bridges

2
Spnt19't19 on 0 pier
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Concrete ~eQmenl~
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General background

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conslruction

Fig. 1.1

Diagram

showin~

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the principle of cantilever building

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The segments may be concreted in situ in mobile forms. They can also be
prefabricated. transported and set into place with the appropriate lifting devices.

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2 HISTORY

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Plan of Thomas Pope's timber bridge

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The concept of building a structure cantilevered from its supports is not new and
has been in the mlnda of builden almost from the,bcginnina oC con.truction.
The tirst cantilever bridge. were indeed timber bridges. In his writinp, Cacsar
mentions Gallic works built with tree trunks set orthogonaUy In horizontal rows,
the latter being tilled with boulders acting as counterweights (lig. 1.2). Structurcs
of this type can still be found in China, India and Tibet.

"
Fig, 1.4
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Building methods for Thomas Pope's project

In moro recopt dmes, in 1811, the American engineer Thomas Pope designed a
timber bridpwit!t.a 5~O'm span. This would have had a very shallow arch rcsting
on two qJllOIJry .butm~nts from which it would have been built as a cantilever
structure by assembling prefabricated components (tig. 1.3).
. Fig. 1.4 shows the building methods conceived f, r this project.

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Fig. 1.2 Cantilevered timber bridge (an impression from the art historian Viollet
Le Due)

2.2 Steel and reinCorced concrete structures

Cantilever techniques were first used for sleel structures during the last century
when large arches and cantilevers were being built. With the introduction of

The cantilever constructioll a/prestressed concrete bridges

reinforced concrete many buiJders became interested in applying this technique,

even to a limited extent, to this new material.
In 1928, Freyssinet was already building cantilever springings for the arches of
the PlougasteJ bridge which has a span of ]85 m. The springings were subject to a

or

high temporary overturning moment (47000 kNm) due to the ~eight

the
centring during construction. In order to balance this moment. Freyssinet
devised a system to link the two adjacent springings with steel ties. thus creating a
form of temporary prestre~.s. These ties, which- were formed of wire cables, were
kept under tension by defh.. ction jacks bearing on a framework positioned at 'the
centre of the piers (fig. 1.S).
However, the first time this method was applied to reinforced concrete
structures in a manner similar to that used today was in 1930, when E. Baumgart
undertook the building of the 68-m centre span of the Herval bridge across the

Overturning moment
due to weight of ~
centrmg

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Fig. 1.5.
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Cantilever construction of the Plougastel bridge springings (preysalnet)

Genttal background

Rio Peixe in Brazil by the cantilever method. The reinforcing bars of the deck
were extended by threaded sleeves as the concrete \vork progressed.
Other works followed both in France and abroad. Caquot designed the biggest
cantilever reinforced concrete bridges in France, notably the bridge at Donzcrc.
having a centre span of no Jess than 100 m (fig. 1.6).
This method has not been extensively developed, however, on account of the
large amount of reinforcement needed to ensure the adequate strength of the
cantilevers, and to contain the large incidence of cracki,ng in the top su rface of th,e

deck.
2.3

Prestressed concrete structur.es

With the advent of prestressing, suited as it is to cantilever construction. th j~

process was to be exploited to the full.
Freyssinet again used cantilever method5 of assembly for the sloping picrs ane
the first segments of the Luzancy bridge (S5-m span. 1945) and for the fiv<
bridges across the river Marne (75-m span. I 948-1 950)-anchored into the abut
ment by prestressed cables-as also were the arch springings of the viaducts ()
the Caracas-La Guaira n10torway (1949-1950).
The decks of the Marne bridges are formed of very shallow arches. composc<
of six prefabricated clements. Each half-arch comprises: a sloping jackleg. ;
springing cantilever section formed of five segments. and a central half-bean
(fig. J. 7). These elements are placed by a lifting system of two cable-stayed mast
placed on the abutments and a tackle of rigged pulley blocks. OnJy the jack leg
and the springings were cantilevered; the closing key of each arch was place.
when the l wo half-arches were in position (ng. 1.8).
The arch springers of the Caracas viaducts were built in lengths of about
quarter of the span, by concreting successive sections in suspended forms hangin
rrom cablc~ (fig. 1.9). These cnbles were anchored to the roundntion~ of t he pier

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Fig. 1.6 Construction or the Donzire bridge (Caq'10t)

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Fig. 1.7

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Ussy bridge over the Marne River (Freyssinet)

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

General bQckgroulld
of the approach viaducts and were supported by the main piers. which extended
above the arch abutments. The central section of the arch was then built on a
centring weighing 200 t, assembled at the bottom of the canyon and lifted by
cables fixed to the ends of the already built arch springers (fig. 1.10).
However, it was Dr Flnsterwalder in Germany who inaugurated the cantilever
method, with the construction of the prestressed concrete structures of
Oa!dulnltcln and NC4:karrens (1950-1951). During the same period. the con
tractor, BouSliron, aI,O used this method for the construction of the railway
bridlO of 1. Voulto over the Rhone (1952) (fig. 1.11). From that date, the evolu
tion or cantilever CODltru~on accelerated. The period 1952-1953 saw the con
struction of .truct~OI u.~g prestresllng rods by the contractor Dycke,rhojJ and
Widman. in QcrmanY. l'hcy used travelling concreting skips supported by the
cantJ1evon (WOrm. brid,e over the Rhine, 101-, 114 and 104m SpaMi Coblenz
bridge oyer Ihe.Moselle, 102, 114 and l23m spans) (figs. 1.12 and 1.13). In
France, the first cantilever construction by In situconcreting of the segments was
on the Chazey bridge over the Ain (three spans, 41.2, 57.6 and 41.2 m long
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Fig. 1.9 Construction of the arch springers of the Caracas-La Guaira motorway
viaducts

Fig. 1.10 (a) and (b) Positioning of the centring and keys of the midspan section

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Tire cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

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Genera/background

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Fig. 1.11 Construction orla Voulte railway bridge

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Fig. 1.12 Worms bridge ovcrthe Rhine

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Leon con<;tefe '23.60

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12300

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Savincs bridge

At the same time, the application of prestressing by tendons started in

Germany nnd I\u~trill (c()ntraclllr.~ I'oll,,".vky alld %iillller) lIno in several other
countries.
Apart from arches and beams with jacklegs, all these structures were hinged at
the key of each span. A new step was made in 1962. when the hinge disappeared
nod cOlltinulty wns introduced. The lirst continuous structures were the
Lncroix-Falgarde bridge over the Aricge (three spans, 30.35. 60.75 and 30.35 m
long respectively) and the Vallon du Moulin Ii Poudre bridge in Brest (three spans.
44.7,81.8 and 44.7 m long respectively).
In France, the most spectacular continuous structure~ built by I" sit/l

34.301 Lean concrete

!-4-~'1 counterwtf9hl

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Fig. 1.13 Coble"z bridge over the Moselle

respectively). It was built in 1955 with prestressing by tendons by the contractor
'Soclete des Grands Travaux de Marseille'. This contra::tor has also built many

;,

other structures:
-

Beaucaire bridge: five bays, 81.2-m spans;

Savines bridge: seven middle bays of 17m spans and two bank bays of
38.5m spans (fig. 1.14).

~:~!,~

(a) SaintJean bridge

The cantilever COllstruction a/prestressed concrete bridges

10

II

Genera/background

"~~~~~!it;/":.':'r:~}::.: '. '. '. ,.', .

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(b)

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OiJlCI ~dle

Fia. 1.15

."-'

Main coiltiliuoutructures built in France by I,. situ concreting with

mobile forms

concretina with travcJlina form. were (fig. I. I5):

- Th. SaintI.1n bridge in Bordeaux over the Garonne: eight continuous

.pana, totaIlqth 474 m, four 17-m-long central spans, two end' spans
(c) Givors bridllc

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(d) Magnan viaduct

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.

which arc elastically fixing the deck;

The Oissel bridge on the Seine: nine continuous spans, total length 750 m.
five lOo-mlong central spans;
The Givors bridge on the Rhone: five continuous spans, 30, 110,20. liD
and 30 m long respectively;
The Magnan viaduct, near Nice: four continuous spans, 126, 132, 132 and
76 m long res~tively, fIXed on one abutme'1t and supported on three
double Hshaped piers (one pier was 100 m high);
The Gennevilllcrs bridge over the Seine: five continuous spans, lOS, 172.
74, 172 and 113 m long respectively.

Another step was made when prefabrication was introduced into cantilever
construction. The first French bridge to be built by the cantilever method with
prefabricated elements was the Choisy-Ie-Roi bridge over the Seine. The joints
were glued, the elomcnts integrated by prestressing. The bridge has three con
tinuous spans, 37.5. 55 and 37.S m long. It was built in 1962 by the contractor
Campenon Bernard. Since then, Campcnon Bernard have built several other
similar structures: the Pierro-Benite bridge over the Rhone, the upstream and
downstream bridies of the Boulevard Peripherique over the Seine, the Blois bridge
over the Loire and the viaduct linking Oleron island to the mainland (total length
2862 m)(fig. 1.17).

.- .. _

..,..,...... _ ~ ~ J

)3

12

The cantilever cons/ruction a/prestressed concrete bridges

Genera/background

13

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(a)
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Choisy-Ie-Roi bridae

This new construction method was soon used widely, and abroad some

spectacular structures were built in this way: the Chnlon viaduct near Lausanne

and the Rio Niteroi" Bridge in Brazil (totkllength 8 km). Recently several bridges

have been built in France using this procedure:

j""

..

Saint-Cloud bridge across the Seine, a 1tOO-m..long curved structure

involving a deck with a constant depth of 3.60 m and spans ranging trom
64 to 101.8 m;
,
Saint-Andre-de-Cubzac bridge across the rivet Dordogne, 1200 m long,

which has five spans of97 m over the piers; .

Calix viaduct in Caen, 1880 m long, has a central span of 156 m.

Cantilever techniques are likely to find new openings in years to come in the
design and the assembly of cable-stayed bridges. Brotanne bridge, below Rouen,
already sets a precedent, its 320 m main span is the IBtlest prestressed concrete
span to date. The central part of this structure consists a cable-stayed bridge
built by the cantilever method from the towers, using the multiple cables which
were arranged in a fan shf,.pe.

or

" .~:::,:;:r:~.::--. -:" ... ._.

(b) Viaduct linking Ol~ron Island to the mainland

Fig. J. J 7

3 ADVANTAGES OF THE PROCESS AND FIELD OF APPLICATION

3.1

The main advantage of cantilever construction is the elimination of centring and

falsework; this clears the space below the bridge. This process is therefore highly

The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

14

I~

Genera/background

.--- .
i.'

PlJ. 1.19 Brotonnc cable-.tayed bridp

(a) Saint-Cloud bridlC

<

.::;' "... ":.. . ~~':~,--_..:,~:.;-;~f

suitablo for the following local conditions:

structures involving very high piers and which span wide and deep valleys
(COIdy COIItrinI);
- rM'" wid! wild lAd sudden floods (dangerous to centring);
- nocd to allow tho llow of. certain volume of traffic or to permit navigation
. whilst construction i. in progress (hindering centring).
-

The technique of cantilever construction also ofTtrs other advantages:

-

(b) Salnt-Andre-de-Cubzae bridle

reduction in number and more efficient use of forms whose length is no

II'Cater than that of a segment;
improvementl in workmanship, due to mechaniza~ion of tasks within a
recurring cycle;
n~bility of execution which is linked to the possibility of speeding up the
construction by increasing the number of starting points for cantilevering;
improved rato of construction in the case of structures with prefabriclltc<.J
seaments, deck construction can reach 10 metres per day.

3.2

Aiif~~~4~1:~:j;~r~~~r~t.4~C:::'~:'~:;-: ." ~' . ':.': . .",.. ".~

(c) Calix viaduct in Caen

Fig, 1.18

;.
~

.....: .....

'f'
. ~~r.;

The field of application of cantilever construction currently covers spans ranging

from 60 to ISO m (fig. 1.20).
The most frequent spans range from 70 to 90 m whereas the maximum spall ill
use in Europe-that of the centre bay of Bendorf bridge across the Rhine-~
equal to 208 m (fig. 1.20). The record world span is presently 240 m. It is held by
Japan with the Hamtlna bridge completed in 1976 (lig. 1.22). Several other works

~~--""""""""'':'~'

16

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

Genera/background

17

Spans (metres)

o
Prefabricated beams

10 20 30 40 50 GO 70

--

--

Con'ileve

I-

1_ _ _

Incrementolfounchinq
1_

Self - launChing

eo 90 100 110 120 130 140 130 160 170180

-
--I
-_
- ..
-~

C4!ntring

140.00

..,..

13.76

-
-~

~l-

19.Q2.LJ~

Fig. 1.20 Field of application of the processes used to build major prestressed
concrete bridges
524.70 .

~30i---r-: 10.45
. 'MI .. _.I.~
-..

~ t*11

2Q8.00

71.00...._ _

4.40'

La

4,,4.3,ji 4A

00..

.1

',:,.,.-",

L,.;'1::'~

:.> . '"_

Fig. 1.21

.1'.-."

..".

Bendorf bridge

Fig. 1.22 Haman. bridge

come close to it,(J) namely:

-

the Hikoshima Ohashi bridge in Japan which has a main span of 236 m;

the Urato bridge, also in Japan, which has a main span of 230 m (fig. 1.23);

the bridge linking the Karor and Babefthuap islands Bast or the Philippines

has a main span of approximately 240 m.

In France the three biggest cantilever bridges 8:fe:

-

the GennevilJiers bridge across the Seine with a 172 m span (segments con

creted In situ);

the-Calix viaduct in Caen with a 156 m span (prefabricated eoncrete seg

ments);

(I) For historic reasons the Maracaibo bridge is worthy or mention because, ror I long
time. it ~as the pre~tressed concrete bridge with the longest span. Built with severa! cable
stayed bays, its construction did not. however. involve CAntilever techniquea to I sig
nificant extent. .

140.00

..,
_ 5500~.
"

9.OQJl.

-I

'--' Optimum ronge

~ Normal ronge

l. __ ~ Exceptional ronge

9.Q,44.35

B:._:.. =::::t=~1f'~ Mmc::fi

/

63000
24000

.Moq,t

Fig. 1.23 (a) and (b)

Urato bridge

cantilever construction ofprestressed concrell bridges

, :....:~ .~.::.:;~{~;:. .:Xt.:,~

V:"
.. .'..;'::;'..,
~.

"

:;~~ ~ .

. :.. 1

~/1~J':~

.:...

~;\:~~~

:"

....

~: .~':

Generlll background

19

falscwork such u deck-launching and building on self-supporting centring and

self-latIQching centrina; they become uncompetitive beyond spans ranging from
SO to 60m.
As far as small spans are concerned it should be noticed that in the case of long
prefabricated structures to be built in an urban environment at a low height,
cantilever building is competitive for spans in the 40 m range. The viaducts of the
Kleinpolderplein interchange in Rotterdam (fig. 1.26), of an overall length of
2 km, were indeed built by the cantilever method-with spans ranging from 27 to
3S m-by means of prefast concrete segments set in position by a launching

Fig- 1.24 Le Bonhomme bridge

girder. A similar method was used for the construction of the B3 motor\l,'ay
viaducts in Paris, with spans of approximately 38 m.
The use of lightweight aggrega/es (expanded clay or schist) in the concrete by
rcducina the dead wciaht of the deck can also permit a more economical construc
tion of large spalll built by the cantilever method.
Several structures have already been built in ligh/weight concrete in Germany
and mainly in HoUand. where several have spans around ISO m:
-

Lightweight concrete

Fia. 1.25

bridge over lake Fiihlingen (Germany)- J35 m span;

Ottmarshcim bridge

the Bonhomme bridge across the river Blavet, a structure with sloping piers.
with a 18S m opening and with a 146 m deck span between piers (segments
concreted in situ) (fig. 1.24).

A structure with precast segments currently under construction across the

Ottmarshcim flood relief and navigation canal will have a span of approximately

172 m (fig. 1.25).

Independent bays made of prefabricated beams placed in position by lifting
plant are usually cheaper than cantilever construction for spans below SO m. With
spans over 60 m long, however, prefabricated beams are not used, due to the
increase in the weight of the beams and the lifting plant. Besides, it is necessary to
increase the number of longitudinal beams to limit their Wlit weight and, as a con
seq uence, this decreases the rate of construction.
The same holds true for the other methods of construction, avoiding the use of

Fig. 1.26 Klcinpolderplein interchangein Rotterdam

20

The cantilever construction qfprestressed concrete brldps

Houten Bridge over the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal (Honan~143.s m

span;
Ravensway and Zoolen Bridges over the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal
(Holland)-150.5 m spans.

In France, the Ottmarsheim bridge is the first large cantilever structure in liabt
weight concrete.

CHAPTER TWO

DECK DESIGN
I METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION FROM PIERS AND ABUTMENTS
1.1 Cantnever construction generally starts from the main supports of the

structure, namely the piers and abutments

J./.l

'

Cantilever construction/rom piers

1.1.1.1 When starting from piers it is logical to build symmetrically outwards

from the piers to avoid high asymmetric overturning moments in the piers. To
meet this requirement, the structure must be built in a succession of balancing
cantilever sections (fji~ 2.1). However, as the symmetrical sections either of in situ
concrete or of precast conctete segments cannot be built simultaneously in
practice, the piers must sustain bending stresses.
If the deck is built locked In with the piers, they can usually accommodate the
asymmetric moments during construction more easily. If, on the other hand, the
deck is designed to be continuous over the piers, it is necessary either to provide
temporary fixity between the deck and the piers during construction (by means of
wedges nnd stressed tendons), or to provide temporary supports from the piers.
Details of providing temporary support to the deck during construction will be
considered in Chapter Three.
1.1.1.2 In certain cases, it can be preferable to build asymmetrically from the
piers. This can be achieved in a variety of ways:
(a) By using a single temporary support pier, or by using one or several
temporary supports as building progresses, (fig. 2.2) as was adopted for the
Medway bridge in England (fig. 2.3), a process usually requiring the use of
temporary prestress.
(b) Section of deck poured in situ on centring to act as counter weight to
cantilever-built sections. This arrangement is often used with three-spanned
21

22

The calltilever constructiOIl o/prestressed concrete bridges

Deck design

23
Wind or construc;lion

loodinQ

ttttttttt

QverlurninQ ......+-..

momenl{
iii
I Iii

i '\

ik...\!1

SeQment

Contilever

BALANCED STRUCTURE

--

BALANCED STRUCTURE

r--

::0

"

'C

.Q

Fig. 2.1 Symmctrical construction

>.

III

Seellon cost on CenlrirlQ

.'

/ Conlilever seclion

J:!

..,.....,-;,.;I'""""'..-..
vk7
...

__ Temporory
]
support

1) ~
oc .....

--'Ip-J'L.+I.LI~~_-LL"_
Fig. 2.2 Using tcmporary supports

I'

Supplemenlory
support

~1103 ..f

g _.
J
+' I"
,03.,.
o

+I

,_

t"'J

.!:!

:II

U.

-::

structurcs, when the centre span passes over a river or a highway which pre
cludes the use of staging. The bank spans arc then concreted in silu on the
centring and the centre span is built by the cantilever method (fig. 2.4).

Structures built by this method include the bridge across the Rio Tocantins

(Brazil), the bridge across the Rio Cuaiba (Brazil), the Goncclin bridge across

tho river Isere, and the Port de Bouc bridge across the Aries canal.

(c) Counterloading or anchoring one cantilever span whilst building the adjacent
span. This case more usually arises when building main river spans when the
shore (or bank) spans are short. There are two possible solutions:
The first solution is to ballast the end of the bank cantilever or to provide a
counterweight (fig. 2.5). The bridges at Lacroix-Falgarde and Croix-Luizet,

~I

.1 8

h,

/i

11]

nil/II

illill

...,

The cantilever construcdon 0/prestressed concrete bridges

24

Deck design
25

Section 7ret8d on centrin;

Pre5lressed

if~

''lie-rod

Prestressing

/,

'coble

I'

. 1--PreSlress,ngcoble
....... 1

SlOQing

Fig. 2.7 Anchoring of one cantilever by prestressed tie rods

Fig. 2.4 Bank span concreted on centrlns

$uppclrt ,.
Support

Fig. 2.5 Ballastln& tM end of one orthe cantilevers

and the structures spanning the Seine at Puteaux (fig. 2.6) are examples of
this techniq ue.
The second solution is to anchor the end or the bank cantilever either by
prestressed tie rods, or by a morlise-and-tenon joint linking abutment and
deck. The prestressed tie rods are formed of prestressed cables, enclosed in
articulating casings or tubes, which tie the deck to the abutment (or to the

ground). The I~ngth of the tie rods' must be sufficient to ensure that the
angular movements of the rods due to linear variations of the deck do not
cause excessive fatigue stresses due to bending at the hinge points. On this
account the components of the cables (steel wire or strands) are usua/ly
arranged In a single row located in the axis of the hinge.
The mortise-and-tenon anchorage consists of extensions of the webs of the
deck beams (forming the tenon) which slot into recesses fonned in the abut
ment (acting as mortises) (fig. 2.8). The bearing plates which allow free
horizontal movement of the deck nrc fixed between the top of the tenon and
the top element of the mortise in the case where the restraint is constantly
against an uplift of the deck.

If the tendency of movement of the deck is possible both upwards and

downwards, the double restraint is adopted, the bottom bearing plates, which

are placed after the top plates have been fixed, being forced against the

bottom of the tendons by caulking or by tlatjacks (fig. 2.9).

The abutments of the Givors bridge, together with those of one of the two

structures spanning the Seine at Puteaux (fig. 2.10), include mortise-and

tenon anchorages. To adopt such arrangements requires a detailed study of

the structural capacity of both the abutment wall mortises and tHe tcnons.

The deck reactions at the abutment must be calculated using a 50% overload

factor on the estimated reactions.

With structures ofthis type and when aiming at limiting the uplift reactions

"::>;;~:::::~~::~~~~::.

Downword mtroinl

l I,

Fig. 2.6

Structure spanning the Seine at Puteaux bridge on Neuilly side.

Longitudinal section

Ii'

iii

Double restrOlnt

:J-'-

Fig. 2.8 End anchorage by mortise and tenon

26

The canlileller conslrucliono!preslressed concrete bridges'

Deck design

27

LONGITUDINAL SECTiON

Slllfenin9 membrane

I
,

freSlrnsillQ cobin

i_

..:~~~~~::::;~~: :'~::.:::~:.::.;,.:.::
1

I11I,'

il

Abutment

(a)
8~t30

(a)

SECTIONAL PLAN

Pr'

'J()+f.

3~5

"r

30
llOT/CABLE ~ 1l0YCABLE

~ ~ J

.~f'F"i 1,

12Tl~

71

31ZT15

t fl f

5 ill f&:?l -,
--'

7\~-_:

nTI5

(b)

(b)

Fig. 2.9 (a) and (b) Example of mortise and tenon anchorlle

of the deck on the abutment. it is expedient to build the centre span in light
weight concrete whilst the bank spans and the abutment springings are built
in traditional concrete (fig. 2.11). Such a solution was adopted for
Onmarsheim bridge and is planned for a structure across the Donmere canal
at Tricastin (fig. 2.12).
(d) By means of temporary support strutting beams. enabling the sections of a
cantilever span to be built symmetrically from each end in pairs. This
particular solution implies that the deck is built as a succession of segments
built symmetrically to the axis of each span. A temporary steel girder span
ning the gap (a Bailey bridge for instance) supports the formwork and the se!f

Fig. 2.10 (a) and (b) Structures spanning the Seine at Putcaux bridge. Longitudinal
section and detail of the abutment prestressing

Li9htweiCJht concrete

Tradltionol cone/ere

A "1.7 to t.8

Fig. 2.11

Using lightweight concrete

_ ...

_-... J

....... ~

Deck design

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

28

29
Framewark suppart beam ( Bailey bridge 1

203.00
~

30.25

>'''~.

I ,

\.

Supparl pedestal

142.50

3025

Ughlweighl concretl

.. \

l:25.25 ..,P

roo
,.~"..::"._.- ~~.
~
=n~::::;!fS
'50

Sirutting beam

....

Fig. 2.13 Construction of la Vouhe bridge

(0)

(e) By proceeding with cantilever construction on one cantilever once the next
cantilever has been connected to the adjacent deck beam. This solution is
onen adopted when the widths of adjacent spans vary. This solution has the
disadvantage of entailing an arrangement of cables which becomes more
complicated if th~.cantilever length greatly exceeds half the span.

/./.2

Cantfle~'er COllstructlon!rom

tire abutments

Cantilever construction springing from the abutments imposes high overturning

moments on the latter which can be counterbalanced either by:
( bl

(a) temporary supports set in front of the abutmenls (lig. 2.14) as adopled for the
8asse-Combelle nnd Pierre-l3cnite bridges;
(b) by the abutment self weight acting as coumerlveight.

TOP VIEW

In most cases the bank span cantilever is embedded in the abutment. and thus
forms a stable unit (fig. 2.15). The abutment is Ihen said to be balanced.
The bridgc across the river Reallon, Verberie bridge, Bonpas bridge and the
viaduct ofle Magnan (fig. 2.16) are examples of this type.
The deck can also be fixed nexibly at each end by means of a shorl balancing

l---

L-==~::~
~
i- r-j--
8I
A
1
r - - - - - - - - - -..!.[--.. .-J
~. r'-+--'-'-d>r-._._._._.t-H._I__ ~=l--__
~. L.
rlt.

~---r---*

r--- F===, ----... ---------1-=:=:::.~

----~--_.

Ballast

(c I

Fig. 2.12 (8), (b), (c) Tricastlrt bridge project

weight of the segments under construction. and is also used as ." access way
(fig. 2.13).
The stability of the pier cantilever unit is ensured by I strUtting beam
hanging from the steel formworlc. frame and bearing horizontally against
temporary pedestals set into the deck (at each pier). The II Voulte llridge
acrosS the Rhone is an example of this rare type of construction.

AnchoraQe in abutment

_,' Temporory ~upporl

Fig. 2.14 Construction from an abutmenI with temporary support

The c,mti/e~er constructloll C/fprcstressed C()1/crc/(! bridges

30

Deck desigt'

31
Leon concrete infill

Balanced abutment

I..

....... ; /

41.25

Ii

1:JI=r
~l-r
.i'::::~::~:;:~:::~::::::::::=:::::::::~::::::::~

NlOpre~,

btOrirl91

( c) Verb"i, bridge

Fii. 2. 15 Construction from a.balanced abutment

(c.:) Vcrbcric

briulIC

2000
'.--"'-'~;-4.

6000

".. -.. - _... _..

_._..

~.

I
Sond'9(O",1 fim/l9

.j

(d) Magnan viaduct

Fig. 2.16

span incorporated into the abutment. In this case. free movement of the deck is
ensured either by rubber or sliding bearings or by tie rods-with double hinges
(liS. 2.17).
Tho deck mUlt then be anchored or tied to the abutment since the uplift reac
lion is opposed by the dead weight of the abutment-which is eventually
baUuted-or by the resistance of the foundation. It then becomes necessary to
48.50

I
15.00
\
50-';: 14.50':

-\

r ......:--
.

~\

;\

-----__ ---k..Q.:&i::,.-&:r~n:_-~;~:~
--------- ;)-1 0

r._ ---------=---i~

...

i ~

It

15.00

(bl
Double- hinqed I'e-,od

3.00

(a) and (b) Bridge across the Reallon river

Fig. 2.17

Flexible fIXing on abutment

. _

':"".'!'.. l....

Ie.

32

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Deck design

Anchoring span

~.~

t~.~\~,\

....
;. J~;;'<~
~'<'

~~.:: .;:~~

AnchOr piles

~"

Fig. 2.20 La Grande-Cote bridge-beams with temporary supports

1.00

15.40

make arrangements similar to those described in paragraph 1.1.J.2(c). The Saint

Jean bridge in Bordeaux is an example oflhis lype of abutment (fig. 2. JS).
When the static design of the completed structure is that of a three-pinned arch.
the deck must be 'rlXcd temporarily at the abutments during construction
(fig. 2.l9~ This arrangement was adopted for the construction of la Grande-Cote
bridge (fig. 2.20).

1.2 Cantilever constnactlon can be carried out rrom temporary staging but this
Is exceptional
This method has occasionally been used to join. prefabricated elements forming
the ends of the decks near the abutments (fig. 2.21), for example at the
downstream bridge of the Paris Boulevard peripherique.
The' overpasses of the Lyon~renoble motorway were also built with precast
segments joined in a similar way (see Chapter Five).

24.50

Fig. 2.18 Saint-Jean bridge in Bordeaux-flexible anchorage of deck to abutment

2 ORGANIZATION OF THE CANTILEVERS: CHOICE OF HINGED

OR CONTINUOUS BEAM SYSTEM
~

Mer the construction stage, the cantilever beams must be interconnected to com
plete the fmal structure. The designer can choose between a number of solutions ~

- - - Tetnf,)OtOry support

\ Foundotion
Fig. 2.19 Temporary fixity (in the case or hinged arches)

2.1 Systems with hinged canlilevers

The easiest solution is to make up the deck with equal cantilever beams intercon
nected by sliding hinges (fig. 2.22 and 2.23). These hinges transmit a shearinK
force (in the case of an imposed load on one cantilever only) and ensure free
expansion of the bridge by allowing longitudinal displacements of one cantilever
beam in relation to the other. The continuity 0/ deflection-but not that of
rotation-is then restored at the time of connection (fig. 2.24).

The canti/erer construction o/preslressed concrele bridges

34

Deck design

35
#

Deck beam r~pin9 tie rods

Shd'nej h'"ges
"

...... ...

.iiii-f

i!

~:~{
~~
Fig. 2.22-Syslems wilh hinged canlilcvcrs-<liagram I

~......
I

~I I I

I I I I I

~~

(0)

IT

.... {~{~ .._ - {

,...._.J.Lt
Temporary cables

""

' / 1/2 ~ ... {12~

r=====rr==
..
~IIIIIIII

.lJ?
:

1/2

1r

:J

1'# { .

...;....

Shd,n9 hJn9U

=:ll
,

;-e

---~I. __ ~---- ..<---- /

.(

__ __ ._-,-.. __

--t_'

Systems with hinged camilcl'ers-<liagram 2

Fig. 2.23
Wat.r t'llhtnns

Pavemen' 10101S

JlI I I

Rods orrollers

, ~:.

~~\,..==

~"

~,.

:;,;"

.....,;.
Fig. 2.21 (a) anc (b) Assembly of the Left Bank segments of the downstream
bridge of the Boulevard PeriphCrique

'1~

.-~'

Fig. 2.24

Schematic diagram showing the principle of a sliding hinge

'_"---"~'''W

36

The call/ite'"er construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

It should be noted that in the case of bridges with multiple spans, the introduc
tion of a sliding hinge at the cen tre of each span requires the building of each
cantilever into the abutments so as to maintain structural stability when subjected
to asymmetrical loading. In this type of struct'Jre the lengths of the end spans are:
either approximately half the length of intermediate spans when the bridge con
sists solely of balanced cantilever beams on piers (fig. 2.22); or approximately the
length of intermediate spans when the bridge deck also involves cantilevers built in
at abutments (fig. 2.23).
Structures of this design are obviously simple as they are statically deterl1tlllate
under the combined effects of self-weight and prestress and become statically
indeterminate only with respect to superstructures and additional toads once the
central hinge has been incorporated. This makes design calculations easier as the
statically indeterminate forces for each span thus amount only to the vertical reac
tions transmitted by the hinges. Moreover, after taking into account the per
manent load, irrespective of the additional loading arrangement, these structures
exhibit bending moments of constant sign. This results in a considerable
simplification in the profile of the prestressing cables.
Nevertheless, this system has many disadvantages: a lower ultimate strength
than a continuous structure. as each hinge behaves as a plastic hinge with a zero
monlent of resistance; hinges are difficull to design and construct as they are
delicate components with poor long-term performance; a multiplicity of expansion
joints; risk of uplift of the deck over the abutments, when the span of the end bay
is approximately half that of the adjacent bay-this can necessitate having the
deck integrated \vith the abutment or the use of ballast (see paragraph 1.1.1.2(e);
finally, and most important, progressive settlement of cantilevered ends during the
nrst years of the working life of the structure, deformations caused by shrinkage,
creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing tendons.
Even though the break brought about by this deflection in the longitudinal
profile of the carriageway does not affect the mechanical properties of the deck, it
is an inconvenience as far as the appearance of the structure and the user's
comfort are concerned since both are highly sensitive to the slightest
discontinuity.
The extent or this hrcak in J1rofitc can be reduced to n certain extent by estimat
ing accurately the denection of the cantilevers and compensating for it by an
initial compensating camber at the time of construction (fig. 2.25).
This initial compensating camber will be visible at the completion of the
structure but it can be anticipated that after roughly three years, or thereabouts.
the bridge \viU have attained the expected longitudin;tl profile.
The d~13yed deflections in bridge structures \vith central hinges are of course
reduced when the structures are built using prefabrication techniques if the beam
elements are used after a suitably long lapse of time.
Sliding hiltges may also be replaced by sliding conllectiolls which allo\v for the

Deck design

37
Initiol compensating hog

+ -- - _
_-- -- -_u

Fig.2.25

Initial compensating hog

Sliding hinge

Sliding connectIon

&m

Fig. 2.26

Bored moving

piston

--

Sliding hinge and sliding connection

'~t't17/J
'

Stationary cylinder

Fig. 2.27

Arrangement used for the bridge over the river Escaut

deck longitudinal deformations whilst ensuring continuity 0/ deflection and rot(J

/iol1 (fig. 2.26). An arrangemenl of this type was used for the hridgc over the
castern Escaut rivcr. The ends of the opposing cantilevers were joined by
hydraulic rams consisting of an oilfilled cylinder fixed to one cantilever with a
moving piston-pierced with a small diameter bore-which was integral with the
other cantilever (fig. 2.27). These rams allow for slow horizontal deformations due
to linear movements of the bridge deck and can withstand rapid movements
arising froln the impacl of notsClln or from the braking of vehicles. Such arriJngc
tnellls C:111 h: lIsed to ensure the stubility of structures subjected to canhquakcs.
They are unfortunately comparatively expensive as a result of their complexity.
FinaJly. with certain bridges whose final structural form is that of a hinged arch
the cantile\'er beams are joined by genuine hinges transmitting the thrust; this is
the case with the Grande-Cote bridge (fig. 2.28).

The cantilever conslruction ofpreslressed concrete bridges

38

39

Deck deslgll
Prestressir\9 cobles

.,7!l.1.~

Fig.2,28 Static diagram ofla OrandeC6te bridge

2.2

i
i

elorings (neoprene, Motion)

Cantilever systems with suspended span

Fia. 2.30 Diagram of a cantilever joint

A variation of the hinged cantilever system is to connect two cantilevers by an

independent suspended span (fig. 2.29). In some cases, fcar of differential settling
of the supports caused by the nature of the foundations can lead tu the adoption
of this solution rather than the continuous systems described in paraaraph 2,3.
As with sliding hinges, the supports of the span suspended from the cantilever
ends must permit rotations and horizontal displacements. However. since these
supports transmit downward vertical reactions only, they can consist of
Freyssinct concrete hinges or e1astomeric bearings, and will not have the
drawbacks of central hinges (fig. 2.30).
The foUo\\'ina structures belong in this category:

.'
!

spans also permit compensation of eventual differences of level of the

candlever ends (fig. 2.31);
_ reduetion of tho bending moments at the support; this reduction is brought
about by both the positive moment along the suspended span and the unit
weight of the suspended span which is lower than that of the cantilevers
(fig. 2.32).
The ratio I'/1 of the span of the suspended span to the total span may vary gt8atly:

I'

Bridge across Rio Ulua: I

' - the bridge across Rio Ulua (Honduras) with three spans (60, 120 and 60 m
respectivdy) and with a suspended span of 36 m;
- the bridge across the Rio Parana (Brazil) with a main structure of eiaht
bays of 109 m span and with suspended spans of 4S m.

I'

- -1:
--:':'-~~-..~

by the reduction by half of the break in the longitudinal prom~ whose extent
is already decreased by the smaller span of the cantilevcfs. S~pcnded
Suspended span

Fig. 2.31

Cantilever joint

..

Mfl

&_

2
~
~
':~~'~"'~Y~

.~
.

-~..-"""
~
-----~.

------':::::~12
-----

Reduction in the break of the Jonsitudinal prorJ.1e

Mt/

<D

Vi'1!p/2
T

Suspended.
spon
/~.

.'.-

Hinged cantilevers
Contilev.r~ w,th suspended span
of some wt t9ht

Con.illvlts with 1i9h1er suspended

span

--

l.-.__._- . . _._._-'Fig. 2.29 Cantilever system with suspended span

4S

Bridge across Rio Parana: - == = 0.41

I
109.

This system has certain advantages over centrally hinged cantilevers:

-

'36

=-= 0.30
120

Fig. 2.32

. ~J
Reduction in support bending moments
".,,_. ,..,~t.~~_:4~tIf:;~

40

The cantilever construction o!prestressed concrete bridges

+*.

fa

~
I

:.

1/3

J!.

Fig. 2.33

J.

Deck design

41

are requited for the suspended span in addition to the equipment for cantilever
construction.

1/3

2.3

Suspended span with small end spans

This ratio is as high as 0.90 (=49.7 /SS.3) at the Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne bridget but
this hardly belongs to the category of cantilevering. This arrangement can be justi
fied for a three bay structure when the end spans must be very short, amounting
to approximately one-third of the centre span (fig. 2.33). Uplift forces above the
abutment can be appreciably reduced by bringing the cantilever joints nearer to
the pier.
The suspended span usually consists of independent I-beams or T-beams of the
same number as the webs of the cantilever cross-section (fig. 2.34).
Apart from the above advantages, this structural form retains the same
disadvantages (Io\ver ultimate strength, multiplicity of expansion joints) as the
system with centrally hinged cantilevers.
Moreover.. it leads to the use of two different types of plant: launching girders

Systems made continuous

This consists in cOMecting adjacent cantilevers by means of concreting, or by

placing a precast segment called a 'keying' segment. as well as using prestressing
cables which ensure that the cantilever beams are integrated and the structure
continuous (fig. 2.35). This is b~ far the most satisfactory solution and is the
reaSOn why all French cantilever bridges ha ve been made continuous since )961.
, /2

Keying segment

i T'" "' 9F ~===r~

m'

-.

.I

RIO ULUA
Sus~tnded

16

...

..:,~
4)lloO
~

CD

-~

S5tI 2.10 ii 2.

+16.

.'

.
.
.
lJ
-
orIl1~~8
--"1-40 ' 30

-
-4,

15 or

,30

.- C

I.

25:0
0'

beam

2'

II 2.10

...,...--...---...

~I

8.10
RIO PARANA

12.50

.., ,..

t20or40

~[.- . _40

Jl
~

.g

&tl

200r

I.

+19

-f

_f

..
12.05
,-rel

14~ I

1.201~

...

f6

.I~.I

-15

2.75

GO

.....

Suspended beam

'Boxbeom

Fig. 2.34

Transverse cross sections of the bridges across the Rio tnua and Rio
Parana

.
I
I

Fig. 2.35
Box beam

1,1

Iii

..

I.
;

r:
.

'

... f

Systems made continuous

The ver/ical deflections in a continuous structure are indeed far smaller than
those met in' hinged structures and the continuous structure also removes the
disadvantages incurted by breaks in the longitudinal profite.
For instance, the vertical deformation caused by a uniformly distributed live
load will be four times lower for a continuous structure with constant flexural
stiffness and made of a very large number of identical spans, than for the same
structure with central hinges.
This difference in behaviour of the two forms of structure, together with the
influence of precasting techniques, is demonstrated by the centre span of the
Choisy-Je-Roi bridge across the Seine, where the deflections at centre span have
been calculated for two extreme bases of design: an in situ concrete beam with
central hinge and a precast continuous beam. These deflections are summarized in
the table below.
Figure 2.36 shows, for both bases of design, the cantilever deflection curves of
the centre span under dead load and prestressing forces. The two diagrams of
figure 2.31 show respectively the long-term deformations of both forms of
structure under constant load, and their instantaneous deformations under
additional loads. From figure 2.36, j.t transpires that the behaviour of the t\VO
structures is similar in their statically determinate phase. Deflection y and the
rotation 8 of the cantilevers are slightly lower in the structure with a central hinge,
for which the prestress compensates a larger proportion of the dead load moments
(82 instead of 58%).

The cantilever cO/u'tructlon o!prestressed concrele bridges

42

Comparisons of the deformations at midspan

Loads

Ely

O.L. (Dead Load)

I.P. (Initial prestress)
(82% and 58% of
the D.L.)
D.L.:::I.P.
Prestress variation
1096
, Continuity prestress
Superstructwoes

46
-38

in sllll

Continuous precast beam

(mnl) (degrees) (lO~

3
,3

3.6
3,6

2.4
-2.0

38

2.0

-22

-1.2

3 .

3.6

0.4

- 8

4.596

,t ".,cture

::

0.4

15

0.8

27

1.4

42

2.2

22'

1.1

4.5

4.5

0.8

16
1496

4.5

I.S

Addition aJ loads

4.5

- 7
+ 2

~
ADDITIONAL LOAD

~~

0
0

11

1.S

-4

4.5

7
7

0.8

Correcf and prestressed loodl

UQiZ]i

.A. .. A l i A . ,,41

P,"tr'lsed connection
~

Pi... ~31

0.8
0

20mmt-1---------~~

1---------40mm...

50mm'

Hinged structure cast

Continuous precast
structwe

Fig. 2.36 Deformations under dead load and prestress

'

J.ona-CIrm ctcformations and deformations under imposed load

Thus. when submitted to imposed load, continuous structure,s are three times
stifTer than articulated structures.
These results i11ustrate the superiority of continuous structures:

due to the low valu, qf the longlerm deformations which must be taken
into account when determining the initial compensating camber. These
deformations may be upwards. as in the case of the Choisy bridge. due to
the size of the intesr,lion prestress of the centre span;
owing to the lis' drastic consequences 0/ a lack ofprecision ill the eSlima.
lion of the modulus of de/ormation of the concrete, or of the prestressing

force.
The above table ShoWI that with continuous structures, a 10% variation in the
value of prestress in the beams has an influence upon the shape or the cantilevers
prior to'~ssembly three times less than with hinged structures.

10mmt-1--_....::

Under creep, however, as shown in figure 2.37, the continuous structure

exhibit$ deformations without a break in the median line, whilst the hinged
structure inevitably entails a 27-mm sag at centre span, together with a relative
rotation of the cantilever ends of approximately 2.8 degrees. With some structures
the differential deflection at the connecting point may reach several hundred
miUimetres.

in situ

ContfnUOU$" preco$t

30mm

deformations
Structure v.ith no
load (final)

30mm l

,'rue'ure co,t

DELAYEO DEFORMATIONS

Y I 8
MPa) (mm) (dc&rees)

~~'

Structure with no
load (initial)
Long-term

Omm.

43
Hi~

I
leE I

Hinacd beam cast In situ

(10 MPa)

Deckde,;gn
l

finally, and above all, deformations subsequent to assembly may affect the
general levels but no longer h~ve any effect upon the relative slopes of the
two cantilevers. Creep notwithstanding. the continuity of the longitudinal
profile can no Ionser be subsequently destroyed.

As far as the construction procedure is concerned the integral connection of the

cantilever beams can be achieved in several ways (fig. 2.38)~
If the two cantilevers arc concreted simultaneously the keying segment will be
made by joining the two mobile gantries (fig. 2.38(a).
In the opposite case, it will be possible either to support the mobile gantry On
the end of the completed cantilever (fig. 2.38(b) or to replace the keying segment

Deck design

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

44

Mobile concrelill9 gantry equipment

Cantilever beam cables

:::.:....

~.

:1
I

Keying segment

Integration cables

(a) Keying segment concreted after connection or the two mobile gantries

.1

.,

\.
I

Cantilever beam cables

!.

il

I.

;1

d
t,

it

Integration cables

.i

.;
I

(b)

Keying segment concreted with one mobile gantry

II

I'\
I,
I

Cantilever beam cables

I'

Keying joint

-j

I"

Spoce occupied by the coble

tensioning jock

Inlegrolion cables

(c) Kcying joint concreted with special form work

Temporary prestress

,/Ke y joint

1
,j

4~

by a joint which will be concreted when establishing continuity (fig. 2.38(a)). The
size of this joint may vary between several hundred millimetres and approximately
2 metres (the overall dimension corresponds with the space occupied by the
tensioning jack of the cantilever beam cables for the last concrete segments. t\
similar arrangement will be adopted if the cantilevers consist of precast elements:
a joint 80 to 100 mm .thick will be left between the opposite faces of the two
cantilevers and will be concreted at the time of integral connection (fig. 38(d.
With this arrangement the placing of a central segment acting as a keying elemenl
may occur.
The continuity of the structure is ensured by prestressing cables (integration
cabies) tensioned after hardening of the concrete, of the segment, or of the keying
joint. These cables which are mostly located in the lower flange of the beam
produce statically indeterminate reactions which must be taken into account when
designing the bridge. The bending moments due to linear phenomena (variations
of temperature and moisture, shrinkage effects) may be increased if construction
takes place with large differences in temperature occurring between the upper und
lowcr nangcs of the cantilevcr. As temperature conditions cannot remain constunl
during the hardening period of the cantilever concrete, the ends of the opposing
cantilevers must be provisionally fixed on top of one another by it mechanical
dcvicc (structural sections nnd steel joists) to avoid the disruption of thc joint.
TIlUs, continuous systems arc ultimately statically indeterminate under self
weight and prestress and their degree of indeterminancy is higher than that or
hinged systems.
On the other hanu, as with any continuous construction, it is necessary 10
permillongitudinal expansion of the bridge by cll,reful consideration of the support
conditions. without creating high bending moments at the piers. This problem can
be solved either by the flexibility of the piers themselves, or by using elastomeric
bearings or sliding supports. Bearing design and the infrastructure of the piers best
suited for cantilever construction will be considered again in Chapter Three.
With very long structures with multiple spans one has to incorporate joints in
the cantilevers or suspended spans to ensure free horizontal movements. These
expansion joints are commonly placed 300 to 600 m apart (fig. 2.30).
It is advisable to position these joints not at mid-span but in the area of points of

l~

025 to 030

":!

tl

Inlegration cabl"

.'
I

(d) Keying joint for precast segments

Fig. 2.38 Integral connection or the cantilever beams

Cantilever joint

'

~it-r9t~
.
'
I
I.

,J,

,j,

.i.

Fig.2.39 Continuous system with expansion joint

,I

46

The call1ilever cOllstrucnon a/prestressed cOllcrete bridges

Deck design

zero moment (that is almost at quarter-span) to reduce the magnitude of the defor
mations. This was done at Oleron viaduct, at la Seudre viaduct and, more
recently, at the Saint-Cloud bridge.
In order to permit cantilever construction of the beams including the expansion
joint, the latter is locked provisionally; prestressing cables pass through and are
removed at the final phase. The calculations made for the Oleron viaduct show
that, under permanent loads, vertical deformations are thus decreased in the ratio
of 3 to 1 and angular changes in the ratio of 15 to L These ratios become 2.2 to I
and 3 to 1 respectively under imposed loading (fig. 2.40).
The diagram in figure 2.41 corresponds to the case of a continuous bridge with
a large number of equal spans of constant inertia (span l), containing one hinge; it
represents the curve of deflection of the hinged span under a uniformly distributed
live load of 10 kN/m (=1 tim), for various hinge positions. It is seen that when the
distance between the hinge and the nearest support is about 0.2 I, the deflection
curve of the hinged structure can be compared with the deformation curve of the
continuous structure.
To round ofT the survey of hinged and continuous systems, attention is drawn
to a special case: the Chillon viaduct in Switzerland, over 2 km long. The
structure expansion is accommodated by special joints similar to sliding hinges
and located at the centre of certain spans. These joints arc fitted with devices
maae of steel parts fixed to one cantilever and sliding into the other by means of
sliding and oscillating supports (fig. 2.42).

47

0.11

0.21

03t

05t

04/

0.7t

06/

0.8/

'--=

'" _._,

hlnlle
S pon w,'hout
..

~:.,,+--.:t.::::p~.,.--r--r

~....
Art.0.31

~.

,.

I /'

,
I __

,~,,...

0.91
,.,'

/.,;/
./

I ./

1'1"'/

~.'~.JI /'1"",)//
.

Art.

O.4t '~~

I /

Arl.O.51.
"'.

Fia 2.41

DcI'ormation of a continuous beam under constant load as a function of

hin&e position

Retts,e, lor onchlH0ge

01 eapens,on jOin 1

\,./

KeYNl9 porls mode 01 52

joists ""ed ,n tonerele

"u,

Recesses 10 loke 'he keY'"9 perl

With 'he shc'nq supports

Fia 2.42 Expansion joint of Chillon viaduct

3 SPAN DISTRIBUTION

3.1

., 2.

II

c
.2

7.

Standard span' 79.00m

Fig. 2.40 Deck deformations under imposed load as a function of hinge position
(Oleron viaduct)

Whenever possible, the lengths of standard spans are equal and the deck consists
of a group of identical beams (fig. 2.43). What should then be the lengths or the
end spans?
It m~t fU'lt be remembered that with a structure of a given length resting On its
abutments by means of simple supports, the optimum end span is not equal to
one-half the standard spans. For instance, in the case of a cast in situ three-span
bridge. from the point of view of the distribution of bending moments in the
structure. the economical value of the ratio between end span and centre spaD is
bctwe= 0.75 and 0.80. With a similar structure built by the cantilever method and
prestressed, otha- factors must be taken into account, namely the mode of
application of the dead load, the prome of prestress with its statically indeler
minate efTects, and the method of construction adopted for the part of the deck

..

:",~~

48

The cantilet-'er construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

T

T

s~~n91 B~o~

0.651

I.

, (..

lq50~

Deck design

49

When the connection of the end span occurs after that of the adjacent span, the
c:nd result will be the same provided that the reactions on piers and abutments are
adjusted by jacking and adjustment of relative levels of the bearings.

3.2
Even when it. is not possible to give equal \'ailies to all the spans, cantilever cons
truction pro~des considerable flexibility in span distribution.
J.2.1

Fig. 2.43

Deck consisting of a group t)f identical beams

close to the abutments. From experience one finds that the above mentioned ratio
must be selected between 0.65 and 0.70. Similar conclusions can be applied to the
end spans of structu res with multiple spans.
In the case of such a span distribution (solution a), the ends the structure do
not tend to rise under dead load and prescribed highway loading, the abutment
reactions remaining broadly positive.
In reverse. if the' end spans are appreciably longer than half the adjacent spans,
building the part or the deck included between the end of the bank beam and the
abutment requires the use of falsework or temporary supports.
If. on the other hand, the end span is close to half the adjacent span, construct
ing the deck is made easier since it is fully cantilevered. However, special arrange
ments must be taken to avoid the deck hogging over its abutments (solution b).
As seen in paragraph 1.1.1.2(c) these arrangements can be made either by
ballasting the end segments or by anchoring the deck to the abutments. In
practicc, it is advisable to give end bays the smallest possible span compatible
with the preservation of positive reactions on the abutments, in order to avoid
involving a device to stppress uplift. This usually amounts to extending the
cantilever of the end span by one or two segments which may be made by the
cantilever method before connection to the adjacent span, without using
temporary supports, the stability of the cantilever being temporarily assured by
coun terweigh ts.
When the structural form of the deck is a continuous beam and the connection
of the end span is made before that of the adjacent .pan, the weight the extra
segmentJ bunt by the cantilever method balances the upward reaction at the abut
ment due to permanent load and to imposed load (increased by 1.5), as if they had
been built on centring (soluti,on c). The structure is .,lin statically determinate.
once the pro\isional fixing to the bank pier has been released.

or

If the structure spans a gap where local conditions (such as river clearance) deter
mine a span L of the central bay and where smaller end spans (length I) are found
preferable because of their lower cost, the transition will be effected easily by an
intermediate span). equal to the arithmetical means of the spans L and I (fig. 2.44)
or \vill be close to that value.
A~t(L

+ I)

The Oleron viaduct and Saint-Andre-deCubzac bridge across the Dordogne arc
two examples of this type of structure (fig. 2.4 5).

IA a 1/2(L+/ll
Fig.2.44 Structure with two standard type spans

or

....,

I(

1..

4l5190~ 1........

36.70

F,ig.2.45

74.05

5x95.30

~ ... 4x57.90.. I ~

74.05
36.70

Examples of the Oleron viaduct and Saint-Andre.. de-Cubzac bridge

so

The Cal/li/ever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Deck design

51

3.2.2

cantilever method by making use of the following construction arrangements:

Generally, if the structure crosses a wide. deep valley it may be desirable for
aesthetic reasons to make the spans vary regularly to match them to the apparent
height of the piers (fig. 2.46). The spans [, of the structure are governed by the
following condition:

(a) Variation in the length of the standard segments by overlapping the formwork

..

panels.
(b) In the case of the cast in situ deck; variation in the length of the pHecap which

is usually carried out by means of special forms.

(e) Concreting or placing of several segments at the end of a short cantilever

I: (_1 1+ 1 i, -

beam af\er cOMection with the preceding beam.

=0

d, + (-I)"d.

/.1

in which d: and d. represent the lengths of the portions of the end spans built on
slaging. Tho: lenglhs of the differenl beams are equal to:

=2(i2( - [2(-1 + ... - [. + dl )

(f21.1 = 2(/2/+1 -/21 or + [I -d.)
<hI

Figure 2A i illustrates this case. With the nine-span structure shown the span
lengths arc indeed such that:
20 - 34 + 40 - S2 + 60 - 52 + 40 - 34 + 20 - 4 - 4 = 0

and the lengths orthe beams 2 and 3 IIrc equal respeclively to:
;; = 2(34 - 20 + 4)

= 36 m

Thus. with the viaducts of the B3 motorway whose spans were constantly variable
due to tho exceptional congestion at ground level a 10 cm lolerance in length of
lhe precast segments together with the use of standard 3.4 and 2.5 m segments
made possible spans between 27 and 52 m.
Similarly, at the Saint-Cloud bridge-where foundation conditions required a
short transitional span of 46 m between the structure spanning the Seine, which
included spans ranging from 90 to 100 m, and the 66.9 m span standard bay of
the access viaduct-it was, however, possible to construct the whole bridge by the
cantilever mothod by adding tcn precast segments at the end of the cantilevered
beam 0( pier P II (Ii 2.48) after connection with the balanced cantilever bellO' of
pier P12.
The Givors bridge across the Rhonc. and the GcnneviJlicrs across the Seine

::r

1; = 2(40- 34 + 20 -4) =44 m

_I'

3.2.3

66.90

P9

Structures with ullequal alld cOllstanlly l'ariable spans can be built by the

'I'

6690

-_-_-:.-:.~r~~_~~9m8n'$

ilDL

.,,4600'1_-19JL_

PIO

PII

P12 ~r~---~.:':"'.:
.-:
;. ,Q (A., . .';.,.... %l'~

Fig. 2.48 Example of spans varying suddenly

1,

;30 00

~~!

4 32

~II

)0

36
I

)0

I ..

44
)0

i ..

60
)0

60
)0

IE

44
)0

I~

36

32 4

)0

I ..

I r---:

1SQbJ ~.l=fEr

20

34

40

52

60

52

40

Fig. 2.47 Example of spans which vary regularly

34

20

300.00

110.00

20.00
"I. I.

110.00

'\

130.00
.. ..--.

~.".--~;'!.\l1lF'~
__
..
::=:Jt::4:
~~'.
..... _I;> c.+~~~---~'"
. _~ ._..__ \72.00

--_12~1

W:S&;U___

= \
-

$I

(b)

._.!!_29~.

..~!

cU.st>.iIC,

$1aQ8

2nd$l0Qt

Fig. 2.49 (a) and (b) Construction of the Givors and Gennevilliers bridges

._ .....,... .,. ""...".......,....,.,..~lf~~

52

The cantilever construction o!prestressed concrete bridges

Deck design

53

both have a short centre span between two large spans. The cantilever construc
tion of these structures made it necessary for the cantilever beams on either side of
the short bay to be made in two stages as shown in figure 2.49. With such proce
dures it is necessary to rest the cantilever beams on simple supports during the
second stage of construction in order to avoid the transmission of high bending
moments to the piers.

Webs

3.2.4

Finally, it should be noted that the difficulties described above are increased if the
structures are skew or curved and consist of two or more parallel beams.
With skew bridges (lig. 2.50) it is necessary to determine the length u of the
precast segments so that the joints of the different parallel beams coincide. This
result can be achieved by selecting u as equal to a multiple or a submultiple of the
displncement 0 due to the skew, or by building asymmetrical pier segments.
If the skew varies from one support to the next it should first be ensured that
the location of the transverse prestressing cables is compatible with the position of
the joints whilst leading to as regular a distribution of prestress as possible. The
prestressing cabt~ spacing e must then be a multiple of 0.
With curved bridges similar problems must be faced and arc made more severe
by the trapezoidal shape of the precast segments resulting from the need to keep
joints perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bridge (fig. 2.51).

Abutme"
s~men:s

Identicol pier segments

==:t-=--=--=t.=__ -

I,!-

Asymmetrical pier segments

1/

Transverse prestress,ng
cables

Trope,o'dol

segment

II

d\+d!.,

Tronsv~rse

connect,ng Jo,nt

Fig. 2.S0-Skew bridge with two beams-layout of segments

Fig. 2.SJ---Curved bridge with two beams-Iayoul of segments

54

The cantilever construction ofpreslressed concrele bridges

4 FORM AND SIZE OF THE TRANSVERSE CROSS SECTION

4.1

Cross-section type

The transverse section best suited to cantilever, construction is the box for the
following reasons:

)
~

l,

II:

(a) On the one hand, due to the construction procedure adoptcd, the bending
moments arc negative over most of the spans and very lar" in the rClion of
the supports. As the bottom flanges must withstand high compressive forces,
it is preferable to make a lower slab continuous betwcen webs; this disposition
of material also allows the designer to take advantage of the intrinsic
torsional strength of the box.
(b) On the other hand, box structures have a good mechanical efficiency
(approximately 0.6) and a value of IIltilllate stre"gt" which depends less on
the grade of concrete than 7:'sections. Thus, if at the tUllC of failure the force
in the cables is equal to Fr , the depth of concrete in compression is
y ~ F,/bR br for a given value of the concrete crushing strenath R.,. In the
case of a box bealn. the depth y is generally low on Dccount of the large value
of the width b of the lower flange and the lever arm z is not reduced
drasticaUy if Rbr does not achieve the expected value (ft 2.'2). With T
beams" the depth y is close to that of the flange nnd a drop in R,., entails cOin
pression in the \veb and, as a result, an appreciable reduction in the lever ann
z and consequently in the ultimate strength.
(c) Finally. elastic and d.vllalnic stability of the bridge during cantilever construc
tion is ensured luore satisfactorily with a box-section structure. which oOcrs a
higher torsional rigidity. than a structure of open section. In service, the
torsional rigidity Jessens the rotation of the transverse section under eccentric
loads. It improves the distribution of imposed loads between the various

zT:l-O~'
zt.------""'-----.l

Ilf

L
il
"

,1;

ss

Deck des;g"

beams and permits the omission of intermediate cross-bracing. The torsion

caused by the eccentricity of the load is then balanced by the beam torsional
capacity instead of by cross-bracing.
It isquestiooable whether the box section in the centrespan region is necessary.
Bending moments are moderatc and of positive sign (sagging) in that area. Asym
metrical Tsections arc therefore suitable and, in theory t lead to maximal savings
in the usc ofmatoriab (fig. 2.53).
In fact, thcreare few stNctures of this form in the world (except in Germany)

for several reasOns:

_ poor transmission ofcompressive stress at change of section;
- poor provision of clastic and dynamic stability with large spans:
_ need to provide intermediate bracing if the resection is employed over a
substantial length:
- ~inlcully of Illuintcnuncc (access for stun' and sc:rviccs etc.).
A few cantilever structures have a cross section other than box sections.
'In France, there is the Roquemaure bridge across the Rhone, whose deck con
,ists of twu thick ribs of variable depth and conncctccJ by a slab under the
carriapWl1 (rll- ~.S4). The main span of this structure is 80 m. \
2130

1-C>

'''~I

OJ

W-

if

___._..
5.40;
I

-1-1170
~~6~
Fig. 2.S3 Structure with a T-beam in the centre-span region

-'--4,95

t:tf
ar

. . . . ""
a

bl

I':
.i

if

/)-//

;~

;.

I~

/)/3

Fig. 2.52

Ultinl~te

1;,

behaviour of the cross-section of-a cnntiJcvc:r bridge

dJ
Fig. 2.54

c=J~

---r:;r

Cross-section of the Roquemaure bridge

,180

r_

The cantilever construction ofprestressed conere!t bridges

56
4.2

Box beam with two webs, each 400 mm thick. prestressed by cables made of
12 :\0 12.7 mm strands (4J = 70 mm)
Total thickness of \vebs: 800 mm
Effective thickness: 2(400 - 70) 660 mm;
Box beam with three webs, each 290 mm thick
Total thickness of webs: 870 mm
Effective thickness: 3(290 - 70) == 660 Mm.

I:

The two box beams are comparable as far as shear strength is concemed but
using the box beam with two webs implies a saving of 7/81 == 8% in the volume of
concrete in the webs. or approximately 3% in the total section of the beam. On the
other hand, the prestressing cables can be anchored in the depth
the webs
(thickness: 400 mm). whereas, with the three-webbed cross section. because of the
insufficient thickness of the individual webs. the cables must be anchored either in
the bottom \\eb flange junctions, or in a specially provided boss.
The h'eb spacing is, however, limited by the resistance of the top flange slab to
transverse bending under live load. The cantilevered portions of the top flange
must also be modest in order to avoid transmitting very high local bending
moments to the webs (fig. 2.56). The induced moment m1 , which increases with

13m<'~'8m

1<13m

Fig. 2.57

18m"'~25m

Different shapes of the cross section as a function of the deck width

the relative rigidity of the webs, is fortunately maximum in the span when the
beam depth is at its lowest and shearing force is usually negligible.
The number and the/onn of the cells depend above all on the deck (fig. 2.57). If
this width does not exceed 13 m, the single-cell box beam with two webs is con
ventiona

y used. The webs may be either vertical or sloping (fig. 2.58). The latter
arrangement improves the architectural appearance and reduces the weight on the
foundations, at the cost of requiring more elaborate mobile rormwork or more
complex precasting forms if the beam depth varies. This arrangement also
decreases the weight of the bottom nange in the region where the latter has a
minimum thickness for construction reasons.
It is becoming increasingly common to use a single-cell box beam with t\VO
webs for deck widths exceeding 13 m. One of the most spectacular structures of
this type is the Felsenaubriicke in Switzerland with a cross section width of
26.2 m. It comprises a single-cell box beam with two webs of a constant thickness
of 0.50 m (fig. 2.59). It is to be noted, however, that the Swiss code is less strict

or

4=t

un

LT LIT

Number and form of box beams

It is generally advisable to minimize the number of cells which make up the cross
section. as each cell requires additional formwork. This leads to a significant
spacing between webs: approximately .s to 7 m. Moreover, it is more economical
to provide a small number of thick webs since each web includes a thickness of
concrete 0 (corresponding to the deduction of the diameter of the prestressing
ducts) \\'hich takes no part in shearing resistance and impairs the performance of
the section in flexure. Furthermore, thick webs make easier the positioning of
cable anchorage cones, ancNmprove conditions for the plaein. or concrete.

57

.Deck design

~r

Arc t9 a: 1 to'!
5

Fig. 2.58

Cross-section with sloping webs

2620

j=o

29:gg:29

r
~.

~-.---7-.00----"-I-:4-----1'.oo -. -~'.-~~.=~ -~-~

T"
T

22

Fig. 2.55 Box beams

m(~

Fig.2.56

High local bending moments to the web

aaar- '

'25 I.

3YJ

,20
50

8.00

6J
..-/'1

r-'55

700

i~-

4gi

~ -- ..373
!~i

Fig. 2.59 Single cell box beam with two webs of constant thickness

The cantilever cOllstruction ofprestressed concrete bridges

58

than the French regarding the transverse eccentricity of the military vehicle
hishway loading.
The side cantilever of the Felsenaubriicke amounts to 7 m with a depth of
0.55 m at the root.
Beyond J8 In the association of two single-cell box beams connected by the
deck slab permits a deck width up to 2S m; this covers the majority of current
requirements (e.g. the Givors bridge and the Blois bridge) (fiS. 2.60). A few very
large bridges may include three box beams such as the Saint-Jean bridge at
Bordeaux (fig. 2.61), but with these structures, which are generally motorway
bridges, it is usually preferred to design two independent parallel bridses each
with two beams. separated by a central reservation (e.g. the upstream and
downstream bridges of the Boulevard PCripherique in Paris) (fig. 2.62).
When the deck width is between 13 and 18 m, a particular problem arises. If a
wide box beam with two webs i~ not adopted, a box beam with three w,bs appears
in theory to be best suited, but often this type of section is not economical because
of design problems, for the difficulties in mobile formwark, or far the preeasting
equipment (cellular forms and segment-handling equipment).

Deck desig"
:~

....

S9

_ _

..........

! 340
. .
, ~
-~

110-

2660

,,;s_-t

g7"'T .... ....TTFWT'-.ijT7WTT\W""

r:lj.'" --,

-'
~---

250

3.79
I~

900

Fig. 2.61

...

900

Cross.. section of the Saint-Jean bridse at Bordeaux

eo

32

120

1580
....-----_.
-------J-.1- ..--_.

.,1.' ,'.(~-~...

--I

1580

--

o
1_.

:.:

---!

I.

3'50

So

8.00

".1.

-0
COG)

Q)Q)

I.

-~l

\~I

"'1
t

If')

9.00

-.1 ..

8.00

Fia.2.62 CrO$swscction of the downstream bridge of Paris Boulevard Peripherique

I~eof' ~ I

17.16

till(

....

4'20

(0)

!~

-!
220i

...

tr.,.

j
:
.

fr!
laW..,..
\

o
o

.....

I.D

4.50

I~I

4.00

~I

( b)

Fig. 2.60 (a) and (b) Cross-sections of the Givors and Blois bridges

L-.. I~

------1----
_'000.
11. 38

I
~

__._._. ~!

FiB. 2.63 Cross-section of Oissel bridge across the Seine

The cantilever construction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

60

There are, however, se\'eral examples of this type of arrangement, including the
Oissel bridge (fig. 2.63) and the Joinville bridge across the Seine (fig. 2.64) and the
viaducts of the Paris BJ Sud motorway (fig.2.65), with structural sections of
17.2, 19.0 and 15.25 m width respectively.
This section is also used with wider decks (I > 20 m) as in the Genncvilliers
bridge across the Seine (fig. 2.66).
:

-0

19.00

..- .:

52:

- -

--

Top slab with cellular section

Slab with transverse ribs

Warm air

rc:r:t:J

19.00_-1

A A _ . ~ __

Rib

Iocotioni

l~

~36

ill.

:1

I~

61

Deck design

18 1

I ---'t22C

~I

9.48

Fig. 2.67

L/3

Cross section with cellular or ribbed top slab

6.03

Fig. 2.64 Cross-section ofJoinville bridge across the Seine

15.25

10(

~l~"IIi1lJiii111i1i11liiilii1l'"

L
Fig. 2.65

9.~O

.1

Cross-section of the viaducts or the B3 Sud motorway

....

19.55

Another solution is to use a single-cell box bealn with two webs including a
cellular top slab or transverse stiffening ribs (fig. 2.67). The first scheme allows
large cellular lateral cantilevers and may be an advantage with structures liable to
00 tdTcctcd by frequent icing. as the different cells of the section produce thcrm:1I
storage and may be used' in undernoor heating of the carriageway slab. The.:
Chillon viaduct in Switzerland has a cross section of this type (fig. 2.68). The
strength or the web in local bending induced by the force concentrated at the
cantilever lower nange was examined carefully; it was necessary to increase the.:
\veb reinforcement.
The second scheme seems more advisable and the author proposed it for the
construction of the Saint-Andre-de-Cubzac bridges across the Dordognc
(fig. 2.69). This choice resulted from comparative surveys of different section ~

.,

fI

;:r
40-..

o
o

13.00

III

1610

...- ~50.

ai

1564
I

._--~--"-

5~...
Fig. 2.66

______.__ ~_r_

120

9.2~~t~_--ill

JL~

Crosssection of Gennevilliers bridge over the Seine

1-.( ...

500

~:

Fig. 2.68 Cross section of the Chilton viaduct in Swit lcrfand

The callti/ever cotlstructiotl Q/ prestressed concrete bridges

62

1660

I~

63

Deck design
16.10

I"

250

1-4.--...:Q9__ ._1
~

14

6bo

PI,. 2.70 Cros. section of the Sellinlsund bridge

7.78

Fig. 2.69

.lU9.-...._. _ ..,.
27.60

Crosssection of Saint-Andrc-de-Cubzac bridges

such as: two box beams each with two webs, a three-webbed box beam. and II
two-webbed box beam with a ribbed upper slab.
Taking into account the nonnal width of the decks (equal to 16.6 m), and the
need to reduce this width to 14.3 m for one of the access viaducts. this solution
proved to be both the most practical, as far as construction was concerned, 11m!
most attractive, economically speakina.
As compared with a structure consisting of two box beams, it has the
advantage of avoiding transverse prestress, which is always costly for such
widths, and of eliminating the concreting of the junction slab. Also, it considerably
simplifies deck bearings and foundations.
Finally, it has a better mechanical efficiency than the three-webbed box beam
and leads to a simpler design of mobile formwork or precasting moulds.
This type of transverse section, used for the first time in the construction or the
Saint-Andrede-Cubzac bridges, has been used since in several structures which
have all incorporated precast concrete seaments; these are: Sa/Ii"""",, bridge in
Denmark, a 16.1 m wide bridge (fig. 2.70). In this bridae an improvement has
been made in the design of the joints between precast segments. The contact sur
faces of the half ribs were reduced by means of a lining laid out in the forms in
order to secure a high average compression of the joint to be glued, wbich helped
towards satisfactory gluing when the segments were connected. It had been
suggested that a structure plaMed for construction in Denmark, the Vejle Fjord
bridge (fig. 2. 71), ~hould be built with a 27.6 m wide deck with a ribbed top slab
but this project was subsequently abandoned.
Finally, one can envisage designing a multicellular deck with two vertical
central webs and two sloping webs. This cross-section would provide high
torsional rigidity, and the shape of the side cantilevers would provide economiclll

Fig. 2.71

Cross section of the V.ejle Fjord bridge

resistance against the action of concentrated loads. Unfortunately, it is unsuitable

whcQ the depth varies; as a result, it leads to the substantial use of prestressing in
the CI$C of structures with large spans.
Tbis solution was nevertheless adopted for la Voisnc viaduct built by the
cantilever method with in situ concreting techniques, and which includes five
spans with a maximum length of65 m (lig. 2.72). It was also adopted for the Paris

._.

. .

?5J9

._.

.. ~.

...

01'.

.11810 50 ~

Fig. 2.72

_.e.5.L-__...:
Cross section of la Viosnc viaduct

..

~.

--_._........

64

The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

Deck design

16.00

.----------1.. . .

~f\----r~
L-J V ~ :
HOflZonloloddiloon

~IOddition

Fig.2.73

Standard section

Cross section of the Metro viaducts of Mame-la-VaUee

WIdened sectIon

20.40

Standard sectIon

Widening

Metro \iaducts at Marne-Ia.. Valle"e with decks made or precast segments usually
11 m wide; they reach 16 m at the Neuilly-Plaisance Metro station owing to the
addition of side cantilevers (fig. 2.73).
This solution was also adopted for the Saint-Cloud bridle across the seine both
for architectural reasons and on account of the highly curved plan (R = 350 m) of
the structure which prompted the designers to seek a structure with high torsional
rigidity (fig. 2.74).
4.3

Decks with variable width

In an urban environment bridges are often found witb an increased width at their
ends, to allow for the addition of s1iproads or for traffic management at an
intersection.
A variation in the deck width may be facilitated by one of the follo\yjng
processes:
(a) Width variation of the side cantilevers (fig. 2.75(a.

Fig. 2.7S (a). (b). (c)

Deck widening

(b) Variation in the width of the reservation between box beams when there arc
several of them (fig. 2.7S(b.
(c) Addition of one or more extra webs (fig. 2.7 Sc).

Additional webs are usually built once the box beam has been made continuous
they are constructed either by means of special mobile formwork, sliding on th
beam or by formwork suspended from two beams or falsework supported a
ground level.
The first solution was used a~ la Banquiere viaduct at Nice (fig. 2.76 and 2.77
whilst the second was adopted at the CoJlecteur bridge over the Seine at SainI
Denis, and the last was employed for the Connans bridge across the Seine. \V c1:
may also be precast as those of the upstream bridge of the Boulevard Peripheriq u
across the Seine (fig. 2.18).

66

The calltilel'er construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

47.52

Deck design

67

47.52
/

OouJbe J
~.

/a
~
VARIABLE

Fig. 2.76

Section B8
VARIABLE

Widening scheme orla Banquicre viaduct

Fig. 2.78

Upstream bridge of the Boulevard Peripherique (third web precast)

4.4 Type aCtransverse cross section-notation

It is desirable that the top slab of the box girders should follow the transverse
profde of the roadway in order to avoid carrying out an expensive and cum
bersome reshaping process.
There are several possible arrangements:

the IOYier flange is parallel to the top slap;

the cross section is a rectangle and the webs are perpendicular to the
flanges (fig. 2.79(a. This is the most satisfactory solution from the point of
vic\y of the reinforcement of the beam;
the cross section is apara//elogram (fig. 2.79(b.

Reinforcement is not identical from one web to the next.

In both cases a wedge must be provided under the pier segment in order to
compensate for the cant, and to position the bearings on a horizontal plane.
Fig.2.77 AS motorway-La Banquierc viaduct

the lower flange is horizontal (fig. 2.79(c.

..

~ _~........

...

',

,,-

' ... ..---.~-

.......... ~-~.""-~

68

The cantilever constroction a/prestressed concrete bridges

o
\ ~a
90

~
~wed9'

90

Cf

J1T:~a

btr~a
"""'

The web is subjected to shear stresses due to shearing force V (t 1) and to tr

torsional moment M, (t 2 )
tb

VH

tl

= /(0- ~)

in position

Fig. 2.79 (a), (b), and (e) Wcb arrangcment in relation to the flanlcs

This solution, which implies webs of different height, is to be avoided as it makes

the design of prestressing cables considerably more complex.
When the cross section consists of two box beams built separately these are
usually connected by an upper slab, concreted once the box beams have been con
structed. This slab must be at least 500 mm wide to allow the taking up of
differences of level between the two box beams u wen as eventual threading of the
transverse prestressing cables.
Figure 2.80 shows the standard cross section of a bridge constructed by the
cantilever method, with the usual notation.

Deck design

{
M,
t ----
2 - 20(0 _~)

H. J:
~:

0:

=t l

t2

Firs~ moment and second moment of area of tl

section.
Diameter of cable ducts.
Area enclosed in the section mean outline.

In a deck with variable stiffness the critical sections with respect to shearing for'
are generally situated at approximately onesixth span.
The use of prestressed stirrups, which induce a vertical compression in the we
permits an increase of the value of the permissible shear stress t b and a decrea
of the web thickness a. Prestressed stirrups are made of single win
monostrands, or of bars, positioned in sleeves and grouted to prevent corrosi<
(fig. 2.81). Some monostrands are supplied directly from the works in pins.
sleeves and coated with a corrosionproof grease.
Anchorage

4.5

Active ,anchO,age

Web thickness (a)

Webs must provide resistance to shearing forces and permit proper placing of the
concrete as well as. fairly often. the anchorage of prestressing cables. Thcy musl
therefore have the following characteristics.

Bar

Manowires
Area prestressed verticolly

Sleeve (4), l

4.5.1

A thickness at supports limited by the shearing condition:

t b ~ t~

where t~

Zone of anchorage
bybondi"9

= permissible shear stress in concrete.

A,..t:"'I')''''.l~ rY1".".I"~

-_._-
- nr
)0r0i.!,.
, I

. I

,"'21~~!q
~1:1:~I~
~~:III~

Areo prestressed

Port cost ill silll ofter

vertocolly

:~i~!~
.I

".~
~- ~

box beams

Fig. 2.80 Standard cross section-notation

~I~I

construction of the two

Strcssed stirrups

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

70

The stirrups made of bonded wires or strands used with prefabricated webs arc
more economical due to the fact that no sleeve is needed ('1 co 0).
Variations of depth in the beam also result in a reduction of the shearing force,
thanks to the effect of the vertical component of the compression in tho lower
flange (the so-called Rcsal correction). When variations in heisht are Important it
. is usually possible to maintain a constant web thickriess along the length of the
beam and this greatly simplulCs the formwork.
Sloping cable profiles in the region of the supports reduces still further the shear
force because of the vertical component of the prestressing force.

4.5.2 A minimum thickness compatibie with good concreting (fig. 2.82)

The stirrups usually with a 10- or 16mm diameter, must have a minimum cover
of 20 mm. Concreting shafts (>60 mm) must be left on both sides of the cables to
allow for the penetration of internal vibrators, giving a minimum diameter of
SO mm. Thus:

a)
where ~I

+ 2(20 + ~t + ~I + 60)(mm)

Deck design

71

The above condition Is often inadequate with webs of great depth. It is indeed
Clsential that the concrete fills the form adequately over the whole depth of the
web. Concretina ports set half way up the forma and towards the inside of the box
beam mako placina easier. When the webs are sloping vibration can be Improved
by luidinl the internal vibrators inside latticed ducts.
Ouyon sullests an empirical formula for webs with a depth less than 6 m:

a;> 36 + 50 + +(mm)
In this way we have 240 mm for a depth of S m and cables 12 ~ 8. Ifthe webs arc
Inclined at a large angle to the vertical, it is advisable to increase the values liven
in the above formula.
With depths equal to 6 m, or slightly higher, it does not seem sound to go below
300 mm if the webs include 12 T 13 cables (Pont du Bonhomme: webs of 300 mm
for a depth oJ 7 m). and below 240 mm if there arc no cables in the webs.
Boyond 7 mth. Ouyon formula can be replaced by:

= diameter of distribution steel or:

a~-

250 mm with a 12 ~ 8 cable,(!)

10 stirrups and ~ 8 distribution steel

280 mm with a 12 T 13 cable,m

16 stirrups and ~ 10 distribution steel.

Longitudinal
wires (4)1)

Stirrups (t/>.)

:!

I' ~

"

22

80 +

~(mm)

The webs of Gennevilliers bridge which are sloping and penetrated by 12 T I ~

cablu(II are 400 mm thick for a depth of 9 m. At Bendorf bridge the vertical web!
are 370 nun thick for a depth of 10.45 m (the prestressing cables do not go down
into the webs, which are prestressed by sloping prestressed stirrups).
If the webs arc precast and concreted flat their thickness may be reduced, a!
with the Brotonne bridge where the webs which are prestressed by bonded wire!
have a minimum thickness of 200 mm.

Coble (t/>l

4.5.3
!

Concreting shoft
( for vibrations)

--Web face

~1161 '" 1611~

t/>!W!I
cfll.JUt-

An adequate thickness allowing for the anchorage cables, if these are stoppeo of
at the surface of the segments in the depth of the webs. Approval certificates gi\'t
for each prestressing procedure, minimum values. to be observed, apart frorr
special arrangements (end plates, wire wrapping, elc.).
These values are equal to 230 mm with 12 ~ 8 cables and to 360 mm witl
I:! T 13 cables (approximately I.SD; D being the external diameter of tho
anchorage).

Fig. 2.82 Web minimum thickness

'12 ~ 8 indicates a cable of twelve 8-mm wires_

:12 T 13 indicates a cable of twelve t-in. strands, or 12.7 mm distribution steeL

4.6 Span and IhJckness Ci) of the upper flange

In a cantilever bridge whose transverse cross-section usually consists of bo.

72

The cantilever cons/rue/ion o/prestressed concrete bridges

beams, the upper flange is fIXed to the webs because of the presence

or the lower

nange which acts as a tie rod and thus laterally restrains the webs (fig. 2.83).

As a result, the upper flange whose dimensions are determined by its resistance
to transverse bending under live loads, may have quite large spans (commonly 4
to 6 m) without needing excessive thickness or excessive transverse reinforcement.
It is, nevertheless, a pity that the strength of flanges is grossly underestimated
by present codes \vhich take no account either of moment redistribution or of the
formation near ultimate load of concrete arches braced by transverse cables,
although this has been proved by numerous experiments. The transverse flange
must include substantial chanifers at the web junction (fig. 2.85).
The chamfer I improves the fixity of the flange-web cOMection and makes the
flange line divert from a straight line facilitating the use or transverse cables with a
rectilinear or a slightly sinusoidal outline.

,
I

Fig. 2.83

73

Chamfer 2 makes concreting easier and permits the accommodation of

longitudinal restressing cables which assure the strength of the cantilever
beams-it can also accommodate eventual anchorage of the integration cables
stopped ofT in the upper 51 abo
,
Chamfer 1 must be designed to enclose the possible tines of pressure produced
by vehicle loading, situated in the centre area of the flange (the middle third of the
span). The strength of the flange is, in practice, equal to that of a slab of uniform
thickness equal to that of the chamfer. The lines of pressure are close to the
straight tines joining the point of application of the load to the lower point of
intersection of the chanlfer with the web. If we call L the clear span between the
webs, the chamfer length cis approxim ately:

2L
3

7T7'

Effect of the lower slab on fixing or the upper slab

t
\

Crocks

\ Crocks

Transverse

presfresstnq

coble

Concrete arch

Fig. 2.84

(I _~)
I,

where the thickness to of the nnnge is a variable dependent on L. Guyon gives lhe
formula below which is valid for French loading conditions and i~ in accordance
with elastic theory

,,,
\

Deck design

Behaviour of upper flange at ultimate load

/0

4.7

Fig. 2.85 Chamfers of the upper Range

(m)

10

mm

2.5
160

3,0
180

3.S

4.0

4.5

200

5.0

5.5
220

Spans greater than 1 m may be obtained by constructing the upper nange

(!:-36 + 100). mm

This rormula gives thickness values which arc too high when spans arc longer
than 4.5 m. It increases the deck dead weight without useful purpose. We prefer
adopting the values shown in the table below, which are still higher than minimum
permissible values.

either as a voided slab, as in the case of the access viaduct of the Tagt
bridge (fig. 2.86)
or as a ribbed slab. as with Saint-Andre-de-Cublac bridge (fig. 2.69).
Span and thickness (I') of the nange

The thickness t' of the lower nange is usually determined by the cover required for
the prestressing cables placed there; the minimum thickness is approximately 2.5e
(, is the diameter of the duct of the cables); it is 140 mm for 12 ~ 8 cables, anc
180 mm for 12 T 13 cables (fig. 2.87). When there is no cable in the lower fla nge
its thickness can.be reduced to 120 mm (example: Coblenz bridge-fig. 2.88). J~

74

The cal/li/ever cOl/slructiotl a/prestressed cOl/crete bridges

2160

._

TIl - ~~
LJ
Ir

VI -

1-4'50

L____

51.0 0

Fig. 2.86

',. t

fL'
" .

! cp

20.40

411

-35

7.00:

I
I'm.

4.52

---

720 )0

I.
I

720)0

.lzI.37_-_ _tZ50
J
' I.

In the area of illlermediale supports the thickness of the lower flange is deter
mined by the permissible compressive streSS under working load on the lower
fibres. Its thickness may then range from several hundred millimetres to more
than 2 metrC$ (2.4$ in the Bendorf bridge (fig. 2.89. It should be noted, however.
that an occasional drop In the strength or the concrete in the lower flange docs not
seriously affect the overall safety of a cantilever bridge; it docs not usually depend
on the value of the ultimate moment at the support. but on the ultimate capacity
ur the midspan section. Ncar failure. which happens at midspan. the sections close
to the supports are actually subjected to forces hardly greater than those applied
to the bridae In service.
The lower flange is usually rigidly jointed to the webs by means of heavily
inclined chnmfers to avoid interference with the placing of the concrete. If the
chamfer angle is less than 45 0 openings must be left in the formwork to permit
internal vibration (tig. 2.90).
4.8

'

0q

Fig. 2.89 Bendorf bridge

_....:

T 3,-t
t

I 01

a::=:.qj

cptl

-------..

5.00

Fig. 2.87 Minimum thickness of the lower flange

16~

."l

Upper flange with voided slab (Tage bridge)

Ti"

---

fO.5cp or 3cm

",

_J

-"~'.,.

..

3066

1000

-j
" i
I .

75

Deck desigtl

Equivalent thickness of decks

Equivalent thickness (E) is the thickness of a slab with a solid rectangular section

Fig. 2.88 Coblenz bridge

remains desirable to increase this thickness when the effective span of the flange is
greater than 6 m, in order to avoid cracks at the time of stripping of the formwork,
due to the flexibility of the flange, the disproportion between its thickness and that
of the webs, or from the eventual thermal stresses it might be subjected to.
In order to limit the dead weight of the lower flange, its span can be reduced by
sloping the webs on either side of the axis of symmetry of the beam. This arrange
ment does not create problems during construction, if the beam has a constant
depth.

I~

Inlerior form

l=:I i

Fig. 2.90 Lower chamfer

The cantilever construction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

76

",""'!~

/'

I;
"

I
,j
iI

,I

...-

7Ck

:.,...-036

!/
H
II
j

~+

~~~t

-=r

.....

....30

.",
"0
q;::::::::=

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

lm(m)

Fig. 2.91

Mean equivalent thickness of decks

I la~oix-Fal'3rde bridge. 2 Goncelin bridle across the river Isite. 3 SamtJean bridle It Bordeaux
(C 01. .. BOUflesVlltnce brid,e. , La Pyle bridle. 6 Oissel bridle. 7 o;VOtl brid,e. 8 Mallusc brid,e.

9 S~ond bridle across the river Adour It Du. 10 MouUnsJes..Metl bridle (CD). 11 Bridle .cross the

rh'c: Saane. 12 Tourville'Ora-R.hiere.. 13 Kennedy bridle It Dijon (CD). 14 Morlli. bndle.

1~ Pierre-Simard Street bridge It Brest. 16 ChoisyteRoi bridle (CD). 17 Coutbevoie brid,e (CD).

IS O;eron viaduct. 19 Pierre-Benite brid,e (CD). 20 BouIeYatd Periphmque downstream bridle.

21 JI.:\"isy bridge. 21 8oap.. brid,e. 23 Bridae actou tht river Adout at BIYOftft1. 24 Boulevard Peri

phc:sque upstream bridae. 25 Blois bridae. 26 Atlmon bridle. 21 Tours bridle. 28 BOIUI-Sllnt Andeol

bricic. 29 ConfJans (CD). 30 Bridae across the river Oardoft. 31 La Se'*c viaduct. 32 ChiUon viadutt.
33 Les Spams viaduct (CD). 34 Saint-Andri-dc-Cubzac viaduct. 350ene\fllliers bridae. 36 Orleans
bri':.e. 37 JoinvilJe brid,e. 38 Le Mllnan brid,e. 39 Viaduct ddte Canadians (CD). 40 Viaducts of'the
So\.;~'em B3 motofWay (CD).

Structure with variable depth 0; Structure with constant depth (CD).

having the same volume of concrete and the same usable surface as the deck
under consideration.
Figure 2.91 shows the equivalent thicknesses a number of existing structures
for which the average spans (ratio of the overal11ength to the number of spans)
have been plotted as abscissae.

or

11,

110./'

Fig. 2.92

soffif

Shape of the soffit

Most of the existing bridges belong to that category: they include a cu rye(
soffit with either a parabolic or a hyperbolic variation \\'hich correspond
practically \vith the shape 'of equal strength of the cantilever' beams under self
weight (fig. 2.92(a. With some structures the soffit curve is cubic, but this optioJ
often results in insufficient depth around the quarter-span point (fig. 2.92(b). As i
reminder only, we shall mention decks with a linear variation of depth \vhicl
requires a beam unit at midspan, which within the medium span range can b
justified only for aesthetic reasons, (fig. 2.92(c.
The ratio of depth at supports to span, or slenderness ratio hi/I usually varic
between one-sixteenth and one-twentieth; the economicaJ optimum
approximately one-seventeenth.
In theory the deck depth at midspan may be zero if the structures conccrnc(
have hinged cantilevers. Even in this case, however, it is necessary to provide (
minimum depth of 1 m (from 1 to 1.4 m) to be able to position the hinge. If th,
deck is continuous, traditionally a minimum depth of J.6 m has been required tc
permit access inside the box beam for the removal of formwork, tensioning of pre
stressing cables, checking of the structure and, on occasion, the siting of services
In practice, the depth at midspan (h o) remains in the range one-thirtieth to one
sixtieth of the span.
It will be seen in paragraph 9, however, that, taking into account both therma
effects and the redistribution of stresses due to creep. usually leads to an increas,
in the depth at midspan above the minimum value.
Decks with variable depth have the following advantages:
I

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE nECKS

In structures with spans over 60 m, the self-weight of the deck is an important

proponion of the total load which, due to the construction processes involved, is
entirely supported by the sections in the region of the piers. Midspan sections are
therefore much less stressed than the sections of the supports; naturally enough,
this leads to the selection of a deck with a variable depth decreasing from the piers
to\vards midspan.

Rectilinear

Parabolic soffit

,",

/,/

_0

~i

11

.,.,,'

-c------

\I
!I

,~'

. / ,..,

~,"././

C
2' _.~;f""" OJ7...,.,..........

7 ~~''''''''o20",.",.'''''''
.. C : J
u 16 S3 ~oo23.t9;otZ .. ~"",..'
o~
til
o-'~!f: ~~ 300 02,,26.s 025
32
... ""
- _10'11 0 39 .--0-028 t2 11
13 02
,~-18
0

C :;'OJ'
,-",~21~~001-'~
C3J

BraCIng

_ :;",::,,/ ..,."."," 38

C SQ

"

'~J~/

:-0

C 9:)1

.:!

7'

oJ

Deck des ig 11

savings in materials: concrete and prestressing steel due to a better Qistribu

tion of the material;
reduction in shear stress, thanks to the 'de Hcsal' correction which I
intrinsic to the variation in depth;
aesthetically satisfactory.

Despite all this, an architectural trend has recently led bridge designers to us
decks of constant depth, more especially with urban bridges or with multiple spa:
structures with low headroom above ground or water.
Constant depths are more convenient for the passage of services: water, ga~
nnd so forth.

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

78

79

Deck design

It is nevertheless true that this type of structure is expensive and must be

adopted with small spans only (of up to 60 to 70 m) and under special
circumstances to comply with restrictions on dimensions (Flevieu bridge), pre
fabrication (Choisy-le-Roi and Courbevois bridges), aesthetic reasons (Rio
Niteroi' bridge).
A compromise solution is to give the deck a constant depth over most of the
span but to increase the depth towards the supports, thus increasing the deck
stiffness in the region of maximum bending moment. The chamfers may be limited
in number and correspond to a local thickening of the lower /lange (fig. 2.93(b.
They may also result from a substantial change in the beam depth, and then
require a stiffener to balance the thrust from the lower flange (fig. 2.93(c. This is
the case in the downstream bridge of Paris Boulevard PeriphCrique (fig. 2.94). The
side faces of the chamfer may be composed of a hyperbolic paraboloid surface
which gives a gradual transition between the standard section and the section over

Settlon

00

~~'~'~~I"ltll''..I~~'I''~I!&I''III~~~''I~~

Fig. 2.95

Hyperbolic paraboloidshaped chamfers

Stiffener

I'i

1';'1

:i

;1

I;

Con5tont depth
(Choisy-Ie-Roi bridge)

(0 )

( b ) Semic;onslonl depth
(Pierre - Benit. bridge)

( e )Voriobl. d.pth
( Boulevard ~iphirique
downstreOll\ bridg.)

Fig. 2.93 TransitiOn between constant and variable depth

.'fO, .
Fig.2.96 Chamfers of the Pierre Benite bridge
the pier (fig. 2.9S). It should be noted that, in this case, the structure shows a con
tinuous soffit in elevation, parallel to the cantilever; the chamfers are thel
unobtrusive. When seen from a distance, the deck therefore appears to be of con
stant height.
The Saint-Jean bridge at Bordeaux and the Pierre-Benite bridges near Lyor
were designed according to this principle. Figure 2.96 illustrates the continuity (
the soffit line.
6

6.1
Fig.2.94 Chamfers in the downstream bridge of the Boulevard Pcriphcrique

DECK CABLING ARRANGEMENTS

The two types of longitudinal cables

The longitudinal prestressing of a cantilever bridge consists of two types of cab

(Jig. 2.97).

h_."~

"-''"'': .

.t.,.,

i"

80

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

81

Deck design

<D{
Fig. 2.97

Cabling arrangement

(a) Cantilever bean' cables (C) are positioned in the vicinity

Fig.2.98

or the upper nanSe of

Adjacent spans subjected to imposed load

ep{ 7;. o.

the beams and placed as the construction progresses with a view to resisting
the rapidl y increasing negative moments due to selfweight. These cables are
tensioned symmetricaDy on each side of the pier.
Structures with hinged cantnevers involve this type of cable only.
(b) Integration cables (I), placed near the mid-spart of each span, to achieve deck
continuity and to withstand the resulting bendina moments.

The mid-span sections of continuous structures which support comparatively

small permanent moments are subject to substantial variations of moment due to
the action of imposed loads of thermal gradient, and the redistribution or stresses
due to creep (sec paragraphs 9.2 and 9.3). It is therefotC advisable to provide nde
quate depth, approximately 2.5 m, when the standard spans range rrom 80 to
100m.
Despite this the integration prestress must not be designed to the maximum
eccentricity as the mid-span sections are usually subcriticaJ; in practice this leads
to a su bdivision of the cables (I) into two groups:
-

I
1

cables (A) positioned at the lower flange level;

cables (B) set at the upper flange level as an extension
beam cables.

or the cantilever

The number of cables in each group is designed to live the resultant eccentricity
required to provide the moment of resistance for the deck; cables (If) are usually
the most numerous.
The number of cables (B) is primarily controlled by the ultimate strength
requirement of the structure when the spans adjacent to the span under considera
tion are subjected to imposed load (fig. 2.98).
The amount of steel required for longitudinal prestress varies for standard
spans, bet\veen 20 and 30 kg per square metre of serviceable deck area.
If the number of cables required in the section at the support and in the mid
span section is kno\vn at the preliminary design stale, an approximate estimate of
the quantity of prestressing steel will be obtained by livinl each cable type an
average length equivalent to 0.52 I for the cantilever beam cables and O.SO I for
the integration cables (I is the span under consideration) (fig. 2.99).

SOl

i..

.
Fig. 2.99

6.1

~I

Cantilever beam cables

Profile of the cantilever beam cables

The cables for the balanced cantilever beams are designed to match the nega ti ve
bending moments caused by the con~truction of the cantilevers. and to join each
segment to the part of the deck already completed with the distance away from
the support.
.
As the number of cables required decreases it is possible to stop off some cables
at each segment. The cables anchored in the segments beyond the one under cons
truction will be threaded at a later date.
In the construction of bridges by the cantilever method it is advantageous to
use longitudinal prestressing tendons strong enough to avoid overcrowding. The
bars used in some countries have the twin drawbacks of lacking strength as well
as that or lacking the flexibility to follow the required profile.
Cable strength does not need to be too high, however, as the number 01
cantilever beam cables in each web must at least be equal to the number of seg
ments to be prestressed (except in the case of segments with more than two webs)
Furthermore, over-strong tendons require special care to ensure concrete bearifl)
slrrn,lh under the anchorages, and effective diffusion of the concentration 0
prtslressing force. Several mishaps with prestressed concrete bridges have beer
due to an abnormal concentration of anchorages in an individual section.
The strength of tendons commonly used in the longitudinal prestressin g 0
cantilever bridges currently varies between 1000 and 1600 kAT (10k N = 1 t
(working load or cable).

82

The calltilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

There are two possible arrangements for the profile of the cantilever beam
cables depending on whether they follow a sloping line in the webs (inclined
cabling) or whether they stay in the upper flange (horizontal cabling).

Deck design
COftI'rvclto"

83
plUIt."

T_"" cob.ts 12 T 1) +

A~

'OUt 12.8 cobItI

"

..

:~;~~

.;.:.:;;.;;...........-''*oIw;.,,;~~

BOO:

"'1'9'01101\ pt"l""
Four'.." 12 T I) CObltS '01,1' 12 .. 8

6.2.1 Inclined cabling

The traditional arrangement is to allow the cantilever beam cables down into the
webs in order to take advantage of the reduction in shearforce V.. resulting from
the vertical component prestressing force.
The cables are then set in the upper chamfers as close as possible to the axes of
the webs to make their descent easier. Normally they are anchored at the end of
each segment within the webs (fig. 2.100 and fig. 2.102).
The webs must be thick enough to withstand the concentrated force due to the
anchorages. If they are too thin, or if the concrete strength is too low, cracks may
occur along the line of the cables. These cracks can be avoided by using active
steel binders, i.e. by creating a vertical prestress behind the anchoraae by means
of stressed stirrups (fig. 2.10 1).
Anchorage plates may also be placed between the cone and the concrete
bearing surface. 12 T 13 cables (l6oo kN tension) have thus been anchored in the
300 mm thick webs of the precast concrete segments of the Oleron viaduct

tOtlu

Fig.2.102 Cabling for the Oleron bridge

(lig. 2.103). 12 T 13 cable. have also been stressed in 360 mm thick webs as soon
as the concrete strength had reached IS MPa (I MPa (megapascal) or I N/mm 1
(Newton/mm:) is equal to 10 bar {practically 10kg/cm 2 ) thanks to the placing of
concrete anchorage plates (the Clichy bridge, the Saint-Isidore viaduct at Nice)
(fig. 2.104).
In the lower part of the segment the shearing stress is not balanced by the
oblique component of the prestress and must be carried by passive stirrups.
Previous disadvantages disappear if the beam cables are anchored in the lower
flange/web joint (fig. 2.105).
The webs can then be designed with the minimum thickness required for shear
capacity and compatible with ease of placing of the concrete. In this case. only
one cable is usually stopped olT per web and per segment. Further prestressing
must be anchored at upper flange level.
However, near the supports, the cabling can be completed by inclined cables
anchored in the webs. These cables are made of smaller tendons and reduce the
shear stress thus ensuring the adequacy of the .web (for example, 12 ~ 8 cables

1j;'rSI"Q

-4,

Fig. 2.100 Cantilever beam cables (inclined cables)

II.

30

.16 stirrup
welded to Ihe plate

Duet
Active stirrup

Anchorage

'-L/ II L...--

Steel plote

Passive stirrups
Suspended port
JOint

Fig. 2.101

Cable anchorage in the webs

Fig.2.103 Anchoring with steel plate

..

~" ..-.~~ rJ~""'-'

84

The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

Deck design

85

the slope of the cable is varied and is a maximum near the supports; this gives a
corresponding reduction in shear stress in the area where shear force is a
maximum (fig. 2.107).
If the deck is of cOllstant depth the profile of the cantilever beam cables
(fig. 2.108) is simply transferred from one segment to the next. This applies to the
integration cables if they are taken up into the webs (figs. 2.108 and 2.109).
In several recent structures, however, instead of positioning the anchorages of
the prestressing cables at the surface of the joints between segments. they have
been set in bones or ribs located inside the box beams (see Chapter Five.
paragraph 1.2.2). This solution has advantages. First, cable tensioning, anchorage
and grouting can take place from the inside of the box segments in optimum con
ditions of comfort and safety, without incurring the risk of operating various

~d

Fig.2.104 Anchorage in concrete plates

t['

Actr.e stlttUP

f.

:Ii
-Anchoraqe

n+1
On-1:>QIJ >an +1

Upper cable

'---~

!d

n-1

'

-I

~- :-

td

"
Fig. 2.107 Standardized cabling--deck or variable depth
Cantilever beam cable$

AnChOtOqe

~
I~

-.

5e9menl

Fig.2.105 Cable anchorage in the nangtlweb joints

anchored within the web and 12 T 13 cables anchored in the lower joints as in
Blois bridge) (fig. 2.106).
If the segments are precast, it is important to standardize the cable pronJe. In
particular the cables must cross the joints, and be anchored at standard positions
in order to simplify the end shutters of the segments.
If the deck is of variable depth, anchorage positions and cable c;rossing posi
tions should be kept constant. Once these two parameters have been determined

:'_~/

.., ,"<,~,~~~~~,.~~~r .<7.......rr..11.:<'~. .

,~",~~"~",,,--

.' _v.~- ... __..._..

......

se.."t2 T13 cobin

12~a C~"-

9'OO,...

..

~,;~ ""..~~~

"... .:J,'

__ ..

Fig.2.106 Cabling of the Blois bridge

- I

, , ',

"Ii

1/

.I

'-''

/I

InteQrolion cobin

Fig. 2.108 Standardized cabling-deck or constant depth

Thirteen lZcjlecoblu
EiqhllZcjI 7 cables

./

'Two lZ.8cotlt\

~~

1_

Three 1Z4> 7 cables per seqmtnt

lONGITUDINAL CA8llNG II", . . .bl

EJ4!'ltttl\ 12 T 13 cobtts

Tw,lv, tZ.Scobltl

l,n

7cotJ.,
per segmen'

1Z.8cobles /

Thr~1Z4>

Th"'een 1?4>8 cables

E'9,hIIZ40 7 coble,

124>8 cobin

Loaped

E"lhllZcjlBcable,

Fig. 2.109 Cabling at ChoisylcRoi bridge

S" 124>B coble,

II

II

'!

86

The cantilever construction 01prestressed concrete bridges

pieces of equipment outside the beam, and they CM be carried out with
mechanized apparatus (fig. 2.110). Furthermore, it permits a reduction of the
number of cantilever beam cables to be stressed at each placing of a concrete
segment to the minimum required to ensure the strength of the cantilevers with
respect to their self weight. The supplementary cables, which arc threaded on and
stressed once the cantilever beams have been connected, may be continuous over
a length greater than one span.
In economic terms the net result is an appreciable reduction in the number of
prestress anchorages. In terms of constructini the speed of placina of segments
increases as the laying of supplementary cables is removed from the critical path.
This type of cabling allows the use of cantilever techniques to build short-span
viaducts (less than 50 m) under comparable conditions-as far as the amount of
prestress involved is concerned-with the construction of entire spans between
points of zero moment on falsework or with mobile formwork.
This is the cable arrangement adopted for the viaducts of the B3 motorway
with its standard spans of 36 m (fig. 2.111).
The bosses are generally immediately below and to tM side of the upper
flange/web junction, so that the thrust resulting from tho anchored cable is divided
between the web and the flange (fig. 2.112). Some bosses are designed so as to
make possible the anchorage of two cables which intersect there (double boss);
other bosses are set into the flanges (inset bosses)(fig. 2.113).

Deck design

87
InltO'0l10n coblt~-Model A

Inll9'Dlion cables- Model B

Fis. 2.111 Cablina arranaement for the 83 Southem viaducts

5eClion88...,

[DOUble bOSS.!]

~ ~
A

t..Q

_IA

'j

Section CC

>

pj

C..JA

Pion seclion DO

/).. J1JIIJ.

LLDlItJ
Fia. 2.112 Bosses

1'"serfSUl

Elevolion

EleOlion

Pion ;nv,ew

Ploninvitw

EP

Fig. 2.113

Double bosses and inset

b()~scs

.,1

I:

6.1.1 Horizontal cabling

The cables are positioned in the upper /lange according to a virtually linear outline
in elevation, and a herringbone pattern in plan. .
Cable anchora&es may be located either on the external face of the concrete
segments, at the centre of the junction between the upper flange and the web. or
inside bosses set inside the box beam (fig. 2.114). Horizontal cabling reduces
Iriclion and. consequently, facilitates the threading on of the cables. For instance,
at the Oennevilliers bridge where the deck involved horizontal cables. the tension in
the 12 T 15 cables found in the structure was close to 1900 kN, as compared with
the figure of 1650 kN usually met with the traditional arrangement with inclined

I
I

46 CO/IIoJever beam collIeS

/ 2 canl"uly cobles

'-1/

8600

l12

Fig.2.110 Cable tensioning arrangement (viaducts of the B3 South motorway)

Fia 2.114 Cable arrangement for the Gennevilliers bridge

88

The cantilever construelion ofprestressed concrete bridges

cables. Another advantage offered by this form of cabling is the improvement in

conditions for placing the concrete in thin and very tall webs which are greatly
improved by the fact that there are no ducts. On the other hand, when horizontal
cabling is compared with traditional cabling it is found to have the drawback of
not reducing the shear stress. Vertical prestressing in the webs is therefore
generally required in order to achieve adequate shear strength.
In the case of the Gennevilliers bridge, however, a few inclined cables have been
set in a bell shape, close to the supports in the region where the webs have a
thickness of 0.40 m (normal \\'eb thickness: 0.. 30 m).
Vertical prestress is even more necessary when the deck is of constant depth, as
there is then no effective reduction of shear force, which would occur if the lower
flange were curved in elevation.
Thus, with the deck of the Rio Niteroi bridge (spans of constant depth with an
80m span) where the maximum shearing stress under imposed load reached
4 MPa, vertical prestress has been provided, producing a constant compressive
stress in the \veb of 2.8 MPa and is achieved by means of +25 mm Macalloy bars
set in pairs at a minimum spacing of 0.60 m (fig. 2.115)..
SimilarJy, the webs of the access viaduct of the Brotonne bridge. (only two 200
m thick \\'ebs for a cross section approximately 20 m wide). are subjected to a
shearing stress of almost 4.5 MPa, whereas the average longitudinal compressive
stress is equal to 3.5 MPa. The webs were prestressed vertically by 98 mm

Deck design

89

stressed bonded wires which produce a maximum vertical compressive stress of

3.9 MPa which is higher than the average longitudinal compressive stress.
It should be emphasized also that both the design and the positioning of
horizontal cables 8re determined only by bending stresses; the shear strength is
fully provided by vertical prestress.
6.3

Outline of the intesration cables

Integration cables are designed to ensure continuity between the various cantilever
beams and to oppose extreme moments of opposite sign caused by dead and live

load (flg. 2.116).

6J.J

Lower inlegra/ion cahles (A cahles)

(A) cables may be:

-

either brought up through the webs and anchored into slots cut in the upper
flange (a.) (fig. 2.117).. In that case they overlap with the cantilever beam
cables if the latter are inclined. Because of this overlap, the webs then
contain a large number of sloping prestressed tendons, thus the only shear
reinforcement is nominal reinforcement of small diameter. On the other
hand t the slots in the upper nange give rise to a considerable risk of water
seepage into the cable ducts. It is essential to give particular attention to
their grouting and their scaling (resin sealing).
8 cables

b1

01

A cable~

Fig. 2.116

,.
a2

Integration cables

Anchoring of the
integrotlon coble

~
/
LOWER CABLING ARRANGEMENt

Ji/

/'

.
~I
:1

Fig.2.115 Cabling of the Rio Niteroi bridge

Fig. 2.117

n,JJ

Integration cable anchored in the upper Oange

The canti/el'eT construction 0/prestressed conere'e bridges

90

-Or cables in the lower flange which are stopped olfin the bosses protruding
above the lower flange or positioned at the junction with the web
(aJ-these cables have a profile similar to that of the cantilever beam
horizontal cables;
_ Or sinusoidal and acting simultaneously as cantilever bewn tendons at
supports and as integration cables in the span (aJ.
A

__

~,
. _--.-::::-._-_._._._..,....~. I

~~-

I ~!~
:

: i:

AU intearation cables follow, for part of their profile, the median .line of the

lower Oans The latter is curved when the deck is of variable depth and the cables

develop an outward thrust which can incur a serious singularity of stress if provi

sion bas not been made for appropriate reinforcement (fig. 2.118).

The effect of thiS outward thrust is maximum when the lower flange compres
sion H' comes close to zero under the action of imposed loadings. The lower

fiance of the box beam sustains a supplementary vertical stress of 0.03 MPa when

cable. stressed to 1800 kN arc positioned at 0.20 m spacing and have a radius of

curvature of approximately 300 m.

If the cables are located inside the web nan.ge junction, this force must be taken
by the stirrups.
Local outward pressure may also occur in the lower flange due to additionaJ
curvature of tho prestressing cable ducts if these are poorly located or inade
quately secured. As a result the concrete may crack in tension (fig. 2.1 J9). This
Facing joints of the s'gm.n',

A~'

inte9rOhQn cobl,

Slre$5
the section
dlagram.in

i~r.~~
\

i;:;'

91

HI

Mean fibre ot lower f'ejure

Integration cables'-

..

L~' -~':-,...::: ~.

\.

Deck design

1..w:-rr~-i~7i ... 0_._-

_0- - - .. _0 .. 0 ... -

lower flange

"

N'

tittftt,tt!
p

Duct
SECTION AA

H'/H'

/~ttt~:,
IR'

Compression In the lower flange

.~
"

Thrust of tendon

o~~\ii f1J];:.
F/R

Low~ flange dead load

../'"

Iii

\,
p~q+t._!i.
R fl'

SJ --:rJ
++++

'"'-...,

Fig.2.118

Force due to cables positioned in the lower flange

This portion of 'he concrete

could fall off

Fig. 2.119 Local outward pressure due to misplaced cables

.-...........

92

71,(' COllt i1CIW COlIS trtlction 0/ prestrf!ssed concrete bridges

f;J~d( l:l~IY

hI: H\,(1idcd by the replacement of I1rxiblc cucts ~y rigid id,~), When

,::,;,i"c arc :,:1c!:ofcd in hG~5eS (cablcs !I~), iti" no! advisable Lv SlOp of!'
',I ll":;~ ~!:"se({ i.~? .\! . t.: il~ r,;>:. ~':c~;:::i, 7t...;;~!!e ,:r::-:k') ~x0uld appeilr )Ji !.h~
;: .. qi~.~. '';I.i~. :" ~;:c \.Lf"!"':~:\.)i~ (/ .~:;::; ;:~~_:.i'~~;<:\~ 1:.:: :..~:: ::,'::;'d the:-' a':'i..~l.'I&;;!>.

Deck desigll

9J

magnitude vf Ihe (c!lsil:: forte (Ii" I!:': :;}!'i~; l ;,,, I.~

i;1l,:gr.;::~;

Ih(: :;J1chorat:~,

'<'T"

If the ~egiiH.!~!:. (l.iC ~l.: ':'..i l.

-"j ,t~.~ rccln~.~r:( :.r\.x,,~~ The::':.

~:)I\C

lhe.: "';~'it/'k"

':":'!I;::lcd

,I' "'"

I:';,'

t!,,'

"

,I.;'";;.2,12(1!.

TLiS'

,,!:"'-:::~

{::~\.; !~'r::-\:(: Slt I.'.:,,~ (~:~l'((j ~~; :!~(' ;:.nC!H... r :~~ ;

" .....::'

~i.:l:; (;',(~ ",-",,.,::,:ja;~d LI{CC,

o:!

l:.. . !~$ i, :,IC:1'.'"

of the longi:udmal cI.>mpressiun createO by tf:,' iorcc~

the lower flange and the resistance of the passive reinforcement there, The

<. 3.J~

C~-:/?t,. :',:t',.. :", :.::~,. "I/:,!fi~

t''''rj.! "~'-I

(:}

l.:tDks (Ij) Jr~ p!a.,;~ti at the k'd:;~" Ih~ lop,,,:. ;j.lllr.~

.ttl: \,... '!)

i, ..

either stopped off in anchornges placed at the junction hct\\'cr.'1 weh ,!nd
upper naqge (b l );
or extended to the support diaphragms where they are anchored (b ),

Se9ment joint

These cables can be stopped ofT below the upper flange, at protruding bosses
which are concreted using a special form, after construction of the segments,
6.3,] Statically indetermillate moments created by the tensioning oj integration

cables

!.;I:'?:-,jl f1 ....."'; :~"f,

i'iI;.

~.: ~.i

":;ISI!\~

(,,1';'('.'

:',

! 0');

,:iC' il,':':':-.:;;', .:.

The statically indeterminate morn~nt5 due to the integration cables arc relatively

;';'.\' ()..er !l'~J'.: 1'( :!i~? k;l)',~!: ,r l':'~ hr;','f~c ~'l"": !".'.,:.,:l.: 6~, '.~ ;v' ~ .. ,.. , ('!' !l".

'1 ,. '. i..~ l: ; ! ~ t ,;,:; i '.: ',.' II : ' .

, l ,
'. " ;; \ :'; .

Between joint, iegmenls

~

---=.~

--,

r:Y'

--:.-" - _

~--.

,. -..

,p";,~. ,.:;:-";,,,,~,.~~,-:.,

::,;'~;;"-',,:,::~,

6.4

Examples of cable

1'!,r: followint; ttrawi:lgs repre~el:t the cat-Ie

"":..;:

~.",--; ..:,!:~~
,
<.: '..... lnft": ......
.,...:!, n':lJst.. ~;

/",,,,,,,..r')'!'~~ Lo;.. ,",

;.;.:.:::'" O(:twCf.".:'

~~~cm~orce~j?~~

-,....

i~":''-l:;;y ln~~,\, . . :'

<.

':,.lr~t

=":;'""\

.. :.~ ...

~=-:~jo

Fig. 2,121

?f4t cOblu 12TI:\

'

.. , ' ;. ,.,

,11

: ....... ' ...... 2 I 2 looped 12.

.. '

e coblU 12 T 13

e cobles

..~ ./ '

'I

Integration cables with concentrated anchorages

r="

;,.

.; .. 11 CU ;)l:'"

iQ;.l-~~~~f{~~~.

4 cobles 12 T 13

<,:.

14130

!~;~,3,~,'_~6,95 ,

Crocks

,,-;

tCi'l1pOTflrj' r..:a1';;.;';".(,; tH..!JII tLjjl:I.';L.

l'~'

..

E,.
Canllieve, beam ptUlteSS,nQ

~! ;
! 2;; ~:tll~sS 1~T~~

~p.I=::~rr-~.
,:;:;_;.
.
;.
.
.
;.:.:
IJ; ....; .. c .'
'
213Coblts 12TI3
, .. , .. ,:' .i' .,

",;.:: ..

Crocks

" jl6'o

rrClfiies of ~evcrr>! s:,ructures built by

..,'-;

by prestressing and cru:),;~d by

F'::!f~~\o:_~d jci~~'

Anchoroges

p(Om::~

Fig, 2,122 , Cabling for the Bonhommc bridge

....

~._----

Inlfl;'Ofton o't,"eu,,'1
2 " cable, 12 T 13

The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

94
38 (0:11$ 12., 8'"
6 cobles \2 T U

52 cobin 12.8+

~.O~ Z cobles 12~8

6coble5 12 T 13
~O~
2coble5 12.8
~~~7;II1"'J.~~-.r;--.:~~"'~~;--"W~':
;;: i~q~';1~~'l'~~~:-":
-Tl,rod
. -Abulment
t2cobiIS 1l T 1)
PIe' ..
'6,obIU '2 T 13

Fig. 2.123 Cabling of the Saint-Jean bridge in' Bordeaux

Con"IC'4t' btom

2 tabl" \24-8
prtst'ISsint

+ 16cob1tl
20 cobl" 12.8
12 T 1l
... 46 cobles 12 T 13
LkLi"1~""~~' ;..-........1J'~;f !.
..~ __ .I .,!:..:;.l".oC

n
Pc, 5

Contll,ve' beom """CSI1nq

C I

20 cables 12.8 + 48 cobl.. t2 T 13

c t , f::: . . .;e. ,ep*M'~:ti.'A"..-r' ....
. A., '
Int,.,Ohon p'tstr"linQ
lk1c..:l ~ .":~~~r:.D. I!.

'4 cobl" 12,8 ... 18 ,obit' 12 T 13

Fig. 2.124

n3

II

Pl" 4

Cabling for the Givors bridge

~,

Integration cables

The be5t solution is still the use of horizontal cables. \vhich give very low friction
(e.8.t the Conflans bridge,. the Rio Niterol bridge, the GCMevilliers bridge). If
cables are Inclined, the ducts can be replaced by still tubes, but in each segment
the cable line must stay in one plane to aUo\v bending of the tubes.
If ducts arc Uled. it is necessary to minimize the number of segments where the
cable Iinc is curvod. It is clearly much easier to align straight ducts and this, in
turu, also facilitatcsquality control of prefabricated segments at the precasting
yard.
6.6 Transverse cable.

Cabling for a cantilever beam with hinges

In the case of decks with a box beam of relalively snuz/l width (L ~ 16 m). the
tranlvcrse strength of the roadway slab is usually checked by conventional
"'n/arced coner", design. In this case, prestressing is at a disadvantage, because
.of thelarlc number of anchoraaes in relation to the length of the cables.
Prestressing is preferred when the transverse section is madc of a single large
beam or scveral box beams; in this case, prcslre~~ing also assists continuity.
HO\\'CVCf, recent tests have shown that cOMection between beams can also 'be
safely achieved by conventional reinforcement. Depending upon the structure the
quantity of transverse prestressing tendons ranges from S to 7 Jcg/m 1 of deck,
Cou\,cntionul rcinrorccrllcnt per cubic rnclrc of concrete. usuaJly ranges:
-

the stability of the cantilever (fig. 2.125). After connection with the adjacent
cantilever, the tension in the beam tendons is released and the hinge is freed.
6.5

9~

Pet,

Temporary beam cables

Fig. 2.125

Deck des igll

Effect of the longitudinal tendon profile on the final prestress

Because of the large number ofjoin Is in cantilever construction, friction loss along
the tendons during tensioning is often greater than has been evaluated from
standard formulae. At each joint the ducts have accidental discontinuities in slope
or in curve which must be taken into account when calculating the loss due to rric
tion. These discontinuities are more important in the case of prt!abricated
segments, \vhere the ducts cannot be coupled at the joints. Several methods can be
used to help to reduce the friction loss:

_ use of ducts with as large a dial1leler as possible;

_ stiffelling 0/ the ducts during concreting by tubes (inflatable or not, of

rubber or steel) threaded inside the duct and ensuring its alignment;

_ limiting discontinuities of the cables both in plan and in elevation;

_ increase 0/ the radius 0/ curvature of the cables.

from 60 to 80 kg/m J , if the top slab is transversely prestressed;

fronl 80 to 100 kgltn'. if the (opslnb is in rcinfurccu cuncrele.

7 FINAL ADJUSTMENT OF THE STRUCTURE

Because of constllJlt changes in' the static equilibrium of the bridge during
cantilever construction, the stress distribution in the structure in its final state
often differs from the optimal distribution. Because of this, it is sometimes
necessary to a4juslthc structure in order to increase the efficiency of prestressing
and. to improve the stress distribution in the structurc.
One can adjust the bridge by:

- a relalive change of levels of the supports-this creates complementary

-

correction moments; most frequently, nat jacks are introduced between the
piers and the deck;
introducing temporary hinges, usually at centre span in order to decrease
deck stiffness at the time of integration prestressing-these hinges, placed
in the lower flange, are locked before completion of the structure.

However, the most efficient method consists in creating an ac/ive Ihrust in the
area of the temporary hinge. A hinge in a given part of the deck determines the

96

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Deck design

alignment of the line of pressure under the combined effects of self-weight and pre
stressing. This line could pass outside the hinge, if an external force, produced for
example by a Freyssinet flat jack, is applied in a given section. This has two
effects (fig. 2.126):

This adjustment can be used in correcting the longitudinal profile of the structure.
At the end of construction of the Choisy-le-Roi balanced cantilever beams.
compensation and adjustment were made in the connecting section of the central
span.
During connection of the cantilever beams. of the Bonhomme bridge, an adjust
ment was also made. The device included flat jacks. placed at the joints between
webs and flanges (their number and size was such that their centre of gravity
coincided with the section's neutral axis) and concrete wedges placed at the level
of the top and bottom flanges of the box girder (fig. 2.127). The total force in the
flat jacks could develop 22000 kN. The adjustment moment was created by the
curvature of the median line of the cantilevers: this curvature was due to the varia
tion of stiffness of the bridge sections.

Freyssinel flal jacks

1~

Freyss'
~el
flal jocks

~-~l ~- JFWMlh~'

Freyssinel hinge

'\

Cobles

Fig. 2.126 Compensation and adjustment (the Choisy-leRoi bridge)

Concrete wedges

'-r""l

I! :

3 '" 480 f101 jocks

compensation-thus reducing in the finished structure future shortening

effects due to shrinkage and prestressing; this can be done by increasing the
gap between the two cantilever beams by the introduction of nat jacks
placed at the connecting point, generally at the level of the junction between
web and top flange:
adjustment: the cantilever beams are realigned by the introduction of a
uniform moment along the span. The temporary hinge is initially con
creted-prefabricated elements can be used-and to make the connection
several tendons are tensioned across the hinge. Flat jacks are then inflated
to their final pressure. This pressure has been calculated according to the
desired adjustment. Finally, the connecting joint is locked and the comple
mentary integration tendons are threaded, tensioned and anchored.

97

I'" 600 f1o1 jock

-;.',-,

205

.~;'
h~

78

'

""'"...."" 9,"

2 Jocks'" 400
Steel plate

28

f;;,2
I.

='.~' '1

~2/. ~. "Ui.".""",,,,
48

.:_~

!
.~.~,,<.~.~~

"- Prefabricated wedge

Fig. 2.127

Adjustmenl of lhe Oonhomme bridge

8 DEFLECTIONS OF THE BALANCED CANTILEVERS AND

INITIAL COMPENSATING HOG
The balanced cantilever beams comprise segments concreted and prestressed at
different times. It is necessary to know accurately the deflections of the cantilevers
durjng different construction stages so that they can be taken into account when
calculating the initial values of compensating camber to be used by the mobile
cohcreting plant or for the segment precasting cells'.
During the statica//y determinate stage of construction of the halanced
cantilever bcams, the beam deflections Rrc caused by:
-

self-weight of the segments:

weight of the mobile concreting plant. or of the launching girder in the case
of precase segments;
prestressing for the assembly of segments.

After connection of the cantilever beams, the deck enters a statically indeter.

98

The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

In ill ate stage,

but still deflects during the following operations:

integration prestressing;

removal of the mobile concreting equipment or of the launching girder;

removal of temporary supports or of the fIXing on the piers;

placing of the superstructure.

To these deflections are added the long-term deflections due to the creep of con
crete. These do' not create differences in levels at the ends of the cantilevers in a
same span, but create 'continuous variations in the longitudinal profJ.1e of the
structure (generally lowering of the joints). For this reason, they must be
balanced, as are the statically determinate deflections, by introducing init;al co",
pellsaring CQI1WerS in the cantilevers.
The main problem in calculating the cantilever deflections is found in the study
of the long-term behaviour of loaded concrete. The linear Inodulus of elasticity of
concrete varies with time, in relation first, to the age of the concrete at the time of

1---'~2

Ii

S09ment numbers
I_

3T4~5-

----_..... C

"

8.~
,
..---..,
8
............._
"--~---

\.

c'~.

I~

'-\-"---. ..

~.........

84

.. '-\.

b l '"

'. ~ \
..~
\

\
\

Fig. 2.128

Deflection a cantilever

.HE'
u

","';

,,~

CI

II

!I
~"""'''''''Id
I

.:

ol~
II

'"

j-~
Fig. 2.129

- j - - - 4 -1-'- 5 ~

............

;'\..

u-+---u-../.

\
\

"

Q;

:.......--1 '--'-~2---"r--3

0'1\..~", '. \\

"

loading and second, to the duration of loading (see curves in figure 2.156). The
prestressing force also decreases with time, because of gradual losses in the
tendons.
Fiaure2.128 gives the sencral shape of stalically determinate deflections of a
cantilever at each construction stage, without any compensating camber.
Fiaure 2.129 shows the successive deflections which must be applied to a
cantilevert so that it futaUy attains the desired theoretical profile.
The deflections are obtained as follows: The first se&J11cnt is built with an initial
compensatinl camber fa -A.a;;; Oiu; instead of comins to the position OA after
prestressina, the seament comes to Oat During construction of the next scgment Q
moves by a distance AA. and comes to a The end of the segment comes to h', b'
beins such that OAB. =Oa.b'; but if an initial compensating camber.li 0iu is
given to the second IClment in relation to the first one, B comes to b.
La~er b will move to ~, at a distance equal to DB' (fig. 2.130). When the scg
mcnts arc concreted ;n situ inside mobile carriages, it is not very accurate to
adjust the clrrialca before concreting, by referring to the theoretical levels that
they should haytI aceordin. to fi.sure 2.130. This level is suscepti ble to major
variations aecordin. to tho ambient temperature and humidity, and mainly to
solar radiaCion (Ice thermal gradients. paragraph 9.2). It is advisable to make the
adjustment by givins th~ mould an Inll/al angular variation 0' in rclation to thc
previous seamcnt (Cia. 2.131). The curves in fig ure 2.130 can still be used for the
cOlltrol of the deflections of the cantilever beams during construction, but the deck
must be adjusted during the early hours of the morning when thermal gradients
are still snlall. A similar method is used if the deck is built by the assembly 01
precast segments, the mould being placed at an angle. 9' with the precasting form.
Segment numbers

.-4,

........... ~ ..........
~

99

0
\

..---..-......

93' ~ . . . . .

I~

"" I
"

Deck design

II

rf

a1

II

",

\\

\l,~

II

Deflections with initial compensating camber

..

~,,~->,.

-' . Ill'

"

...

L%A .ft

The contilever cOllstruetiolt o/prestressed concrete bridges

100

Deck design

101

Segment numbers
!...-1-~.-2 ~!..-.

3-"1.-- 4

Position of the end of a cantilever

~'

with compensating comber""

C ---,

,,~/,.

I'H
f

Adjustment of fne corrloge In

relotlon to t!"e :"evlcus segr""l,~!" . ~ ;

"

'",

b ,//

/1

Reol pOSItion of the cantilever beam offer concreting

of the ninth segment and movIng of the carrloge,

b'

\,

!1-----

ll~.""-~ I J~

c.n

t~ft118,

~2

~~

"

85

, ...

,,,

__. -L_-~=---T--

~~-=_._

\j!

Ij 8

1,0

Oeflechon of ecntilever beam ofter

concreting 0' the ntnth segment and ~
moving of the carriage (wIthout ./
compensotlt't comber)

c:

::---' -:~.

..

~~

'\.. _.-.... ~.
." J.

l- 10

-""1

-- _.--- -
... .....

---' ----
'.

.. ........

87

,. 1"

Desired compensatIng

cember

\- .. -.- ..
\

f,r)

".~

"

\"'}

",',",.
\

~".

Fig.

\
\

I
...........

"\

~I
.g
I

.,.\

0'

c
g

0:

E'
1/

Fig. 2.130

Evaluation or the initial compensating camber

2.1~

Adjustment ormohilc cnrriagcs (cantilc\'cr beams concreted in situ)

'1~

- ----

rl

~ I

..

~
.,

I '

r,---'
j

/+t

00

/+2

j+3

/+4

/+5 /+6 /+7 . ;.e

; 1+9

;+1C ;+11

/.412'

/+22 1+22 /+23 /+23 /;24 /+24 /+2\ /+25 /+26 /+26 /+27 /+27

.g

_.... _ ".~ ""_

0'1

.S

Precast cont:lever beom

~c.J

I
I

r:

However, the deflections are much smaller in this case (about one-half or one
third) as the prefabricated segments are usually stored for a few weeks before
being placed in the structure (fig. 2.132).
If. despite all the controls during construction, the cantilever beams do not
exactly match at the time of connection, it will be necessary to use one of the
fol1o\'Jing remedial solutions:

! --...

~ 2 S em

/" .Canlllever b~om

concre!ed

In

511u

f 5 em

ill the case 0/ difference 0/ level, tilting of the cantilever beams by nat jacks,

or cantilever deflection by counterweight;

in tlte case 0/ differences in plan, horizontal deflection of the cantilevers by

8'0

Fig. 2.132

Comparison of deflections between decks concreted ill situ and precast

decks

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrele bridges

102

:~Slr=ar

~r

-- ---r;--T'--'--- -; '-;'-01- '

I

: I

I
t

I
I
-I

I
I
I

L;~'
:
',I

...... ,

"'::>'-'"

4IIQ

. ,

KeYln9 JOint

Deck design

103

required. In bridges having, in elevation, a linear change of depth, a diaphragm to

carry the resultant upward thrust is required at the lower flange, at sections \vhere
the soffit slope changes (fig. 2.134).
StilTeners or diaphragms linking two or more box beams belonging to one
bridge are essential to provide stability and strength at the supports, rather than to
strengthen the deck. It has been shown that. in most cases, the combined effects of
bending of the top Oange and torsion of the beams, ensure a satisfactory
transver$e load distribution between the beams, even without any stifTening.
Sesments which include stiffeners or diaphragms are called special ele/nellis.
Their construction requires special internal formwork. They are expensive and
tilneconsuming to build, It is of value to simplify their shape by a careful analysis
of their mechanical behaviour.
Vertical loads arc transmitted to the supports by (fig. 2.135):
-

first. shear stresses principally in the webs of the box girder (shear force;
V):

.
I I
t
. ..;....---a.. ~,

Fii' ~,lJJ

ii'

"

----1... -LJ. -L.,

Adjustnlc:nt in plan of the cantilever bCllIllS

crossed prestressing rods placed on the top flanges of the segments

(fig. 2.133).

or

and, vertical components of the conlprcssivc stresses (n) in the lower flange
(the de R6JaJ shear (0". YR ).

Under the shear flow.}; created by the torsion, the cross section of the box girder
tenus tu '.way (",. 2. 136). To stop this deformation, it is advisable to give the
diaphragms one of the two triangular forms shown in fig. 2. JJ 7. The diaphragm s
must be open to allow access to maintenance staff and the passage of services.
When the beam depth varies, Scheme ) easily allows the transmission of the
ResaJ shear force. With Scheme 2, in the case of dc'cks of constant depth, large

If the end sections the cantilevers have a difference of slope, only the movement
of the whole length of one cantilever can cure it. Deformation by twisting of the
beam is senerally impossible.
9

R.sultont thrust

SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF

DECKS
Cantilever bridge designers currently encounter three main problems which
influence the design and dimensions of a structure:

9.1

transverse stiffening of decks;

effects of thermal gradients;

stress redistribution due to creep.

;'
Resultant thrust

Fia. 2.134 Structures with linear change of depth-diaphragm

vl~!v

Transverse stiffening or decks

Because of the high torsional stiffness of box beams, and of the flexural stiffness of
the top and bottom flanges, usually no internal stiffening is needed in decks built
by the cantilever method. Only stiffening above supports and expansion joints is

'~
Fig. 2.1 JS

'~

VerticaJ loads transmiUed to the supports

104

The cantilever cons/ruction ofprestressed concrete bridges

Deck design

105

c-c

A-A
f

c=::

r-'\M,
I

( . t D..Jfl~

C
~ _.

lB~

,-~l ~i~
c

f
f

e 1(1 a

Fig.2.136

..,

M,
2n.

Fz II

IE

Torsion carried by the diaphragms

a-a

Channel for cobles

..J
A

: M,l
2,{l

Fig. 2.139

Stiffener

AA

f8

"A!

81
(,"""',J
r, ": r, I

': I, ~

CarrYing e!er"'l:~~

Scheme 2

Fig. 2.137

Schemes or diaphragms over supports

pipes C~Hl easily ~ plnced on the lo\vcr flange of the box beam. If the supports are
not in the same plane as the \vebs, some prestressing rods together with non
prestressed reinforcement must be inserted to transmit the shear forces to the
supports (fig. 2.138).
TIle Inost sirnple amongst the special segments nre the abutment ,egmtnll; they
usually have only a vertical diaphragm (fig. 2.139). The hinge segments are more
complicated. They comprise two parts: a carrying element and a carried element.
They are both stiffened by a diaphragm inclined in plan so that it forms a diagonal
in tension, thus balancing the support reaction in the deck (fig. 2.140).
Fortunately, there are few hinge segments and abutment segments.
On the other hand, there can be many pier segments. Their design is different

An

Fig. 2. J40 Stiffening of hinge segments

according to whether the pier is simply supported or fixed at the pier. In the first
case, the pier segments are similar to abutment segments (fig. 2.14 I). Only two
details differ. First, the forces transmitted are larger: secondly. if the deck is or
variable depth. the vertical component of the force due to the slupe of the lower

flange nlust be taken by reinforcement placed in the diaphragm.

In the second case, the pier segment generally has two diaphragms. which can

vI

ri~. ~.I JS

SUPPllrl'\

not in

fh~ Stll1lC plnne:u

be l'erficnl or slop illK. In theory, sloping diaphragms arc more salisrnctory

(he webs

(fin. 2.142).

The cQIl/i1ever cons/ruction 0/prestressed concre/e bridges

106
8

*
c-c

A-A

:
,

;"
/----
I
\'

I
I

I
'
I"~

~
Fig. 2.141

I"''''
I

\
'----

B-B

*
:sc
I

A.J

AI

Line sUppOrts r
under the
diaphragms

Point
supports

JCrA
I ~~~r::orts
III
3

Sloping diaphragms

TYP' 8-

'r

flr
I

Under asymmetrical loads, the upper and lower flanges of the deck are
stretched by a force T and compressed by force C. If the deck stiffening consists
of two vertical diaphragms placed above each bearing line, the webs must balance
the outward thrust created by T. If, on the other hand, the crossbracing is made of
two sloping diaphragms converging at the upper flange level, thus forming a
triangle, T is divided in two components Fe and FT which follow the directions of
the diaphragms.
To detennine more precisely the behaviour of pier segments resting on a double
line of bearings, different types of crossbracing were studied with the help of
Professor Ghali and Calgary University, for a deck of constant depth, using rUlite
element analysis.
The diaphragms shown in figure 2.143, included verlical and slopillg
diaphragms, with continuous supports under the diaphragms (A I' B1)' or con

==--Web stiffeners

lnF m

l, I
~

Stiffening of a pier segment with a double line of bearings

8,
Line supports
under the

diophrogms

Fig. 2.142

I"~

If ~I
SIOPin9diOP~.L

Outword pressure

U---~

-, I

'~

I ; I

AZ

Stiffening of pier segment for a deck of variable height, simply

supported

Verticof dlophragms

.~,~.~
...
I

107
Type A - Verticol diophr09ms

~ 1
iI'

,-

Deck des ig I'

8Point

~
I

supports

Fil. 2. J43

Types of stiffener studied

centrated supports under the webs (A 2 , B 2 ). In A J , the case of venical web

stiffeners in place of diaphragms was considered.
Several conoluaions can be drawn rapidly from this study. It first appeared that,
in the case of verlical diaphragms resting on point supports, most of the forces
comins from the upper flange are transmitted by the webs. This was confumed by
the (act that the principal stresses were the same in the webs of A 2 and A 3' Thus, it
is justified 10 open out the diaphragms. In the case of crossbracing A J' web
stiffeners seem necessary to direct the compressive and tensile forces situated in
these areas. Thistypc of bracing is found in $tJ"uctures where a road or railway is
situated inside the deck, and where no internal diaphragm can be allowed. In the
case of the Morand bridge in Lyon, the Metro crossing over the Rhone river. a
large framelike bracing system was designed. The lower flange was deepened and
fitted into the extra depth of the deck over the support (fig. 2.144).

---

.. _

... _--T_ .....,;

.",,~

... ..-.......~ .......~

108

The cOl1tilel'er construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

I~.

'.
I

. ---~I~ '.'

4900

"I'"

89.00
J450

'"

49.00

4F'

- - - - Compression
- - Tension

Inflll

(a) Longitudinal section

36

~:

.
I

----,----......
lF~
I
.

bJ ~

.....

..t

,J

,...

4.62

.I.

254

.1.

.l~

4.62

(b) Cross section at support-crossbracing

Fig.2.144

The Morand bridge at Lyon for the Metro

i ~\:~\:

Jt-~~~~\ 11

\""'.

or

~\
~I\~\~

,/,/

/'.

"
Vertical diaphragms

the above conclusions remain true; the diaphragms. however. contrihutc to the
lotal strength.
In the cnsc of sloping diaphragl1lS, it can be noted that compressive and tensile
stresses in the \vebs are largely lower than the values calculated by the triangula
tion method described previously. Although the force distribution depends on the
relative web and diaphragm stiffnesses, onc can approximatcly assume thelt the
forces in the sloping diaphragm are about half the applied force; the other half
being trnnsmitted by the webs.
Fqr this type of stiffener, it is advisable to use a more realistic scheme. It Con
sists in dividing the tensile force Teoming from the top slab into two equal parts:
the first part produces direct tensile and compressive forces in the sloping
diaphragm; the second part has the same distribution that has been described in
the case of vertical diaphragms (fig. 2.146). A comparison bet\veen the diagrams
Principolstresses ,n the webs

From a study of the diagram of the principal stresses in the webs. one can dra\\'
a simple scheme of calculation \vhich facilitates the design or reinforcement. In
this scheme, sho\vn in figure 2.145, the tensile force Teoming from. the upper
flange is divided into four equal forces applied at the top the webs; these are
later divided into vertical forces Fa applied above the supports and sloping forces
F: directed along the diagonals of the \veb panels. F. and F'J can be tensile or
compressive forces, according to their position in relation to T. This calc'dation
n1cthod \vas checked on the pier segments of the Saint-Andrede..Cubzac bridge.
They \\'cre fitted \\;th strain gauges. During deck construction the measured
str ains were very close to the strains calculated by the above method.
If vertical diaphragms rest on supports continuous in the transverse direction.

-'I

,.

Fig. 2. J4S

I
I

Ii

.~

('----- ...

:0

T/4

",.L;:?/'"

"

a pITT

T/4

-fi

1-~
). ~//'1\.\~
1
.

775

Celcularl~n scheme

1-,

15.50
775

109

PrinCipal stresses In the webs'

( Stiffeners A2 end A3 )

... - ...!~~C!2 __ -.-----J-:-e----~ .. -- -~.

I~6.89 :
~! /f
Ilj~I'~~~:I:III:~~lIjll~!I:'p:ff
::~-~;~
;~.~.~~ ..~;._~~
I

Deck design

- - - Compression
--TenSIon

COIC:;;C! ,on scheme

~
I '.

T/8

-/4

-.~;/c;'"~T/2. -.~r
.-~

,.- /t..f3 ..:.'''-':

I'
!
I

T/8

,'T/c.

../
./

;
;'

'
,/I

\.
\

f
.

\.

t
Fig. 2.146 Sloping diaphragms

11ze cantil~ler CO/lstnlction o!prestressed concrete bridges

110

Fig. 2.147

Deck design

111

of principal stresses in the webs in the cases of vertical and sloping diaphragms,
showl that the principal stresses in the first group are approximately double those
in, the second.
As a conclusion, it may be said that the different stiffener types studied arc all
satisfactory. However, they must be checked for torsional stiffness, and for the
transmission of shear forces at the supports; lastly, the size and reinforcement of
the elements should be calculated by the simple method described above.
A comment should be made concerning precast pier segments. The diaphragm
can, at times, be so large that these precast segments become too heavy for site
linina and handlins equipment. It is then necessary to cut the pier segment into
several pieces, either longitudinally as on the upstream bridge on the Boule
vard Peripherique (fig. 2.147) and on the Saint-Andre-dc-Cubzac bridge, or
horizontally as on the Calix viaduct (fig. 2.148) and the Metro viaduct in Marne ..
la-Vallee (tiS- 2.149). The joints between the subunits still remain matching.

Pier segment on the upstream bridge on the Boulevard Peripherique

Fig. 2.148 Calix viaduct. Pier segment

The canti/ever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

112

11.00

/:1

20

2%

12.00

..
3.90

1.811

':0.

2.'90

Deck design

I.

! I

.9~

1.-..-...._~70. -.-...
Fig.2.149 Metro Viaduct in Marne-la-Vallee. Pier segment

113

the temperature spread inside each section follows a complex law.

Ho\vever, to simplify calculations, one can approximate this la\\' to a linear

variation which gives the same overall re$ults.
With a lack of experimental data, it is usual to consider two thermal gradients.
The first one. called a short duration gradient, is compatible with permanent
loading; it corresponds to a temperature difference of 10 C between the extreme
fibres of the deck. The second one, called a long duration gradient, is added to the
permanent and working loadings; it corresponds to a temperature of SoC between
the extreme fibres. In both cases, the modulus of elasticity to be taken into
account is the instantaneous modulus, as the thermal variations occur every day.
If it is assumed that the thermal gradient is constanl all along the length of the
deck. cnlculnting the bending ,moments is a relatively simple task. Figure 2.151

I
9.2

or

daily variation of the deck's average temperature does not exceed 6C;

average minimal and maximal temperatures Occur approximately at 8.00

a.m. and 6.00 p.m.;

maximal gradient occurs at around 3.00 p.m.;

~~\I,~/

~/Ir~~

"".

-w

..
/
(-;-==-,---'--- .._----"'\
-~_.----

I~----.__-_._-_

..,.__..

_~

K68 dn
~rsJ-

11(";1

J?

112

dl"

..,,1(60/ &

Kfj.(J dn

. - h~(;;i

, \dw

Coefficient of thermol expanSion

Sfatically determinate onqulor deflectton of the span

..,=_.,
o
K68

ArclgJi10 - 1

/!"0

2h

M: -""'-

i1

18,

~I

I'' '

tT:'

o+b

68

Dfi;:6,.6
'"

--

o,b,c

...,

.,

IK~8'a(-)

ho

-I

Bendi~..~~!~t_~~ stress.~.

''llO~
Temperature ~1

II

---

The effect of thermal gradients on decks

A second problem of current inlportance concerns the effect of thermal gradients

on decks. The measure or the daily variation or support reactions in some
structures (e.g. the Champigny-sur-Vonne and the Towville-la-Rivie...e bridges)
and the cracks appearing in some others, has showed the importance of bending
moments created by ditTerences in temperature between the top and bottom fibres
of n concrete deck. These differences arc mninly due to sola' fat/illtion. Because
the high absorption or the road deck surfacing, the temperature in the top slab
increases, thus creating a thermal gradient in the deck (fig. 2.1 SO).
The temperature readings made on concrete structures showed that:

(ho\

Reed temperature
distribution

Mv'

k'''O

(~)

Span with constant sri ffness "1ho* 1

, " Linear drslr.bution

1J;

<7,

Tcmp~'ll'Urt~ @,

Fig. 2.1 SO Thermal grudient in deck!

'0

a, EK66k{J

1/1

Fig. 2.151

EKllOk

Effect of n thermal gradient L\O

_ on the one hand, a structure with variable depth is about one and a half
times more sensitive to thermal gradients than a structure with constant.
depth;
_ on the other hand, flexural forces are more important in a structure witn
variable dep!.h when !.he depth variation increases.
Figure 2.153 shows !.he values of bending moments due to a thennal gradient of
50C in several structures, and !.he values of a/ stresses on the deck's iower fibre.
These values correspond to the above observations. The various differences can
be easily explained. The values of the stress 0/, in the Marne-la-Vallee viaduct.and
in the Joinville bridge, are higher than indicated above; but they are three-span
k '0.65
.. k-O.60

2.0

p:

I.e II-- - -

110

I .

zt:1

"0
~

~lt8E:;:t

i>

v"k~

1.2<i5 --Decks with constont depth 11/110 -'

1,0,

1.5

2.5

3.5

h/ho

Fig. 2.152

Values ofnonnal stress OJ

115

- Marne 10

..

&51 Cloud bridge

i
.

7S

56

10Z

~.Z

375

-12

0.58

1050

-1,4

0.59

1400

-1.2

19 0.63

770

-1.8

2.1 0.66

725

-1.9

24 063

980

-2 I

2.6 061

1050

-1.7

26 0.60

2270

-2.0

2.7 067

720

-19

l
I

t.~

WoiwY bridge

s;

Joinville brid9'

.5!

.D
.g Orleons brldge

Genev~kers bridQI

t
I.S
f

z.~

102

u
10e
Z.S
liS
S.S

IlZ
u

z.

lZO

N~,mol $!less
tT, (Mpol

062

TI$T

Anvtrs bridge

MoQnDn v,adue:!

Bendlnq momen!
(1m)

T;'T

~.. vioduc:t

11/"0 v/'ll
o

Cl CherlOM ond
: EpOIris viaducts

k-

Moin
ehorocletislics

SlrUClllr"
s;

AveroQe

062
'-

Fia- 2.153

ElTeet oralbermal gradienl AO of 5C on selecled SlruClures

structures, whereas in the above calculations, the span was assumed 10 he full)'
fixed, i.o. the cue of a deck havini an infinite number of equal spans. It must also
be noted that in end spans and in parts of the structure where spans of very
diff~nt Ieniths are adjacent. 0/ can reach 2.5 MPa.
It shall also be noted that a SoC thermal gradient oflong duration usually has a
more severe effect than a short duration gradient which cannot be added to the
imposed loads.
III conclusion. taking into account temperature effects in cantilever bridge
desi&n leads to substantial tensile stresses near the midspan joints of the order of
2 MPa for a deck of variable depth. Under this additional stress the mid-span
section tends to become subcritical and it is advisable to increase its dep!.h, which
in turn diminishes the action of thermal gradients by decreasing the ratio h/ho.
9.3

Redistribution of stresses due to creep

A final problem often met by the designer is that of the redistribulion 0/ bending
stf'fsses t;tIused by long-Ierm df/ormallons due to creep of concrete. This happens
in slallcally Indeterminate structures whose state of equilibrium changes in the
course of construction; this is the c8:SC with bridges built by the cantilever method.
Attention hal been drawn to the effects of long-tenn deformations of the concrete
by IIOticeabie geometrical variations in the shape of some structures. In particular,
in situ construction of larie cantilever beams has made this evident in structures

.. _" .

.h'

.....

shows a resume of the calculations of bending stress produced by a thermal

gradients 69 in a symmetrical span; its soffit forms a parabolic curve and it is
fully fixed at both ends.
First 00, the statically determinate angular deflection of the simply supported
span is calculated, then M, the bending moment, 0/ the normal stress at the
midspan lowest fibre from the values of the constants a and b. It can be assumed
that D', distance between the section centroid and the lowest fibre, is a proportion
k of the total depth ho; i,e. D' = kh o; the stress 0, can then be expressed as
EKMk~, ~ being a function of the variable hlho. Figure 2.152 shows the variation
of stresses 0/ due to a thermal gradient of 5C for two values of k, 0.60 and 0.65
(this being the normal limiting value for box beams).
Study of this diagram shows that, in the case of a deck 0/ cOllstant depth, the
stress a/ is approximately 1.2 MPa, whatever the characteristics of the bridge.
In the case of a deck with variable depth, irrespective of span, a/ varies from).6
to 2.0 MPa, with an average value of 1.8 MPa. One can deduce that:

Deck design

The cami/ever COllstruction a/prestressed concrete bridges

114

116

The cantilever constroctian a/prestressed concrete bridges

where permanent hinges were kept at the mid-span points since, with time. these
droop progressively.
The reduction of such deformations has been achieved through the introduction
of continuity in the structures. This is why most of the prestressed concrete
bridges built by the cantilever method are now made continuous by rigidly con
necting the ends of opposing cantilevers. In addition. the use of precast segments
which are placed after a suitable aging period, also has a favourable effect upon
the fl1lallongitudinal prortle of the bridge.
Although the continuity of the structure and the precasUng of concrete seg
ments settle the problem of discontinuity and that of the significance of the defor
mations, they do not stop the occurrence of the redistribution of stresses which
creates a difficult analytical problem.
An estimate of these stresses may be obtained experimentally through
measuring the bearing reactions of the structures with time, corrected to take
account of the diurnal variations caused by temperature effects.
To clarify these points consider two cantilevers C and C' connected at time I r
(lig. 2.154). Had the hVO opposing cantilevers not been rigidly connected they
\vould have be~n further deformed by creep under self weight and prestress, and
from the instant I r their ends \vould have sustained rotations (I) and ro' and vertical
deformations! arad!' increasing \\lith time. Rigid connection of the cantilevers has
therefore hindered their long.. term deformations and hence has produced statically
indeterminate forces in the region of the joint which aJter the previous equilibriunl
conditions to set up a new state of stress. It is this redistribution of forces caused
by the noncompatibility of the system with the residual deformations \vhich is
called, some\\'hat unsuitably, adaptatio1' by creep.. Generatty speaking these
stresses amount to a bending moment M(t) which cancels the angular
discontinuity C1) - ro' of the cantilever ends, and to a shear force Jl(t) equivalent to
their vertical deformations/and}'. If the cantilevers are identical and if they have
been built at the same time, their vertical deformations are equal and V(t) is
identicaUy zero.
The force parameters M(t) and Vet) which arise when the cantilevers are con
necled, increase gradually with time asymptotically towards finite limits Mo and
Va' It is generally agreed that these limits should have been reached within 3 to 5
years.
Several methods have been used either to estimate the values or Mo and Vo due
to creep in a cantilever prestressed concrete bridge or to protect the structure
against their effects.
A first enlpirical n'ethod consists in maintaining on the lower fibres of the
beam, in the region close to the connection joint, a residual stress sufficient to
counteract subsequent tensile stress caused by creep_ In most cases the value of
this residual stress is agreed as 2 MPa; this value has been confirmed by the
evidence of more precise calculations and by measurements taken on specific
structures.

Deck design

117
Prrnclple

,[

~l

~jf---- ~-

I <Ie

I> /

v
M.V
M( '-',)

MO

Vo

o
Fig. 2. J 54

Redistribution of forces due to creep, Principle

An alternative method consists in assuming that all the clements which make
up the struclure are built together over an infinitely short period of time. The con.
crete nrodulus of e/asticUy may then be considered to be constant and equaJ to its
instantaneous value E, (fig. 2. J55).
At any point on the bridge the 12 J stresses caused by the applied load (self
weight and prestress) during the construction of the structure generate strains .,

such that:

",
".-
- E,
~,

Once the structure is completed the decking is still subjected to long-term strains
f./ I , The final strains wiU therefore be equal to:
Ef

= E;.

Ed

tlte cantilever constructiull ufprestressed cuncrete bridges

JJ8

t -----tIJ+
------l~
C

i~

',f;

__

c'

Df!ck design

-I"

119

At the end the total strains ft are equal to:

Before joining
I <Ie

II,

11 = f:t + &(/ =-

n
c : ..J.

,.

11 2

Ed

and the corresponding stress:

E.

After joining

II,

1>1,

= , &t =II,

1
-

E;

+ "1

1
-

Ed

hence:
'il

I~.g
1

",= ". + (liz -II.) (I- %)

This relation applies of course not only to the stresses" but also to the forcesl

l_ttd;H,
1

~CE,-E;

n,

n,

;I

,. ,

;; n,

2
-+
Ed

IE+E:

,.

. + n2 E
i

n an+(n -n)(l-.:!)
,
1
2
1
,.

Fig. 2.155

Approximate method

which induce them.

The ratio between the moduli EJ and E; is usually chosen to be i. In fact, as the
con.ruction, of IcantU.ver .pan extends over several weeks or several months, a
lubntial proportion of lbe creep occurs before the cantilevers are finaUy joined.
For this reuon it is more accurate to estimate the ratio EltE, from the likely work
schedule and from the relationship of the concrete modulus of elasticity with time.
Figure 2. JS6 shows the variatiOns in lhe d~ormalions olrhe concrele as a runc
IE,.

.~ Ii

4.0

--372
3.5

-303

3.0

Let us suppose n2 is the stress which would arise in the structure, had the load
been applied directly in the final state of equilibrium. Due to creep, the concrete
modulus of elasticity is reduced to a value E/lower than E, and is called the rUlal
modulus. A modulus of long-term elasticity of the concrete may then be deter
mined by:
1
= -.-.-_-

Ed

E,

&d

= Ed

--257

2.0t-,

--222
--200

1.5

"

--1.70
--144

1.0

E1

As the longterm deformations occur in the completed structure the following

equation can be \\Titten:
11 2

2.5

0.5

Instantaneous defOl'motions

----.J __

:3l. ,456
Days

Fig. 2.156

Months

9 1152
.-J
l
.

5
..J

Yeors

Variations in the deformation of the concrete

CD

Deck design

The cantilever COllstruction o/prestressed concrete bridges

120

-The simplified rule proposed by the Ministere de l'Equipement comes from

measurements on support reactions in some existing structures, and from precise
computer calculations made in specific cases.
More sophisticated calculations on creep stresses require complex computer
progralns \vhich try to take into account empirical laws on material behaviour:
concrete creep and relaxation of reinforcement.
These programs are, at first, used for the calculation of statically determinate
deformations or the beams of cantilever bridges before final joining together. They
are used for the calculation of the initial compensating camber for the mobile con
creting carriages or for the precasting formwork for the segment. They also; allow,
from long-term deformations appearing in the structure after connection, the
determination of the redistribution of stresses due to creep. This second step
\vhich requires integral equations, is long and expensive.
For the analysis of the influence of the concreting technique (precasting or in
situ concreting of segments) and of the average age of the beams at time of connec
tion on the value of the redistributed stresses. a similar computer program has
been used.
Two symmetrical cantilevers were considered, fully fixed, having the same
general characteristics as the deck of the Angers bridge on the Loire.(t) The
redistributed stresses were first calculated on the hypothesis that the cantilevers
were buill simultaneously and connected together at th,e same age. The construc
tion period for ea~h cantilever was assumed to be 100 days for insitu concrete
segments and IS days for precast segments, the latter being 28 days old at the
time of placing.
The same calculations were carried out for two .cantilevers built one after the
other; the first cantilever being built between the 1st and 1DOth day, the second
being built between the 101st and 200th day. Then, the case or a significant time
lag was considered, more than a year between the construction of the two
cantilevers. The various results are shown in Figure 2.158.
It can be noted that:

tion of its age and of its loading period. It should be noted that the values plotted '
as ordinates are the ratios between the real deformations and the reference defor
mation of 28..day-old conerete subjected to instantaneous loading.
Instantaneous deformations are not affected much by the age of the concrete at
time of loading (newer concrete excepted) and do not vary much. On the other
hand, creep deformations are significantly influenced by the age of the concrete.
For instance, 7-day-old concrete will attain a total deformation almost double of
that of three month old concrete.
As the construction of structures with prefabricated concrete segments is rapid.
the deformations before the cantilevers are joined may be calculated by including
a constant modulus along the length of the cantilever beams. Supposing that the
average age of the concrete segments before completion is 28 days, the ratio E!,
is equal to 0.40. If the average age of the cantilever beams is 100 days before com
pletion this ratio is practically equal to 0.50; this gives:

s,,=S, +(Sl-S.>t=t(St +S2)

This formula is identical to the one recommended by the French Ministere de
l'Equipement on the 2 April 1975: which recommends inclusion of the creep
effects as i<Sl - S I ) (fig. 2.157).
.
.
According to this hypothesis, concrete creep, in effect, reduces by half the
difference between the moment distribution in the real structure just after comple
tion, and the moment distribution which would occur in the same structure had it

been cast In situ.

Is; :

5, +

~ (52 - 51 I: ~

t====
.~
=L,

:s;)

!. ",'"
.-_t_~
"
0:

"

====1

I:"

Calculation step by step

(51 +Szl

(5,)

II val~e

of S after creep

eolculotion with
ftnOl structure
(S2)

Fig. 2.157

2 ( 5.+Sz1

Regulation or the Ministerial Circular or 2 April 1975

121

if the cantilevers are built at the same time, the moment due to creep is con
stant along the deck, and is slightly smaller for the precast structure (line 1)
than for the insitu structure (line 2);
if the cantilevers are built one after the other, by in sltu concreting of the
segments, the moment due to creep has a linear variation along the span
(line 3) and is slightly lower at the midspan level;
if the time lag between the construction of the two cantilevers becomes very
long, it seems as if the younger cantilever is supported by the stabilized
cantilever and increases its fIXed end moment. In this case, the creep
moment at the joint between cantilevers d'ecreases even more, but tensile
stresses can appear in the upper fibres of the fixed end section of the older
cantilever;

The call1ilever construction ojprestressed concrete bridges

122

Deck desigll

123

BendlllQ rroment d'09,om

t===

ANGERS BRIDGE - Moment d'OQ,om

-

===1

12V

.L - - - - - 1+655
+710

12V

lIV

' I

+945]

11

+1260 ,.
-

12V

-10,---'

.n:~
---P,ecosl deck

't

------_,0
,...+150
Precast
,

0+-------.+120~-

500

+655
+710

lIV

X,

lIV!

--r--

iDS .

Conslructoon dllectoon

:'
!".",

+680:- ,;
I'"

+850r

Call

';';~4

,~ . . ~~

In $1111

"

';-:-+530

+850

"".

Fig. 2.15 S Influence of precasting

Ir ono applies to these cantilevers the simplified rule of the Ministerial Circular
letter of 2 April 1975, the moment is 6600 kNm (=660 tm) this conftrms that this
rule is adequate when the cantilever beams are built simultalleously and rapidly.
especially in the case of prifabricated structures. This rule, which does not take
into accoWlt the eventual age difference between the cantilever beams, seems to
give excessive results for the moments at the connection of the two cantilevers if
they are built one after the other. The results given by this rule have also been
compared with those calculated by the program on the Angers bridge. This
structure has a continuous deck with multiple 8S-m spans. The cantilever beams
were built and joined by moving from one abutment to the other. It was simplified
for the study into a structure with three equal spans fully fixed at both ends. Each
span was built by integration of two unequal cantilevers comprising respectively
11 and 12 segments. This asymmetry led to a sloping creep moment diagram
(Fig. 2.159),
Two hypotheses have been considered: a precast deck, as it was built, and a
cast ill situ deck. It can again be noted that the asymmetry of construction has
less effect in the case of cast ill situ decks. The specified rule also expresses the
asymmetry of the cantilevers, but gives in both cases a higher value than
calculated by the computer program.
The variation of moment due to creep in the joint section in relation to time,
shows that more than 90% of the total moment is reached after 3 years in the case

+690'"

....

+695\(57 ........ ,..,,;,;

/nsli'lldeck

_ the three lines representing the moments due to creep in in situ cantilevers
cross at a point n situated on the side of the younger cantilever.

~'

'>"':+485

. Spec,f,ed ,ule

\ .. \';00

--.

.~

Conl,lt:vc:t lIc.:um

10,111 12 s89menls

Contoleve, .wlth
11 St9mtnlS

Fig. 2.15 1)

- - - ' .. 0'.. 1 In !;111I dtc.~

----- P'ecoS! deck

- _ .. _. SpeClf,td .ult

Crccp-Angcrs hridge slully

of prefabricated structures, and after 5 years in the case of in situ structures

(fiS' 2.160),
Figure 2.161 shows all the values of creep forces and induced tensile stresses in
!he lower fibres of six structures. The structures' main characteristics are also
included. It would appear that, for all these structures, the tensile stresses in the
lower fibre do not exceed 2 MPa; this justifies the empirical rule mentioned above.
One will note that in the unusual case of the access viaduct of the Brotonne
bridge, the moment due to creep is negative. This is explained by the exceptional
structure of the deck, and its significant depth; this leads to a construction pre
stress which varies linearly along the cantilever beams. and consequently is very
large at their ends. Consequently, each cantilever is vertically deformed
downwards, but there is an upwards rotation in the end section; this creates creep
moments in the direction opposite to normal.
Generally, what confidence can be placed in the creep force calculations? The
complexity of this phenomenon, added to the problem of modelling by a
mathcmatical expression, the evolution in time of thc characteristics of thc
materials, would tend to throw doubt over the results. However, it seems definite
that the calculation program used, generally, gives with good precision the
statically determinate deformation of the cantilever beam before connection. This

124

The cantilever construction o/prestressed conCrete bridges

Pr7tdeck

500

,--

400

".""

_~_--------T--------

---

//

///

~300

I
I

200

100

fer

Time

1000

fc2 500

1500

3yeors
~.160

Fig.

Ang~rs bridg~-nft~r

2000
5yeors

Day

5 years in the case or ;1' s;11I structufC!\

n'(\fl1cnt~ nri~('.

if It"t fn'1l1 the

n\.'~th)n l\f (h~ ~mtlilc\'crs.

I'(ll~nlinl

125

be higher than calculated. This is because the long-ter," deformations after Con
nection are most probably underestinldted.
The overall defonnations of a cantilever are equal to the difference between the
deformations due to self-weight and those due to prestressing. But, generally, the
prestressing tendons are' grouted at about the time of connecting the cantilevers
together. The grouting by bonding the tendons to the concrete modifies the
mechanical characteristics of the section; in particular, it decreases the prestress
ing lever arm. From this, it results in the long-term deformations of the
cantilevers increasing by a large amount. The calculation, made for. the Angers
bridge cantilevers, with a steel/concrete modular ratio of 7, showed a 30%
increase in the deformation.
Making the section homogeneous (by bonding of the prestressing tendons)
leads also to a change
the equilibrium of internal forces in each section: this
may be regarded as a local adapla/ion by creep. Lastly, losses due to friction
along the tendons are not well understood and are often underestimated during
cantilever cnl15lruction. Consequently. this Icnds tn u decrease in the cflicicncy of

or

prcslrcssing, thus in~rensing the long-tefln deformations'.

means that the overall behaviour of the cantilever beams, under self-weight and
prestressing. is satisfactorily expressed by the calculation scheme. But where do
the crccp

Deck design

dl'ft'rnlnlitlns hl ,l"'lour Unl"" lO'lit

th~ rtul creep forces Inight

Howe\'er. it is thought thut

While waiting for research and tests which, no doubt, \viIJ increase in the next
few years. to improve our knowledge of the behaviour of cantilever bridges. it can
he m~~\lnlcd thnl lnkin~ nccnunl or the cUlllltlalivc nction of rhtrtn:JI crfC<.:fs lind
l'l'lTP I" l o"hstrihuf;ul1 IIIOUlellls, nc~un.lif1g to the <":;"~tlla,. 01 1 I\pril JC)75. ha~ lwo
il1l1llt!tli{llt!

consequenceso

It is necessary:
Nome of the S:'':~ure

48

2.5

AncJers bridqe

85 t

95.3

48

Tourville 10 RIVIere ~(Idge

90

La

46

Main viaduct (SE:7RA prOJect)

(J"

( '.IIl)

( ,)

(Mpo)

~90

8.6

-11

640

2.4

-1.5

-1

t70

5.4

-1.1

74

200

5.1

-1.1

~-

Bro'onne brid;&
~._-_

l
0

2.5

5.5
St Andre de Ct.;ozac bridge

Access Vloduct
--,._-_.-...

MOln choroc'erlstlCS

_..--.,- -- _------_

Mognon vIaduct

~_

..

.....

I
-_.

l~,

.....

120

-"-._-_ ..
Fig.. 2.161

I
- -------
2tl

585

-1.6

-210

..

100

_-
7.8

Moments due to creep calculated for several structures

+0.4
....

_....,.. .._, ........

-18

first. lu incrc:lsc the be:Ull depth :tl the point ur connection of cantilevers;
second, to maintain some residual compressive stress on the scction lo\\'cr
fibres. near the connection point, even in the case of imposed loads. of
nround 3.5 to 4.0 MPa. This leads to an increase in longitudinal prestress
ing force of approximately JO(X).

127

~WH-

"",.oL

---I

o~

'O... i

CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN FOR DECK STABILITY DURING

CONSTRUCTION

In the cantilever construction method, the piers must be capable of providina

stabllity of the deck against overturning moments due to concrctin, operationl or
to unsymmctrical placing of scgments.
For this reason. when the geometrical characteristics of the structure allow it
(nlediumlength deck, high and flexible piers), the most satisfactory solution is to
providejlxity between the deck and the piers. The pier section can be solid, but a
hO//OlV section seems to be more efficient and more economical, both during cons
truction and in the finished structure (fig. 3,1), In some cases, the hollow section
can be replaced b)'
I.. (or H.. ) section. However, because of the low torsional
stiffness of this type of section, it is necessary to limit the deflections of the
balanced cantilevers during construction, especially under wind loads (fig. 3,2). At
the Pyle bridge, \\Ohich has high H-section piers, the horizontal oscillation

amplitudes of the deck reached 400 mm and it was necessary to stay the ends of
the cantilevers by crossed cables to the abutments.
For r"u/rispan structures or for shorl piers, the linear movements of the con
crete (due to shrinkage, creep, thermal and moisture variations) combined with the
statically indeterminate effects of longitudinal prestress, coupled in turn with the
effects of pier stiffness, give rise to such bending forces as to rule out the use of a
flXed link between deck and supports to transmit them to the foundations,
The structure takes the form of a continuous beam resting on bearings (rubber
plates, Teflon,.,.) \vhich allow longitudinal movements of the deck. It then
becomes necessary to ensure the stability of the deck during construction, One
can either provide temporary fIXity between the deck and the piers, if these have
sufficient flexural stiffness, or use temporary supports placed near the piers (see
paragraph 4).
"
T\vo particular types of pier structure provide a similar result, while being
better suited for cantilever construction of the deck. These are flexible piers and
piers with a double line of neoprene bearings.

ts

'0.

!
,i

.
U
~

1 / ) "
I

i,

;:

. ~f~.

\~

en.!. '

~,',~
t .,,.;:- :1~ ~

'j
;,;

<\I'"

.f15

..

1 PIER STRUCTURE AND DECK SUPPORT CONDITIONS

88

8.,.,

to

,_.

GL

~.. '
~,

:t~ it
...J,..;

'0-

It')

an

_.....
~~~
~

1tl

N;

f..i

.~

~~

~-

....

8 t_.

<:t,
i

..

, I

0'$

.-~
0

u0

L.-~
~
;;;~?
!~~
.m-~~
._-~... ~

N:

=
~

O ::;;;

.~

u..

D_ Q:
.
'8....;
,'1 ~
_
i.

' I / ) '

.,

'0

:0

~~ -~
o

o
~

..

. ~"

'lij:~
t0 ;

~--L1 I'" .

-1 ... _
jl/).

~t

f..-U -L...!
f

~. , . , . . .
8'N
_

._
I

Iri

126
-"'''''.... "''~,.

128

The cQn/i1e\'er construction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

The flexible diaphragm piers comprise two thin, vertical or sloping,

diaphragms, linking the deck with the pier shaft. The diaphragms can be either
hinged or fixed at each end (fig. 3.3).
This type of pier has three advantages:
-

it provides an efficient support for the deck under vertical loads, because of
the twin supports;
.
it has great horizontal flexibility (for longitudinal movements to the
structure}-this resolves the problem of expansion in continuous
structures;
it provides an economic way to stabilize the balanced cantilevers during
construction by simple temporary crossbracing of the diaphragms.

In the final state, the diaphragms are individually flexible enough to accom
modate longitudinal movements of the deck and stiff enough to absorb braking
loads and to ensure the overall stability of the structure; the splaying or the
diaphragms plays an important role in the stability.
When the geometry or the structure allows it-more particularly, in the fre
quent case of a three-span structure-it is more economical to splay the
diaphragms in order to reduce the bending moments transmitted to the founda
tions. If the diaphragms are hinged at both ends, and if their axes converge at
foundation level, the bending moment at this converging point is nil, and the
distribution of stress on the ground is uniform, \vhatever load is applied to the
structure.

Design/or deck stability during construction

Such a structure is comparable with a portal frame or an arch, hinged at the

point of convergence of the diaphragms. The thrust acting at the level of the hinge,
particularly when due to horizontal loads longitudinal to the bridge, can be
resolved into a tension force in one of the diaphragms, which then acts as a
tension member and into a compression force in the other, which then acts as a
strut. For this reason, it is often necessary to prestress the diaphragms to avoid
tensile stresses.
When the diaphragms are vertical; the arch effect is lost and the overall stability
relies mainly on the resistance to bending of the diaphragms. In the case of doubly
hinged diaphragms, which offer no resistance to bending, it is necessary to stiffen
one of the piers to provide a fiXed restraint for the deck (fig. 3.4).
One must also note that duc to the flexibility of the piers, the elastic stability of
the structure must be analysed. The diaphragms supporting the deck are very thin,
and their resistance to buckling must be carefully examined.
Piers Jvlth a double line of neoprene bearings exhibit similar behaviour. They
ensure a nexible fixing of the deck, while allowing expansion under linear move..
ments (figs. 3.5 and 3.6). It is possible, by a careful choice of neoprene thickness.

\H

Flexible diaphragm piers

H- sectIon pIer

~yo"

(F) FIxed d,ophrogm~

(H) Hinged d lophrogms

Fig. 3.4

Fig. 3.3

129

Fig. 3.5

Continuous structure with flexible diaphragm piers

Piers with a double line of neoprene bearings

The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

130

"4'~

l! .
".

"-<"ij. ....,

.,

~....

.",.

,,;II.

~""

'''.lJ

(TO)

Cc.:ie line or neoflon beo"nQs

F,.,

"

u=

to reduce appreciably the bending stresses transmitted to the pier foundations.

One can, in particular, eliminate the bending moment in any part of a pier ,under a
given load.
We shall examine in greater detail in the following pages the behaviour of the
two types of piers just mentioned.
PIERS WITH FLEXIBLE DIAPHRAGMS

I dx
o i(x)

,
v=

I:; 2i +

~~~

I..:M/f' ,

"'I IrI
~1"" 0

~'

_"~I

"'7\

"Ata'\'or~t==l...- .,------

A !GlA'

l'

i(x)

IV=

I' x=

dx
-

i(x)

2sa~

2a beinl the distance between the axes of the diaphragms. If:

"" =

s= 2s

Notation (lib' J.7)

The diaphragms oi length / are identical and sloping symmetrically at an angle !p

to the vertical. The cross-sectional area and moment of inertia of the section at a
distance x from the top A (or A') of each diaphragm arc respectively s(x) and i(x).

f" -xd\"

If the diaphragms have constant cross-sections, if S and I are the total cross
seclional area and the moment of inertia of the two diaphragms together, at the
level M'. then:

SQ~

2.1

r'dx

Jo s(x)

and let U, V, W be the following charllct~ristjc integrals:

Fig. 3.6 Cor.::nuous structure with piers having two lines of neoprene bearings

;= I

(NO l C;.::e line of neoprene beo"nQs

(F

131

Let a be the equivalent cross section area of the diaphragm, such that;

Desigll/or deck stability during construction

2.2

-if . then 1,-:- 2;(1

2",,)

Dlsplaeement eharaeteristies of piers with flexible diaphragms

The displacement cllaracteristics of a diaphragm can be expressed by linear equa

tions linking the movements at the top of the pier (9, U,IC) to the forces applied to
.
it(M. Q,N).
The diapllragms AB and A'B' arc assumed to be linked at top and bottom by
the two solid sections AA' and BB'. The section HO' is fixed, displacements
arising from other elements of the pier being calculated separately. The displace
ment equations are thus as follows:

0'

B..:AM +BQ
BM + CQ

Ill)

sll)

Ii=

,( I)

v= KN
H

A, B, C, K represent the displacement coefficients of the diaphragms.

2.2./

In

n\

Fig. 3.7

Piers with flexible diaphragms-notations

Displacement characteristics of diaphragms of variable cross section M, Q. N are

the components relative to O'(midpoint of AA') of the general resultant of the
forces applied to the piers; ll, u, Y are the components of the displacement of the
scctionAA' (fig. 3.7).

The callti/el'er constructiOll ofprestressed C01lcrete bridges

132

Design for deck siabiliry during construction

If m, I, II and 111', 1', Il' are the forces in the diaphragms at T and A', the follow..
ing equations can be written:

cross sectioll, the calculations are simplified as follows:

(a) Conditions ofequilibrium

both ends

Webs fixed at

Webs fixed at top and

hinged at bottom

fiXed at bottom

the equilibrium of the system at 0 can be expressed by:

M = m + m' + a sin ,(I + I') - a cos ,(n - n')

Q= (1 + 1') cos cp + (n - n') sin ({)

.v = -{l- t' ) sin cp + (n + n') cos '9

(b) Conditions

0/ displacement

the displacements
Bresse formulae

(J),

A = 1/E1

B = P/2EI

a, ~ and co', a',

p' of the points A and A' come from the

/.1

4: I1r + tx

nrV

tV

Ei
E
E
Jo ---dx=c.o
., ---xdx=
+ tx
Y
a =CJ)ol +
wof
+
Jo B E E
00=000+

C=-(2 + Po)

6EI

o +-+-

111

dx

00

A = a cos ~ + ~ sin q>

~

cos cp

9' = co'

A' = a' cos q- P' sin cp

~' = a' sin cp + ~' cos fit

(c) Conditions of compatibility

The conditions of compatibility bet\\Oeen the displacements of the points A, At

and G are expressed as follows:
U

= A=

).'

,_ = v-a9

J,l'

8=0

/-1
C = - ( I + 2po)

31

C=oo

a,

= a sin ~ +

8==0

ordinates as follows:

1-'
I )
C=--'(J+-(3+2po)
3El
2po

+_1)
2Po

1)

,,1
Eo

000 being the rotation of the diaphragm AB about B, and E being the
longitudinal modulus of elasticity of concrete,
Similar equations give the displacements w', a', ~' of A'.
A., ~ and 9', A', ).1' are obtained by shifting the
The displacements

9=

(I + 2po )

El

A =I- ( 1 +
/
2po

"i' -:::
s
E

I2
B := EJ

A=-' (1

and in the cnse of \vcbs hinged at both ends:

+ --

. ~=-

/ (. 1)

A=- 1 + EI
2po

t~V

111

\Vebs hinged at top

and

= \' + aO

By cancelling the unkno\vns in the various equations above, one can calculate 9,

u, v in relation to M, Q and N. In the case of verlical diaphragms with a constant

2.2.2

Properties o/piers wirhflexible diaphragms

By studying the previous equations, it is found that the system formed by two
vertical diaphragms differs from a standard beam with torsional and flexural stilT
ness characteristics, only by the coefficient Po'
In the case or diaphragms fixed at both ends, this coefficient appears only in the
equation of horizontal displacement u. The behaviour of the two diaphragms is
the same as a beam in the case of vertical displacement u and rotation 9. The same
applies when the horizontal displacement u is caused by a moment only. On the
other hand, ir created by a horizontal force, the horizontal di5plnccmcnts are
greatly increased. (Po normaJly ranges between 30 and 80); this shows the
horizontal flexibility of this type of pier.
This phenomenon is even moore enhanced if the diaphragms arc singly or
doubly hinged, as is shown in the following chart, where the displacement
coefficients At B, C are shown in the case where the terms including l/po can be
neglected.

The canti/ever construction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

134
Displacement
coefficients

Fixed
diaphragms

1
1

1/2

Singly hinged
diaphragms
at
at
top
bollom
I
2
2

Doubly hinged
diaphragms

Multiplying
coefficient

111
11/21
Po(lJ/3/)

co

Desigll/or deck stability during construction

135

'.

For diaphragms with rectangular section of thickness e. the coefficient Po expresses

the relative spacing of diaphragms:

Po=6(~f

The previous properties remain qualitatively valid if the piers are sloping.
, 1400

2.3

(0 )

Examples of muclureahavlna piers with Oexible dlaphr,.....

We will now give several examples of prestressed .concrete bridges having piers
with flexible diaphragms.

2.3.1

(bl

28.00

__._--_.- ..._._....

Chois)'/eRoi bridge Ol'er the Seille (fig. 3.8)

This structure comprises two identical half bridges. Each half has a prestressed
concrete deck with three continuous spans (37.5 m. 55 m. 37.5 m) fixed on two

.,,14.00
...

I
I
I

lb)

Fig.3.8 Choisy-Ie-Roi bridge

Fia 3.9 Piers in the river-Choisy-Ie-Roi bridge

136

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Desigll/or deck stability during cOllstructiOIl

137

piers. Deck and piers form a symmetrical portal frame. A system of tubular steel
piles, driven into the limestone to refusal, forms the foundations (fig. 3.9). The
superstructure includes, below each box beam, two thin diaphragms fixed at both
ends, sloping at an angle of 0.065 radians to the vertical; their thickness is 0.4 m.
These diaphragms were precast (approximate mass: 2S t). Their axes .met near
foundation level, reducing the bending moments at that level. Fixity between pier
shaft and diaphragms, on one hand, and diaphragms and deck on the other, was
achieved by means of 12 8 mm looped prestressing cables. During cantilever
construction of the deck, the diaphragms were temporarily stiffened by a
triangular steel frame forming the web of a beam, whose nanges were the
diaphragms (fig. 3.1O(b. This steel frame had to be partiaUy submerged inside
heavy fenders acting as shock absorbers; they were plac:ed betWHn the
diaphragms to protect the piers against the impact of floating debris. The system
was completed near the top of the diaphragms, by cross-bracing tubes pre
compressed by nat jacks (fig. 3.1 O(a.
A detailed study of the pier displacement coefficients was made according to
the three following hypotheses:

-!

.E.;,
~I

./I
.

Diaphragm
type
Fixed
Mixed
Hinged

3.98
12.7

Pier
elasticity
C

54.62 973.49
234.02 4670.1

Ek

0.918
0.978
1.026

1.-(

i
'"
..

'ij

:.0

.
:::;

:::Vl
Brakina
load on
deck F
M

Unear
variations
,(~6'" 10')

'M

-232s -157s +3.4F +S.7F

-231s -154s +5.1 F +8.7F
-230s -150s +6.3F +10.7F

M '.

'M

+7.4' +24.7
+6.4 +21.5
+5.9 . + 19.7

...;
~)

i1:

.::!
'J

2.4
1.3
0.9

r;
c:

OS

.~

c:

....J

The following conclusions may be drawn:

'"
E

ell

-5
.....
o

M: bending moment in the deck above the pier, on the side of the main span
J>(: bending moment at the pier head
Q: horizontal force at the pier head

>

.D

u
.&

""

In the following chart, we show the main results of this study which involves also
the displacement coefficients of the pier and of the foundation piles.

Displacement
coefficients

g'"

./. I~...0
L~

diaphragms fixed at both ends;

diaphragms hinged at both ends;
mixed diaphragms (fixed at the top, hinged at the bottom).

Imposed
load on
central
span

co
C
.r;;

the deck is effectively fIXed, whatever the fIXing conditions of the

diaphragms at their ends. The fixed end moment in the central span when
perfectly fIXed will be 265 s; whereas the moments shown in the table are
around 230 s (85% fIXing);
the pier elasticity does not vary greatly: &m = 1.12;

0'

.su
o

Iii

i=

The calltilever COllstructiOIl o/prestressed cOllcrete bridges

138

!'

Desigll/or deck stability during construction

139

t-t'~-:--::~
- - - -C=~:1- -t T-t
.
I
I

.1.

_
~

1!l'CX)
~,...::
_ m
_ ,

N -!

RUd

lJi

tf).
~

N:

j,

I.

I;
1"':1

;::1 ~l

'

IN'!
.

Miud

Filed

,
I

Miled

- , - -Hinged

fiinged
Syrr.:Tricol verlicolloods

Longitudinal hotizontollood (bnoking I

Fi&. 3.11 Position of the point of zero bendin& moment

-

2.3.2

the position of zero bending moment corresponding to the structure with

fixed supports, moves slightly upwards when the diaphragms are fIXed.
Under horizontal forces, the variation of the zero bending moment, as a
function of the diaphragm end condition, is much more sensitive (fig. 3.11);
the horizontal stiffness of the pier varies with the end conditions of the
diaphragms.

", ..,..,

--

._--!

3 .. _ .#

300 .

Courbevoie alldJuvisy bridges on the river Seine

The Courbevoie bridge is very similar in design to the Choisy-Ie-Roi bridge. It

also consists of a portal frame in prestressed concrete, with three symmetrical
spans (40, 60 and 40 m long) (fig. 3.12). Each support comprises two half-piers
whose fOWldations are in compact limestone. The superstructure comprises two
thin vertical diaphragms, placed under each box beam of the deck, and forming a
V transversely. The distance between the central planes of the diaphragms, which
have the shape of a parallelogram, is 2.05 m. The diaphragms are 0.45 m thick
and 3.2 m wide. They are fixed at the bottom and hinged at the top. They were
cast ill situ and fixed to the pier and to the deck by looped 12 +8 prestressed
cables.
The Juvisy bridge has six continuous prestressed concrete spans, with an
overall length of 213.5 m. From the left to the right bank, the spans are: 18.8,
18.8. 41.8, 66.6, 41.8 and 25.7 m (fig. 3.13). The two piers in the river Seine are
founded on footings constructed inside cofferdams. The pier superstructure is
made of two thin diaphragms fIXed at the bottom and hinged at the top. The

V':""

4.50~

r-r---t:j

, 119.3

'~

I 1178

~~

..

c ..~L..t.l.~ 1.~~ ';::P.....;

;>"""".'"<4"".,.,.,5:1@;:. ~
DOO . . ._-_

,~

(b) Piers in Ihl: riwr

Fig. 3.12 Courbevoic bridge

500
_......

140

The cantilever constructiOIl of prestressed concrete bridges

.
\~;,

Jf1

,;( :?

Design for deck stability during cOllstruction

141

diaphragm thickness varies from 0.60 to 0.40 m; they are inclined symmetrically
at 0.0805 radians to the vertical. They \Vere precast and fixed by prestressing. as
in the previous structure.

:: .~

I'"

'.

. ./:f

(a) General view

740

jo.43

.
i

740

.4g~~_i

33.00

---,
--L

.-.-.... . -.........._-..........

21.00

r-
(b) Piers in the river

Fig. 3.13

J uvisy bridge

2.3.3

Chilloll viaduct (fig. 3.14)

This structure. \vhich overlooks Lake Geneva, comprises t\1.'O parallel viaducts
with an undulating line in plan more than 2 km long. There are 23 continuous
spans, in prestressed concrete; the standard spans are 93 or 104 m long. Four
expansion joints separate each viaduct into sections several hundred metres long.
The longitudinal stability of these sections is assured by the abutments and by
fixed piers of special design.
The standard piers comprise two vertical thin diaphragms, 0.80 m thick, 8 m
apart. Their height can reach a maximum of 36 m. The diaphragms are hinged at
the top and fixed at the bottom in the pile cap when the pier height is more than
22 m; the. diaphragms of shorter piers (height less than 22 m) are hinged at both
ends. The fixed piers are stiffened by a longitudinal prestressed diaphragm \vhich
nllows lhc.:nl to absorb the forces induced by braking an~ lincnr movements of the
deck. Because of their spacing, the diaphragms are never under tension and do not
require any prestressing. During deck construction, the sta bility of the pier is
ensured by tcnlpornry steel bracings anchored in the diaphragms by high strength
prestressed bolts.

The cantilever construction u[ prestressed concrete bridges

142

tY

~':

40
-"I~ I

I
.
,

.i.~~~~

III I

~::=ro

. "'._
+. _

Frey$sinel hinges/

I
I

R'
elnforcement for the
s~pport of the lounchin9
ard r
9
Temporary crossbroein9

~I

Pia. J.l S Malnan viaduCl-lonaitudinaJ scedon

2J.4. MQ,nQn ,ladUCI (fta- 3.15)

The MaSDen viaduct. on the Nice bypass on the ~A8 motorway t comprises a pre

16

(tiS. 3.15).
~
Tho pieri ." mlde or double H shaped shaftli the distance between the axes is
12 m. They have a maximum heiJht of 95 m above the valley bottom. The piers
behave 8$ thin vertical plates of variable section, directly flXed on the foundation
footing (fia. 3.16).
Because the structure is situated in a seismic area, the deck is fixed to the west
abutment and transversely restrained on the other piers and abutments, either by
flXing on the shafts for the central piers, or by antiseismic keys positioned at the
neoflon bearinp in the east pier and abutment.
.

stressed conert_

I
I

l3.00

s)

~----'"T 2.00

y
5.00
Rock
~ I

I 'I fl.

:1
,...;.i

-.0~

~y

~+

Fig. 3.14

143

Design [or deck stability during construction

Chillon viaduct (a) General view; (b) Standard piers

d_ with four

continuous spans (3

x 126 m

and 76 m lona)

3 PIERS WITH A DOUBLE LINE OF NEOPRENE BEARINGS

3.1

Notation (fig. 3.17)

Each neoprene bearing is defined by its plaMoo dimensions (at b), its areas S
numbern of its elementary layers and the thickness
of its ele
mentary neoprene layers.

(s = a x b), the

3.2

Deformation of neoprene bearings

The shear modulus of dasticity G of the neoprene varies according to the mode of
application of the loading- The usual vaJues are:
G

=0.8 MPa (80 t/ml ) in the case of slowly applied loading

G = 1.6 MPa (160 tlmZ ) in the case of instantaneous loading.

The direct modulus ofeJasticity E of the neoprene is usually assumed to be 3G.

.,_.~,.,-""

144

The cami/ever construction a/prestressed cOllcrete bridges

Design/or deck stability during construction

145
~N

;-r

1t

t s

>'

f1
\- - . 1

fi'iii=*

L ,-..
( I

-t s

S n(axb)

Fig. 3.17

--r---r8

/.

Neoprene bearing

;-(/
ts

t!

.iI

Fig.3.18

47

...!?-1~
l?

Deformation of neoprene bearings

: :l

"0

.!!

..
~

3.2./

Uuder a vertical load, N, each element layer settles by u;

Verti~al deformation

a/a lIeoprene bearing (selliement)

e)

u=c--N
2

..

where c is a shape coeffICient depending on the dimensions of the bearing in plan

which represents the load spreading effect on the neoprene layers of the
vulcanized plates.
If Q is one of the two plan dimensions of the beRring.

:Q'

'-ff.rl~~:

~
+:c-_-1
t

o\I')

~ 18la ~

~
r-:

~,~

-r.

91J1~
I

~~L
r

c(~)
~=c(!:)
~
a a2
b b2
0,

o
N

C/l
Q)

..I

If a hearing is constituted of n layers. the settlement is:

v,

---t----_~

r
i o :
<t
.,

,...., Oi
..(),
-.o

...;

Ii:

to

If)

If)

:2

GSa

lie)

u=c--N
2
GSa

N
'
III

Values a/the shape coefficient c

bla 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 2
3
4
5
10 <f~
" 5.83 4.44 3.59 3.28 3.03 2.65 2.37 2.01 1.78 1.70 1.46 1.27 1.18 1.15 1.07 I

Desig" for deck stability during construclion

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

146
3.2.2

147

Re/aJive rotation o/the two/aces o/a neoprene bearing

-$- : -i
-$- Ii -$-1 ~p

Under a bending moment M, the upper face of each elementary layer rotates
relatively to the lower face by an angle 6.
(;3

O=c'--M
GSa 4

Supports

where c' is a.sh~pe coefficient depending on the plan dimensions of the bearing. It
expresses the load-spreading effect on the layers of the vulcanized plates. If a is
one dimension in plan. measured perpendicularly to the rotation axis, for a
bearing constituted of n neoprene layers, the rotation 0 can be expressed as
follows:

1:$

-$-

113

8::;c'--M
4

GSa

t1'
T

Values olthe c' coej)iciellf

bla
c'

0.5

0,6

0.7

0.75

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.5

10

136.7 116,7 104.4 100.0 96.2 90,4 86.2 80.4 76,7 75.3 70.8 66.8 64.9 63.9 61.9 60

,.... _d

3.2.3 Horizontal,norelnellf 0/a neoprene bearing (distor/ion)

Under a horizontal load Q, the upper face of each elementary layer moves in the
horizontal plane relatively to the underside of the layer, by a distance, u:
E

u::;-Q
GS

The equivalent distortion is u/t.

In the case of a bearing with n layers, the horizontal displacement is

fiat 3.19 Piers with a double line or neoprene bearings

moment M is applied at the top of the pier (see fig. 3.20). Thus:

M=

nE

u=-Q

Id

+ 2",

2"

GS

0=
d

GSpa'

3.3

: III

Deformation of piers with a double line of neoprene bearings

If. on top of the pier, there are t\VO parallel lines of neoprene bearings nt a spacing
d, partial fixity of the deck with the pier is created. The neoprene bearings, being

distorted under a load Q, and settling under a vertical load (M/pd) due to lr1 (see
fig. 3.19), affect the deformation of the pier.
The rotational stiffness of the neoprene bearings is negligible. Consider f, the
normal force, and m, the moment transmitted to the neoprene bearings when a

with

=--6
C'lliJ
GSpa 2

!=--v
.. cniJ
pGSa

hence M = - n~

(tP-

2c

20
c'

+ -

"-,,~"""-"'''.r,",,,,,,,~

The can/ilel'er cons/ruction o/prestressed concrete bridges

148

;
~ k

'.1 ~
.

In most cases the quantity 2a 21c' is negligible compared with tfll2c.

Taking an example:

Dimensions of the neoprene bearings

Distance between the axes
b

-= I

600 x 6oomm;

d=2Am

c' = 86.2

c = 2.37

11

pGSa

M=-11(;'

A = Ap + A.
B= Bp

C= C
m-f
~

Fig. 3.20 Division of the bending moment

(2.4 2
2 X 0.6
+
2 x 2J 7
86.2

pGSa
=-
1If.)

2
(

1.2 '5 + O.OOIl)

3.4

+ C.

Properties of piers with a double Iirie'of neoprene bearings

Piers with. double line of neoprene bearings have the property, as have piers with
thin concrete diaphragms, of providing efTectivefixity of the deck, while at the
same time allowing freedom to expand longitudinally. Several advantages result
from this fixity: first, the longitudinal bending stresses are reduced in the deck at
midspan, as the change in the bending moment is transferred; at the same time,
the moments at the supports are not increased significantly, thanks to the moment
reduction in the span (see fig. 3.21).
During the cantilever construction of a deck. its stability can be increased by
substitulinll I.:oncrete blocks for the neoprene bearings and by applying a verlical
prestressing force, without having to introduce temporary supports, the use of
such temporary supports being time-consuming and expensive. It is also possible.
hy a jlldicillllS choice of Ihiekness of the neoprene layers. 10 reduce Ihe bending

If the second part of the term in brackets is neglected, i.e. the rotational stiffness
of the bearings, the consequent error is less than 1%. One can then write:
0=

2lice'
pGSa 2 (/2

149

pier can be expressed by:

,-

Desigll/or deck stability durillg cons/ructioll

OLERON VIADUCT

Imposed load 6 t / m
. iii iii

ili

iii

i i

Following this hypothesis, the deformation coefficients of the neoprene bearings

are as follows:

r.-'

2n
A. "" c prP

GSa 2

Bn = 0 .
II

&

C =--
"

Moment at
the pier

.1

2p GS

p being the number of bearings:n each line.

The coefficient B. is zero, as there is no rotation of the bearing under force Q,

rather is there horizontal movement under moment M. If A" Bp , Cp are the defor
mation coefficients of the pier (including foundations), the total deformation of the

Double line of bearings

Single line of bearings

(Moments in 1m )

Fig. 3.21

Oleron viaduct

The cami/ever construction Q{prestressed concrete bridges

150

stresses transmined to the pier foundations. Moreover, one can cancel out the
bending moment of anyone point of the pier for a given load cue.
Consider a pier with a double line of neoprene bearings, supporting a con
tinuous deck. For a particular deck loading, a bending moment M is created at the
top of the pier, and if there are no movements at the joints, the bending moment
transmitted to the base of the pier is:

Design/or deck stability during construction

IS I

()
--..

'"
if , if

,
M

M'=M+Qh

where n is the height of the pier

Eu=BM + CQ=O
hence:
1.10

B
Q=--M
C

Fixed-end pier

Piers with double line of neoprene bearings

e~ .118/1 -ell C,,>II8/1 -ell e".w

and
Fig. 3.22

.\[' = ( 1- -Bh) M = (1- Bph) M:III +M

Influence of the variation in thickness of the neoprene layer

Cp + CIt

The value of the coefficient, varies according to the thickness of the neoprene
layer. In the case of no neoprene layer, ~ is negative.

(9 =

Bh I ) .

hI

I:;JJ ='- = 77.7

I - _r_ = - -. if the pier has a constant moment of inertia

11.1

I:X = - = 1715

+=0
C. =hBp -Cp

Pier characteristics

hollow section, outside dimensions 5.0 x 3.0 m, thickness 0.3 m

h =33 m

I=7.0m~

h
EA p =-=4.71
/

3/

If the thickness of the neoprene layer is increased, the transmission coefficient

becomes positive. In the case of a very thick layer of neoprene, is equal to I, and
the bending moment remains constant along the pier (i.e. the neoprene is
redundant) (sec fig. 3.22).
Let us stud)' the case of a pier with a constant moment of inertia, fully fixed at
the supporting foundation, having a double line of neoprene bearings, being sub
jected to a maximum reaction of 10 000 kN.
-

21

C,
2
The moment .\1' transmitted to the base of the pier is nil in the case of

Four neoprene bearings are placed in two lines at a distance 2.4 m apart in
the longitudinal direction.
Dimensions of each bearing: 600 x 400 m, three layers of (12 + 2).
Deformation of the neoprene bearings:
b

a = 0.40 m - = 1.5 c = I. 70 S = 0.24 m1

a

1/

=J

p=2 &=I.2xlo- 2 m G=I.6MPa E=3.9xI04 MPa

EA.

2n

= Ec ~
- - 2 = 0.97
PIC GSa

EB ... 0
nt
EC =E--=915

2pGS

. . ~~ ......~.~

The cantilever construction ojprestressed concrete bridges

152
-

Designjor deck stability during construction

Number of

;s;::.

Total deformation of the pier:

= 4.7 I + 0.97 = 5.68

EB = 77.7

EA

EA
EB
EC

Flexibility of the pier in the structure with fixed joints:

Ek = E (A -

B2 )
C

3.38

M'

Ek

cp

nil

77.7 x 33
1 - - = 1-----=+0.03
C
2630

The bending moment M' transmitted to the base of the pier is very small (3% of
M). To give the theoretically zero value to M', the thickness of neoprene should be
such thai
ECp

EC =-*860

2
correspondingto 11&'" 34 mm.
The following table indicates the variations of the parameters A, B, C, k in rela
tion to the neoprene thickness.
It can be noted that, in order to eliminate the bending moment at the base of the
pier, the necessary neoprene thickness is 8 mm for a 20-m-high pier, and 34 mm
for a 33-mhigh pier.
3.5 Innuc:nee of the thickness of neoprene bearings on the stress variation in
threespan structure

=-M

Bending moment
diagram in
the pier
(II = 33 m)

= 0.25 -I = 1.18

Transmission coefficient of the moments into the pier

1I

In order to demonstrate the influence of the thickness of neoprene, we have

studied the effect of modifying the number of layers of neoprene on the bcndinLl
moments in a three-span structure. The structure under consideration has a sym
metrical three-span continuous deck resting on two piers which are identical to the
one described in paragraph 3.4. The deck is a box beam with a variable second
moment of area: its span~ measure 44. 70 and 44 m respectively. We have
calculated the bending moments in the deck and in the piers in the following cases:
deck fIXed at the piers;

.5

4.71
77.7
1 715

5.03
77.7
2020

5.36
77. 7
2325

5.68
77.7
2630

6.00
77.7
2935

6.33
77.7
3240

l.le

2.03

2.76

3.38

3.93

4.46

-0.50

-0.27

-0.10

....

....

Ek = E(A - B

Flexibility of the pier without neoprene:

Coefficients

EC= 1715 + 915 = 2630

,=

153

Bending moment

diagram in a
lower pier
(Ir = 20m)

r,f
.100

l
1
..
fJ
f..
'"'

0 "

10"

'"

,~"

'0'"

.').'

+0.03

...

+0.13
"00

..

'tlUI

_nl'

~;,

-,

iI"

+0.21
., ?O

17

.,

t,

.(1 ~.

l'....

lfJ
....

deck supported elastically on the piers through one, two. three, six or nine
layers of neoprene (12 rom thickness);
deck simply supported at the piers.

The loading cases under consideration are those to which a prestressed con
crete structure is normally submitted, i.e.:
-

selfweight of the deck: uniformly distributed load q = 1.9 tim;

expansion of the deck with a rate of 2 x 10-- corresponding
temperature increase of 20 at the end of the construction period; .
contraction of the deck with a rate of 4 x 10-, corresponding
temperature decrease of iOC. combined with the shrinkage and
deformntioll clTects associated with the prestressing (2 x 10);
imposed load Sz = 4.5 tfm uniformly distributed on the central span

to a
to a
other
(load

A(lJ)~

imposed load S I = 6.8 tim uniformly distributed on the end span (load

braking load F = 1St on the deck, which is roughly equivalent to one

twentieth of the A(l) load.

A(I,:

v.
~

Tnblc I. Bending nl0l11cnt :tllhe top uf the piers in relation to the neoprene thickness

Numbcrofncoprenc layers

0
(fIXed)

92
184
+ 216

+ 106
+ 68
136
+ 174

93
+ 53
- 106
+ 146

-,

M>O

60
+1700
-1420
101
+2017

M<O

-I S81

-1367

Loading cases

-
+ 124

Deck self-weight q = 1.9 tim

Deck expansion, + 2 x 10-
Deck contraction, -4 x 10.....
M>O
B.M. with no load

M<O
Loading of central span S 2 = 4.5 tim
Loading of end span S J = 6.8 tim
Braking load 15 t

30
+1440
-1240
97
+ 1 711

+
+

+
+

84
43
86
127

13
+1270
-1120
93
+1509

-+11502

-1226

9
68

27
S4
95

' + 58
+ 19
-

38

+ 77

-1030
90
+1367

6
+
+ 930
- 850
80
+ I 105

+ '20
+790
-740

-1122

-795

74

+941

Extreme values of bending moment

924

The vaJues have been calculated above the pier axis and at the level of the deck centre tiDe. Units are tnt.

Table 2. Bending moment at the base of the pier in re1ationto the neoprene thickness (tm)
Number
Loading cases

0
(fixed)

Deck self",,'eight, q = 1.9 tim

31

J
-Ill
+222

+218

+ 13
- 77
+ 154
+167

-157
+314

M>O

+283

- IS
-129
+258
+243

M<O

264

-188

-144

-liS

820'

-435

.;,..198

i97

-207

159

- 74
163
+609
-7N(\

Loading of central span.

S2.=4.S tim
Loading of end span,
S. = 6.8 tim
Braking load 15 t
Extreme values of
bending mornent

Continuous
beam

+ 404
+ 342

Deck expansion, 2 x 10+4

Deck contraction, 4 x 10-"

8.M. with no load

62
202

or neoprene layers

~I

>0

if <0

+ 698
-1243

167
+S77
-51R

G=24m

+ 20
- 60
+120
+140

0
-130
+260
+260

-64

.- 40

-130

47

+ 176

+265

-265
: 170

-400

.558

-380
180
+527

-S50

--624

186
+591
-62(,

0
(S20)
f

780
(.50

v.

Desiglljor deck stability during construction

156

~I
~I

00

0'"
'.0 '"
"'0

r-o

NN

r ... r l

.~

The resulting bending moments in the structure, under these loading cases are
summarized in Tables 1 to 3.
These "alues cali f'ir some comment.
i:",.:

'

l!

-'"

00

'I') V)

v.

NM

...
<:)

\ON

00

~-.c

-.c

+ +

I I

.!:!

'5

u
>.

.!!

"'0
cor--

...,

"
'0
-00

Cl\r-

00

NN

0""

OV"l

000

O-~

I I

:
c

.g

"'Iv

.!:
~

,~

..
+ +

+ +

CJ\\O

...,N

+ +

I'

'<

':.'

"
' J

(""I

,.,

.~

:;~

..

r{':--;~rding t;1i..' .-!r('~. th~ ~:~.l!nber of ncop:",(~;~~ 11~;~'"

l\1any striJcturc:-.

hn\'~

hee,'

b~l~!t

with doub;f

!ir.e~

:a:Jt!(1 '~:;d Ill", :~:ni~ Lr:l.\:'c U

,...

c ;

f"~

+ ...

-,-,

.:;; ':.:;>

;;,.,

~tt'i_

C'.

C"

('0

.:..

.J.

..-\

.21

. .,.

I
E

111:11,'
I: ~:-:---:-:-:-:-:-:

'~

'"

,-_-:---:_-:-:-:-~~

,..;

Temporary cofferdam_III

<:)

".~'~''':''

:0

'"

!-

I'.

1- .. ~;...,:'''''':.l

"!'";:\

1::

~
- i'

(;

:;;
,~

..

""c

:i1
Pf:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:
PI
".;":._.

~R

g 0

Roc~ __.:.

01

I~

i . :
--~
'

',~

Immersed concrete

~a.e.

Ii'" Q, C ."
:iulfi~~lfi

11.50

sc"":

-sea
a.
_ D !.~ea
.. II D"

1!~ ~i:,r
I;:--:---:
"', - .:

~
'0

'";:\

-=

i:.d

:-_. ci-:'LI
fU '

..__,
.

~-~

i,. ; - : ; ' _ ' v : ;

II" I

:,::

aa.

lX::1ni"ri'S.

;:~!. '.:~'II"

ilt'

;'\!'.

"

u."c

!1CC'PP'~:C
1,\

="

c-"

8.
c\.c

c,f

0:..;" ;""':

~;";"';'::"":";'';''~:--~
~.

r.ot sig.ni~(. ~~;:tl\'

3.6 Structures with a double line of neoprene bearings

,
(:;

rlC)C5

.. ~c:t the m~X;ri:~.,,, u~nJi{i:~ t:~,<Jn:el1~. \Vh~~ t;"j-'; :'.'<,.. i~):r 0;-laycr~ "i:1.r:",:~ '-";>~rn
one to six, the m:ni,num bencing moment at ~he support decrc~5es \.' ,-dy
6% and at mid-span increases by 10%. The extreme case of r.i:le iayers
should be avoided as this piling up of neoprene could create instability in the
bearing. Whatever the number oflayers. there is always a good fixing errect of
the deck on the pier, with the advantages mentioned earlier and an important
decrease of the midspan bending moment, for a small increase at the support.
','
," (b) Regarding the piers, there is an optimal thickness of neoprene which leads to
minimal stresses at the foundation level. In the example, the optimal thickness
is three layers of 12 mm, which is similar to the value found for the fixed joint
structure.

'p.''-.''''l,lil.\, ~h~. ():',';;::;.

,'-,

157

Fig. 3,23

Piers of the Oleron viaduct

Roc_-23,OO

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

158

Design/or deck stability during constructi01l

159

The O/;rOll viaduct has a total length of 2870 m and comprises two span types
only:

39.3-m-long spans with a constant depth;

79-m-long spans with a vari~ble depth.

The precast concrete deck is continuous over sections which are approximately
300 m Ion,. The deck rests on 45 piers located in the sea.
The deck is flexibly supported over the piers on a double line of neoprene bear
ings. The pieri have a hollow rectangular section, with a wall thickness of 30 cm.
Th, Blois Brldg, crosses the Loire in five continuous spans: (61.5, three x91,
61.5 m Jona). Two parallel box beams make up the precast concrete deck. Their
depth is variable. They are elastically riled on hollow section piers. The deck
forms with the piers a pin-jointed frame (rli. 3.24).

,'.

4 DECK STABILITY DURING CONSTRUCTION

4.1

--l2!9
I~----

..,

The problem,

During the cantilever construction of bridges-either from piers or from abut

menls-it is necessary to ensure deck ~tabilily before lhc slructure is completC(J.
When the deck includes one or more cantilevers built from abutments, the major
part of the overturning moment comes from the deck's own weight. It is necessary
to use special arrangements, as explained in paragraph I. 1.2 of Chapter Two. The
same problems arise when asymmetrical cantilever beams are built from piers.
In most cascs dwing construction the deck c~mprises two cami/evers 0/
approximat,IY equal weight. They form a balanced system, which has static
equilibrium problems specific to this type of construction. This problem becomes
more acute u the lengths of the deck spans increase.
It is mainly the noncolnddenl concreting or placing of segments that creates an

~~

etF~~f
Z
Q
X
~

IIIII
(bl

Fig. :.1-1

Blois Bridge

WInd

(a) overall view; (b) piers in the river

Fig. 3.25

\... ...__.,-_-J
Temporary WO'U lood'nej

'- I

Segment out
01 equ,i1bllum

Stability of a balanced cantilever system

'~""""~"~""~(' . +

Tire cantilever construction 0/ prestressed concrete bridges

160

Design/or deck stability during construction

overturning moment for the balanced cantilever beams. Construction inaccuracies

(weight differences of different cantilevers) can also create overturning moments.
Site temporary loads. wind loads (fig. 3.25) or even construction ace/de/Its (the
fall of concreting equipment or segment placing equipment) can also create over
turning moments.
4.2

16

Temporary prestressing with

cables or bars in ducts

Temporary wedge

Analysis of stability requirements of balanced cantilevers

RUb~er --'11
bearing

or

The stability of balanced cantilevers is closely linked to the state equilibrium of

the structure and to the type of supports. There are three main cases to be con
sidered.

Fig.3.26

4.2.1 The deck ;s rigidly and perlnanently fixed at the piers tolorm Q rigid
frame
.
In this case the stability is ensured by the strength of the piers. Generally, the
strength is high enough to carry the overturning moments during construction as
these are smaller than the moments applied when the structure is in service. Some
times t it is necessary to reinforce the piers. Vertical prestressing can be applied to
reduce the eccentricity. of the resultant forces. If the piers have flexible
diaphragms. it is often necessary to stiffen the diaphragms as on the bridges of
Choisy..le-Roi t Juvisy and Chillon (see paragraph 2.3).

It

Temporary fixity-Lacroix-Falgarde bridge

Thus, despite the pier's small stiffness, it may be possible to ensure the stability of
the deck (fig. 3.28).
When the de~k is made up of precast segments placed with a launching girder,
the prestressina force may be replaced by the launching girder reaction, when its
central support is not over the central line of the pier (fig. 3.29). An analogous

4.2.2 The deck

The deck will be simply supported on piers possessing adequate resistance to

bending. The stability is ensured by temporarily fixing lhe deck at the plen.
This temporary fixity is provided by filling the joint between pier and deck with
wedges (in metal or concrete) together with vertically placed bats or cables which
are then stressed. Thus during construction a rigid link is formed between deck
and pier (fag. 3.26). When all the cantilever beams are linked t the joint will be freed
by removing the temporary prestressing and by substituting the wedges with per
manent bearings. Hydraulic or flat jacks will be used during this operation.
In the case of a double line 0/ neoprene bearings, the procedure will be similar:
the bearings being temporarily substituted by wedges located in the same posi.
tions (fig. 3.27). In this case, the vertical forces are transmitted in the same
manner during the construction period and while the structure is in usc. On the
other hand, the piers of n bridge built by the cnntilever method are subjected,
during construction. to bending moments varying alternately from P x d (dwing
the placing of segment V,,) to 0 (during the placing of the symmetrical segment
V~). An eccentric prestressing force
would zreate preflexure in the piers (equal
to fd/2). and cnn mnke it possible to double the Oexurnl capacity of the piers.

0
-.. . Prestressing bors

ft

OIO~

I"'"

I
..:... 1._ ..t. I:

1-'

I
, ,/
~OjO~
',/
1"-

+.

Fig. 3.27

Flat locks

.~.

Concrete wedges
Temporary fiXity-Piers with a double line of neoprene bearings

The cami/ever cOllstruction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

162

Desigll/or deck stability during cOllstructioll

163

"'/

Vn
f

[~~ LIITTTI1II-,r-r-.----,---r-~- Vn
Temporary fixing

f---.l.-+-J-- d

tp

",/8. Pd
2

vii

.1

Fig. 3.28 Effect of an eccentric prestressing force

Construction

v"
C#+Pd

2'

it

Construelton

Vii
C

Fig. 3.30

*' -P1.2

Effect of an asymmetric pier segment

,-'

""J[

vnr:~

is'
Fig.3.19

Eccentricity of tile central support of launching girder

result could be obtained if an asymmetrical segment was built over the pier; the
centroid of the segment would be transferred by the length of half a segment. But
this method would considerably complicate the cabling design (fig. 3.30).
Following the same principle, in the case of curved cantilever beams, a lig
nificant proportion of the bending moment due to the self weight of the cantilever
beams can be equilibrated by a preslressing force, transversely eccenlrlc to the
bearing axis. This method was used for the construction of the Saint-Cloud bridae
over the river Seine. Its balanced system, with SO-m long cantilevers, was
temporarily fIXed on elliptical piers. These piers had a maximum width of 2 m.
The deck being curved, the piers were flexed by the application of a prestressing
force which was eccentric longitudinally and transversely. A simple prestressed
fixing, central or ~ccentrie, may not be sufficient to ensure stability of the
balanced cantilever beams if accidental loads are taken into account, such as the
fall of the mobile concreting equipment. which create high overturning moments.
It may be necessary to cable-stay the piers. The cables would be lightly stressed
and would be able, by their tensile capacity, to ensure the stability of the cantilever
beams. The cable stays would also reduce the compressive forces on the wedges

when the cantilever beams arc only loaded vertically. Such a method was used
during the construction of the Gennevilliers Bridge (see paragraph 4.6).
/

4.1J The deck, ill ilsjillal state will be simpl)' supported 011 piers havillg all

illadequuteflexural capacity during construcliOIl

Temporary supports are used for stability durillg COlis/ruction. In many

structures, where the deck is independent of the piers, the piers often have a thin
hollow section with virtually no flexural capacity; they are primarily designed to
resist vertical loading. The piers caMot, on their own, resist the ovenuming
moments croated during construction; the method of temporary fixity of the deck
cannot be ulld (in any case. the small dimensions of the piers make this solution
vinually impoNiblc). ~ .tability of the cantilever beams during construction is
then achieved by placing temporary.supports ncar the piers. A single temporary
support, or two supports placed symmetrically on either side of the pier. can be
used. With a single temporary support the level arm is equal to a (or slightly larger
than a, if the deck is temporarily fixed on to the pier); a beina the distance from
the temporary support to the pier (fig. 3.31). Then:
Force supported by the pier N - CIa
Force supported by the temporary support +Cla
In the case of 111'0 lemporary supports, one support is compressed and the lever
arm is doubled to be equal to 2a or slightly Iaeger if the deck is temporarily fixed
on the pier); the other suppon being stressed in tension to the same v3Jue
(lig. 3.32). TIle deck self-weight is shared by the pier and the supports according

.__e.

....

. ,.,...-.

164

The ca It! ilever construction 0/ prestressed concrete bridges

DC?~ ign.(or

deck stability during construction

, tOO

ChassIs .... -, . ;

;~

Fig. 3.31

==::::E

Single temporary support

/
FiJling point

~c

Fig. 3.33

Fig. 3.32

"

0
I
~~

Double temporary. support

to their respective stiITnesses. If it is desired to avoid tension in one of the

temporary supports (thus avoiding a difficult anchorage condition), the supports
must be given sufficient rigidity to carry a portion pH of the deck's weight, thus
cancelling the tension created by the overturning moment. One then gets:
Reaction in temporary support N2
Reaction in the pier
Reaction in temporary support N 1

pH = e/2a) 0
N( 1- 2p)

pN + e/2a;> CIa

\Vhatever the solution, the dimensions of the temporary support must be such that
it can resist a compression equal or superior to C/Q.
The single temporary support seems preferable, except in certain special
circumstances. T""o temporary supports need t\vice the amount of material, and
only offer as compensation the possibility of starting the deck construction from
one side or the other of the pier. It has been possible to avoid the use of temporary

:11:

Fixing point

Stability of the balanced cantilevers by the launching girder

supports during the construction of some structures where the deck was made of
prccnst segments (the Rio Niteroi bridge and the 83 motorway viaducts)_ The
stability of the balanced cantilevers was ensured by the launching girder used for
the placing of the segments. The deck was rigidly linked to the launching girder by
a verticnl frnme, able to resist both tensile and compressive forces (fig. 3.33).
4.3

165

Loadings applied to the cantilever beams

There nre ~cvcral fornlS of loadings.

4.3./

Nor",alloading
deck selr-\\'eight comprising two clements:
(a) theoretical weight of the segments (weight of the segment built or

placed before its symmetrical element);

(b) random variations between the theorelical weight as designed and the

real \\'eight as built (weight differences between the two cantilevers):

construction loading, comprising:
kllou-n alid quantified loadings representing the cquipnlcnt needed for
deck construction-cranes, concreting equipment, launching girder.
etc.... These loads can vary and move during construction;
(b). Rando11l loading placed in the most disadvantageous manner; these
relate to minor equipment (pumps, compressors, etc
) to stores
nlaterials (prestressing cables, reinforcement. ctc
) and to site
labour:
wind which can act, in a differential manner, vertically on the t\VO
cantilevers thus creating an overturning moment.

166

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bndges

Design/or deck siabilily during constructioll

167

4.J.2 Aceidellialloading

Caused by accidents during construction: the fall of the mobile concreting equip
ment during its transfer. or the fall of a prefabricated segment or of its placing
equipment. The weight of these elements must be multiplied by a dynamic factor
of 2. However. one does not consider, during the study of the stabiJityof the
cantilever beams, the fall of mobile equipment during concreting, nor the raU of a
precast segment after its placing and tlxing by temporary prcstressin,.
The stability of mobile equipment during concreting. when ensured by
mechanical devices. must be assessed independently of the strength of these
devices. Similarly, st'ability of the precast segments after placing and before
threading of the final prestressing cables, must be assessed independently of the
strength of the lifting equipment.
4.4

VaJue$ of the applied loading

The l1orllialloadi"g conlprises know" loadings and ralldoll' loadings. The cvalun.
tion of random loadings is diflicult as they are closely related to the quaJity and

II

organization of the site. Generally the self-weight of one cantilever is multiplied by

1.03 WId the self-weight of the other by 0.98. The site loadina generally used is a

uniform load of SO kg/m 2 and a S t point load (fig. 3.34).

Ho\\'cver, it is thought that the magnitude of the random loading could be taken

as the sum of random differences in self.. weights and site loadings, expressed by a

formula q =!(S) decreasing when the loaded area increases. sinlil:tr to the

unifornllive loading used to represent vehicle loads in bridge design (fig. 3.35).
In the case of a 150 m long cantilever system with a 20 m wide deck, a site
2
Iloading of SO kg/m represents a total loading of 7S .t uniformly distributed on one

II

f/. 50 kg/m 2

-e_l

'CJ '
SLit
f1 {S:

Wind 22 kg/m 2

Fig. 3.34

Random loads applied to the cantilever beams-usuaJ values

"

NIH\

() (OJ / ' wain

S/

L/

-----L---------~l

FiI.3.35

Variation of random,loadin&s in relation to the length of the baJanced

cantilever system

cantilever. In reality, it is highly improbable that such a loading could be created

only by random site loadings. On the other hand, in the case of a 60 m long
hnlnnccd cantilever system \vith a 10 m wide deck, the calculated random loading
i~ 25 t. rhi:t loucJins i. uf the rilbl order.
The lame applitlln ,he
of the difference between the theoretical and actual
weight of the deck. In the case of a deck of 0.8 m average thickness, the pre
scribed londing would be 100 kg/m 1 applied to one cantilever. The total load
wuuJ~ bt; ISO I, in th~ ca~t: ur u 1SO en lung itn<J 20 In wide balanced cantilever
system. This load is equivalent to a 40mm error in the thickness of the top slab
over one half of the balanced system. On the other hand, it is thought that the
v"luc of the point loud should increase with the length of the cuntilc\'cr beams. On
site, this loading represents the weight of the prestressing cables, \\'hieh are stored
at the ends of U1e cantilever beams. They will be used to ensure the strength of the
cantilevers dUMa coaatruc;aon, Thus it is obvious that the weiaht of the cables
increases when the ICNth of the cantilever beam increases. It would be IOlical to
take this into accouq.. lIS the case of exceptionaDy large structures, a precise
inventory multbo mado oralllitlloadinaL
These assumptions WeN taken into account durina the checking of the stability
of the GenneviUiers bridgets balanced cantilever systems. The balanced canti
levers were 17~ m Ions- The foUowinaloadings were used (sec fig. 3.36):

"IC

t~t~t~t~'-i'-t-f::--,t-.~-~~t-t-t-t"""t"""t

1-

:--I

a SO kg/m J uniform load (equivalent to 20 mm of concrete placed over the

whole arM of one cantilever beam) representing the combined effects of site
loadings and errora in self-weicht;
a 20 t point load placed at the end of the cantilever.

Regarding wind. the french Code of Practice (article 14.2, vol. II, Book 61)
evaluates its loadin. on a normal area as:
100 kg/m J if the construction period lasts less than a month;
125 kg/m l if the construction period lasts more than a month.

168

The call1i/cl'(!f cOllstruction 0/prestressed COllcrete bridges

Desigll/or deck stability durillg cOllstructioll

169

50nocol'o
buiding

q'50kg/m 2

240 0

. . 27~/

.~

""-.. .

~.

./ Pie,0.. ,~
I
Fig. 3.36 Random loadings for the Gennevilliers bridge

If no precise data are given (e.g. tests in a wind tunnel), the angle of the ascending
wind acting on one cantilever only, must be taken as 100 , when the construction
period lasts more than a month. This is equivalent to a 22 kg/m J uniform load.
The wind tunnel testing of a model of the Gennevilliers bridge has shown that this
loading could be an ullderestimate, in the case of an exposed site. The tests have
been carried out on a rigid duralumin model. The model represented a balanced
cantilever system built on the right bank pier. The mobile concreting carriage was
nlso placed on the model (fig. 3.37).
It wu possible to observe the wind loads on the deck and to calculate the wind
vertical components, which would create an overturning moment on the balanced
cantilever system during construction. The Right Bank site had been chosen

I
t

1716

IS

14

13

12

Fig. 3.38 Cross seclions and locations of the wind gauges

because of its adverse layout. One ofthe cantilevers overhangs the river Seine. the
other one overhangs a valley, where a 20 m high multistorey apartment block has
been built.
.
Measurements were taken in sixteen positions along the cantilevered beam.
Each of these sixteen positions had been equipped with twenty pressure gauges.
Twelve wind directions were studied. In all cases, the wind velocity was taken at
32 mi. (lIS km/h)(.ee Fig. 3.38).
According to the results, the maximum overturning moment was created when
the wind blew with an incident angle of 120 0 This is the incidence of a wind
blowing down river. The overturning moment was equivalent to a moment created
by a uniform wind load of 42 kg/m J (92 km/h) acting vertically on one cantilever
(fig. 3.39). The standard normal dynamic loading, calculated at deck level, was
95 kg/m 2 (normal pressure in the region I 70 kg/m J ; site coefficient = l.3S) and
the extreme loading was 166 kg/m J
4.5

:1
il

I.

2TtCJLJf9

I
I

Measuring poinls
1 234
5 6 7 8

Fig. 3.37 Wind tunnel model ofthe GenneviDiers brldge

Principle of the assessment of stability

The cantilever beams, during construction, must be assessed for their stalic
equilibrium limit state. This assessment can be made by the new semiprobabiJistic

The cantilever COllstruction 0/prestressed Concrete bridges

170

Design/or deck stability during construction

171

N
1860

Sonocotro
building

..

"'-.
/1
.I

Seine
River

!/

'I:
/
90
"
0

./'

.---./

n
/
U/

Wedges

Equivclent pr'$$ur.
:42 k9/m 2
Fi~ ..\.JII

M:lxil1ll1l1l

._11-

Dynamic prenur. of r.ference

Normal preS5ure ~: 9~ kg 1m 2
Extr.me pressure ~ : 166 kg/m a

o\"l:rtlirnill~ 11101111:111

\hll:

1\'

willd

1:\llIhn!.:1I1

"~VM
1'n:SMII'1:

42 kg/Ill:

theories of safety: the ultimate strength is checked for all the elements which affect
the stability of the balanced cantilever system, by increasing the applied loads and
decreasing the strength of the materials.
If the balanced cantilever system is temporarily fIXed on the pier, for example. it
is secured on two tines of wedges by prestressing cables; one checks that the
cables are not loaded to their ultimate capacity and that the wedges are not
crushed. One can also check that the moment created by applied loads around
one of th<. lines of bearings is less than the ultimate moment of resistance of the
stabilizing elements. If the deck rests on temporary supports, each element must
be checked for its ultimate strength. Among the applied loads. the most severe are
generally the accidental loads and they must be used for the choice of the stabUiz
ing system: temporary fixing. temporary supports. cable stays, etc. It is necessary
that, under standard imposed loads, not factored, the deformations of the
cantilever beams are kept small. To achieve this. it is necessary, in the case of
temporary fIXing on two lines of wedges, that the wedges stay in compression
(fig. 3.40); it is also necessary, in the case of temporary supports, that the deck
does not lift at any of the supports.

Fill. 3.40

4.6

ScrYic~.bilily

limit stille

Cable s..yina of the balanced cantilever system .

Consider a balanced cantilever system; it is temporarily fixed on the pier, and

comprises two cable stays H' and H". The cable stays are symmetrically
positioned on either side of the pier at a distance a from the pier axis. They are
initially stressed with a force Eo for H' and Fo' for H" (lig. 3.41). The deck is
temporarily fixed on the pier by wedges Band Ir and by prestressing cables F
and P. The ~bles are not grouted and are initially stressed by Fo. The distance
between the axes of B and B* is 26; it is equal to the distance between F and P.
The prestressing cables and the cable stays have the following characteristics:

Cable Slays
H' - tension F', cross secti"on area S'.length I' flexibility X'

I'
=-

ES'

I"

H" - tension F", cross section area S",leneth I". flexibility X" == __
ES"

._ _,f/lf

The cantilever construction o/prestressed con~rete bridges

Design/or deck stability during construction

1731
1

~~ and

1~

M't' are due to the rotation of the pier head. If k is the rotational

stiffness of the pier: = kM and:

v_

H'

--

iI

K{;

K{~:

TP

F*

~;JK

J_

Function of cable stays

ka~ )

( I + -K'-

"ka

F' - - - F" +
K'

F)

+ 2F)b = 0

2/-"

(4)

()

II

k
K a +b)
k
- nh - - --~- (F - F ) -:- F', --- ad/)
A"
K' 2h
II
0
K'
(6)

(a + b)F' - (a - b)F" - (d - b)P + (A! + 2F)b

=0

(7)

For small values of P, the compression in the link between deck and pier is not
reduced, F = Fo and:

F=P=Fo

Pd

P=Fo

F"

= F~ -

~:

ka
Pd
K' + 2ka~

(8 )

(9)

These equations are valid until p:= Po, Po being such as:

F' == Fb + L\F; + t.\F}

(I)

= Fr/ - Mt" - M';'

(2)

F= Fo + l:1F

/0'''. "-" (F
A"'

I::S

F, F't F" can be calculated as follo'W's:

F"

1-"

Beyond a value Po of P, Po being such that Mo > Nob (No being the normal force
acting on the pier head), the resultant tends to move away from the axis of the
wedge B* , the deck lifts from wedge B and the tension in cable F is increased.

F> Fo

k a-b

M'!.'=---M"
.
K" 2b

+ b)F' - (a - b)F" - (d - b)P + (N

An overturning moment M = Pd is applied to the balanced system. This

moment is due to the weight of a segment or any other load P. at a distance d
frOJll the pier axis. The behaviour of the system will be studied for difTerent values
of load P or moment M.
When P = 0, the system is in equilibrium, and there is no deformation. When P
increases, a bending moment is applied to the pier; the pier head and the cantilever
beams rotate by an angle a. thus creating an increase in tension in the cable stay
H', nnd a decrease in tension in H".

F" >Fo'

K"

The system comprises four unk-nown quantities p', F', F'II, and t:.F and four equa
tions (1), (2). (3) and (4). By replacing l:1F by its value IiF = F"- Fo in the equa
tions (1), (2) and (4), the system is reduced to three equations aHowing the calcula
tion of F. F' and F", Generally K' = K" and Po = I'~" One can then write the
above equations as follo\vs:

(J

Tensions F and pt-. section S. length I. nc:<ibiJily I< =:

>F~

The equilibrium of the balanced cantilever system around the wedge B* can then
be expressed:

Prestressing cables F and F+

F'

I1F" =-Gi\J

K a +b
Mi = - - - M
K' 2b

(a

Fig. 3.41

6F,6.F; and 6Fi' are due to the tilting of the deck around the ~\'edge B* and:

H
Pier(k)

2b
0

k
=-aA1
K' ,

,I

...

~F'

F'

II

(3)

Po

b(N + 2Eo + 2F;')

=:: - - - - - - - -

d( I _

2ka'

2ka 2 + K'

(10)

) - b

When P> Po' the compression in the link between deck nnd pier is reduced and in

The callti/erer COllslruclioll 0/preslressed COllcrele bridges

174

the prestressing cables, the tension F is increased so that F> Fo. The equations
(5), (6) and (7) are used to calculate F, F' and F".
During the construction of the Genevilliers Bridge, the stability of the balanced
cantilevers had to be assured by a cable-staying system (fig. 3.42). The overturn
ing moment, which could have been created by the fall of a mobile concreting
carriage, was very large (M = 128000 kNm = 12800 tm).
The results of the above calculations, in the case of Gennevilliers are compiled
in.a simplified form in Fig. 3.43. They correspond to the case of a pier, where the
prestressing used for temporary fIXing, comprises four cables (12 T 15 cables),
and where the pier is cable-stayed by four cables; each cable stay is made of one

,
'0/

Desigll/or deck slabilily during COIISlrUClioll

175

12 T 15; the cables arc symmetrically placed in pairs on either side of the pier, at a
distance 22 m from the pier's axis.
The diagram shown in Fig. 3.43 represents the variation of the tensile forces in
the temporary fixing cables F and in the cable stays F I and F", when P increases
(d is assumed to be 80 m). The temporary fixing cables are initially stressed b)' a
force of 165 t (1650 kN), and the cable stays by 100 t (1000 kN).
The load P = 160 t corresponds to the fall of a mobile concreting carriage
(weight, 80 t, dynamic coefficient, 2). It can be noted that, up to P = Po 03 185 T,
the comprOilive forco. do not decrease in the wedges. When P> Po, the tensile
force. increase in cable llay. H' and decrease in cable-stays H". When P
reaches approximately 250 t, the tensile forces become nil in cable stays H" and
increase more rapidly In cable stays H'. The increase in tensile forces in the
temporary ftxing cable. is small and thus can be neglected in a rapid calculation.
The random and known site loadings being taken into account, if a mobile con
creting carriage [clI. the maximum overturning moment would be 176000 kNm,
i.e. P,.. 220 t. The tensile forces would reach 370 t in the cable stays H', that is
185 T pcr 12 TIS oablo. lbil value is well below the cable ultimate strengtn.

Tensile forct in the cable Slays

F-F'-F"

670T

\~.

\\

.," "

.\
\

,,"

,,"

",,550 T

--------~~~;

\,

. \

'.\

.\.\
'. .
.100

117 1051

129O~
~ .....

Po
Cable slays' tenSIle fortes F'ond F"

..........,

__

TemporOty fixilKJ toble' lensile fOtus F _ ...-

Fig. 3.42 Gennevilliers bridge-cable-stayed cantilever beams

90 .320'

160 185

PT

Load applied at the

"'~~~~40f the canldevtr

'

Fig.3.43 Dia8l'1m of the tensile forces in the cable Slays

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

176

Design/or deck stability during construction

177

5 SOME EXAMPLES OF TEMPORARY SUPPORTS

5.1

LOnqitudinal section

$o/lC101
N.E.obulmlnl

Mud
__

.
i

67.76

"!~ __ _. --""l'.. ~~-_ .. ~__.._

_.

77.00

7700'

77.00

T.. _--'f'f~--t.,"'"-,

77.00' 67.76

.U I '34.00 ><t::{::~

1!l''!UjP=4\
93.2\

473.32

21.30
I.

lrid9t on lilt

Main structure

~quay

Fi,. 3.44 Saint-Jean bridge in Bordeaux-longltudinll section

18.00

The SalnlJean brIdge in Bordeaux

The SainlJean Bridge in Bordeaux is a structure comprising six continuous spans,

resting on five river piers and flexibly secured on two abulments. The bridge was
caslin $itu with mobile equipment (fig. 3.44).
For aesthetic reasons, the river piers were designed as thin vertical diaphragms.
The foundations were circular reinforced concrele caissons. Above them were
placed precast collars acting as colTer dams (fig. 3.45). The temporary fixing of the
balanced cantilevers on the piers was made by reinforced concrete cradles, resting
on the collar-colTer dam of each foundation through a stilTening ring (fig. 3.46).
During the cantilever construction, the deck was resting nol direclly on the final
pier, but only on temporary cradles. The final pier had only a very Jow resistance
to eccentric loads.
After completion and jointing of the cantilever beams, the supports were sub-

Exlernol support mounting

Pier element

t
11201

High woter level

~--::==~

Internal support m ounfing

Colferd

Vorioble
'forced concrete

.-.

.-

-------

,
I . >
3.00'
.

. _!__ I

Moss concrele
I

I.
Fig. 3.45

l.tp5.60
900

.1

.1

'

9.00

.1

Can

:ost under woter

--e

~~.~,-.

SainlJean bridge in Bordeaux-river piers

Fig. 3.46 Saint-Jean bridge in

Bordeaux~antilever

supports

beams and temporary

The canlilever conslruelion ojpreslressed concrele bridges

178

Design/or deckslabilil)l during conslruel/on

179

~"---~ ......<';;:'

... :. t:~~:~ ...~ ....' ~

........

. ~j:. ;~~~~:.]:: . :,~~::~:w.(t~J: ;:.~.

FiC 3.49 Temporary support5 orthc bridgc dcck ovcr thc Oood glllc5
stituted; flat jacks were used during the substitution. Each beam was lifted from
its temporary cradles, and the permanent neoprene bearings were inserted. This
example demonstrates the advantage of using the foundation base or even part of
its superstructure, in order to reduce the cost of temporary supports (fig. 3.47).
5.2

The PierreBenile bridges

The two bridges of Pierre-Benite over the river Rhone each comprise a continuous

deck fixed on river piers. Deck and piers form a portal frame. The decks are made

of assembled precast segments (fig. 3.48). The river piers have a 2 m diameter

. circular section. This shape was determined' by hydrodynamic conditions. The

i:

5600..

1960C
84.0C,. 5600 I

r- -

79.00

173.~2

BoCkfil~ ~50.oo,

75.00

250.00
I I'
75.00

3.60

Fig. 3.48 Pierre Benile bridges-longitudinal section

50.00.

pier foundations are pneumatic caissons (fig. 3.50). Because of thcir small dimen.
liions. it was impossible to usc the piers for cantilever construction (If the tied.
without udding a large amount of temporary reinforcement. This reinforcement.
for each pier, was made offour columns each consisting of a 760 mOl 9 steel tube
filled with concrete. The tubes were placed in pairs on either side of each pier. At
their top wu placed a cradle incorporated in the form work of the deck section
which was cut in silU. Some means' of adjustment was necessary at each support;
because the permanent pier was. rigidly connected to the deck. no vertical move.
ment was po&Sible here. Flat jacks were used to free each temporary support of
the load accumulated during construction of the deck. In their lower part, the
tubes could transmit their reactions to the foundation caissons.
In the case of the bridge over the flood gates, this transfer of load was made
through two transverse webs, covered by a stiffening slab ensuring the transition
with the metallic tubes. Two 12 T 13 prestressing cables, placed vertically, held
the' system toaetbcr. The cables were looped in the foundation caissons, and
anchored in the deck.
.
In tbe case of the bridge over the flood canal, the solution adopted was similar
to that used in the construction of the Saint-Jean bridge in Bordeaux. The lower
end of the tubes relted on the reinforced concrete colTer dam collars used for the
foundation coastruction. Each pier was vertically prestressed by two 12 T 13
cables. They wa'e used mainly to increase the normal force in the support.

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

180

Design/or ieck stability during construction

181

312,58
67.47

92,00
-

:~l--

J.c:.~n

81.46

-~I~

+"AA'

J.

71.65
.;

0,.
'SI!
etlV

II::

~ti

~
~

Fig. 3.5 I

Downstream bridge of the Boulevard Peripherique-LongitudinaJ

,
section
RIVER PIERS

..

'

'l'l
l

:.:.:' '~1~
8':

'. A,

Transverse section

iTJ

:
.'

I'

. t.. '. .

'.

~---;~-~--,

Section AA

,.. ,_ ~.!O
I
Pier.

"'I

Sf

~,.

:3 20

oi

~:::=T;:::SS==:::~--I

.~

Z
Beom

~~

['.

: P~d"lol
....

1 .~

oN
~ ..: . '
"

0'

~~;,...;

ChQlt

,/

F"I')V"'1""';."

fl)r"",.,;

,Moss
fO\i'\dohon

.. .

640
,

_,_~~10

.n

22~~fj~
... :~?,..~

Shoft

o
26 39 ~~.
._------ ! ~

(1)

.'

. ' --Column

Normol woter level

)..

Pion
.,'
68.

t{ .

~I
5.3 The downstream bridge or the Boulevard Perfpherlque o,tr the R'ver Seine
In Paris
The downstream bridge of the Boulevard Peripherique comprises twin decks with
four continuous spans each resting on two river piers. one ground pier and hvo
abutments. The decks rest on neoprene bearings (fig. 3.51). The decks are com
pletely prefabricated. The river piers are com posed of tapered columns placed
over a' hollow pedestal comprising two pillars of polygonal section. linked by
cross-bracing webs (fig. 3.52). The piers are founded on mass concrete footings.
cast inside steel coffer danls.
Because of the small dimensions of the top of the pier. it was not possible to
ensure the stability of the balanced cantilevers during construction by fixing them
at the supports. It was necessary to use, for each pier, a single temporary support

Pion section

fJrJ)"
~

~oo"

-.~:hiir

-s~

-:

~~.-:.'" .~.
J~.

::

~t

~""':..':~~I.".'~
~: ...._ ,_14 5Q._----..ij
,-,

~- _!520

Fig. 3.52

.4

~~?.,

.- - _,.

.,

. --'' "' ' '.

"~r

4.-~--'.

~. (':L:lJ .~ ~
~: "',

'~

~'-',:",'''~''::':~''~~

:..J-~...1

,.-!?~,

40
,0

,-,

Downstream bridge of the Boulevard Pcriphcrique-river picrs

placed inside coffer dams. This layout had the advantage of decreasing the
amount of material needed, but the placing of the segments always had to start
from the same side of the pier. Each temporary support comprised a metallic tube
1020 mm +filled with concrete and resting on the pier footing. On top of this tube
was placed a reinforced concrete trestle. The trestle was 0.8 m thick and the deck
rested on top of it (fig. 3.53). The V-shaped trestle directed the vertical loads con
centrated in the box girder flanges towards the steel tube. The head of the tube
had been reinforced to aJlow a better distribution of the forces.

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

182

Desigllfor deck stability during construction

183

88.25
2.405

i. ..~:~.~~.:_~~~~=-~.I=Ql

j r ._ :._~L:.-_~._L.~
Wee;e-shoped jOlnt-- ::::-80
Reinforce: concrete treslle Column

......_.. !

,\Too

f2 ~7

~~

;-;:O;-lr,' r-~;;;";~enclO$u(e

Steel !ube
filled with concrele

1,

~I;: it ~f

Fool

8 'I

~. ~

"'9

Fig. 3.53 Downstream bridle of the Boulevard Peripherique-temporary

support

J~

'!
o~

:a
&U

The distance between the axis oC the pier and the axis oCthe temporary'support
\vas dictated by the size of the colTer dam. It was small in comparison to the length
of the cantilever beam._ The lever arm was 2.4 m Cor 2/44.1 m long cantilevers
(fig. 3.54). The reactions in the temporary supports wero very lar,e. Tho Itatie
maximum reaction dwing construction was 1060 t. The valuo thi. reaction
increased to 1280 t, if one applied a load factor of 1.2. ThII factor could represent
a dynamic effect either durinathe placiDa of the segments or due to the
eccentricity of the wind pressures. The support reaction. of the right bank pier
reached 1380 t during the tensioning of the continuity cables of the 92 m long
central span. But at that time, the deck was a redundant structure and its stability
\vas assured. To avoid the risk of uplift of the temporary support during certain
periods of the construction, the tube-trestle system wu linked to the deck by
12 T 13 prestressing cables looped in the picr's footing, these cables having a
breaking load of 640 t. To ob~ain a similar result. some prestressing bars flXed the
deck to the piers. During the statically determinate phase of the construction, the
decks were supported on the piers through steel wedges.
The maximum concrete stress in the trestle was 13 MPa, while the stress in the
concrete of the tube reached 14 MPa, this value being calculated on a transformed
section with a modular ratio of 10 for the surrounding steel.
Because of the high value of the vertical reaction in the temporary support, a
high shear force \vas created in the sections near the support. The shear force \vas
directed upwards. The effect of this shear force was increased by prestressing
cables placed in the deck at an acute angle. The ve~ica1 component was added to
the above..mentioned shear force. Added to these forces was the Resal effect
created by the depth variation of the beams. This effect acted in the same direc..
tion. In these conditions, the nlaximum static shear force. \vas equal to J 000 t,
corresponding to a shear stress of 4.8 MPa.
To ensure the strength of the joint components of the temporary support and
the pier, it \vas necessary to placc, inside and outside the box girder, temporary
12 T 13 prestressing cables. Their inclined path created a vertical component,

!
:J

0
C

oU

-a
"-r;

or

-;t
>::

~ 1~

_J

I#=: .,~

u
1:1=

c8~

.81
... ;

'0:3
~

C'I

....
i

~~
~

..

~~ ..o
2
..,

..,.
v~
~.

184

The ranrile"er construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

Transverse section

Design/or deck stability during constructiolt

185
'///.

Lonqitudinol seetion

'11

,/

'/

",.:;'
, ,0

,.lf~~it-JOint

On. 12T13 coble looped

into t.... column

Two 12 T13 cables

looped into the pier
footing

Fig.3.S5

...

Downstream bridge of the Boulevard Pcripherique-Tempornr}'

support-detaiJs

j ~.

-~.
:':::~""";

all

;.

reducing the shear force (fig. 3.SS). There were two temporary cables per support.
The interior cables were looped, into the lower slab of the box beam and the
exterior ones into the main column. The exterior cables were guided by two pre
fabricated saddles held against the beam by prestressing. These saddles controlled
the deflection of the cable profile. All the cables were anchored on a steel joist
resting on the upper flange of the box beam. In figure 3.54 the two guide saddles
can be seen illustrating the above description. It is cleart from this example, that
the use of a single temporary support t even though it is more economical, can
create complex situations when the temporary support is positioned a short
distance from the pier. Similar temporary supports were used during the construc
tion of the Joinville bridge over the River Seine (fig. 3.57).
5.4

Fig. 3.56

Downstream bridge of the Boulevard Peripherique-Pier head and

temporary support

The Bonhomme bridge over the Siavet river

This structure comprises a continuous three-span deck, rlXed on two sloping piers
articulated at their foot. The distance between the hinges was 186 m (fig. J.S 8). To
avoid the use of an expensive and complicated centring system t the bridge was
built by cantilever construction, inside mobile concreting carriages, from the tops
of the sloping piers. During the cantilever construction, the sta bili ty of the
balanced cantilevers was ensured by temporary tower supports, placed in the river

The callti/ever COllstruction a/prestressed concrete bridges

186
i

28260,

~679~

'46.70

29.50 4 '

29.5721

'Q

. ~~

:Y~2.568 ~

17.70-

+0.66)

,..

29.291,

.... ;,...

. :+2.~..-

67.9~---r

.~ '~?&66'

~8~

,..:

./

#:0.:

.. ~r_2~__ ",
;-------- N:'9.10---- _.... ;

./

--~ -~--~---l

I
I

Design/or deck Slabilily {luring construction

'"''

187

I~

d!?764

t-"~---~

~:;, ~E:~~~~-

G;a~-;-'~-"W'"
Fig.3.58

Bonhomme bridge-Longitudinal section

near the banks. The tower supports also supported the formwork for the sloping
piers. These piers transmit vertical loads approximately equal to 4000 t down to
foundation rock. They are founded on driven steel piles. The system formed by
the temporary tower support and the slopinl pier was a riptanaled trianpe, in
which each el~mont had its own specific role (fiss. 3.59 and 3.60).
(a) The 'lertical side of the right angle \vas constituted by the temporary to\ver

~~~

'., . . ~
.....
_I'~_I
';

Fig. 3.59

I'

Bonhomme bridge-sloping pier formwork and temporary tower

support

1.....,
4.00

Gronite

~J

4.10

Fie- 3.60 Bonhommc bridgc-temporary tower 5uppon

support consisting of fOUl 900 mm ., tubes. The tubes were infilled with con
crete, crO$l-braccd and assembled in two gem-high sections bolted together,
The tubes were linked at tho top by reinforced' concrete which formed a
support cap on which the deck rested via a pseudo-hinged joint under the
whole widtla of the box airder. This pseudo-hinge was to eliminate the
transmission of flexural forces to the tower during the deck construction. It
was made of six, 6O()..mm ftatjacks, that would cvcntuaUy be used to adjust
the level of the QantiJcvcr beams, to compensate for the settlement and elastic
shortening of tho temporarY tower support during loading.
The Oat jacks were associated with sand boxes that would allow, alter the
connection of the cantilever beams, the removal of the centring of the "arch
and the temporary tower supports (tia. 3,,61).
(b) The horizontal side of the right angle triangle comprised a decking placed at
high tide level and supported by PH 360 beams anchored at both ends, in the
sloping pier rootin& and in the pile cap. This cross..bracina stopped any
longitudinal movement of the top ofthe pier during construction.
(c) The falsework, upon which rested the rormwork for the sloping pier, was
placed along the hypotenuse of the right angled triangle. This falsework was
composed of HEB SOO beams anchored in the pier footing and in the tower
support cap" Itcrcated a rigid link between these two clements.

The cant ilever construction ojprestressed concrete bridges

188

Design/or deck stability during cOllstruction

189

.' Mobile carrloge

-::-=======

i
i

'WllI

WepOes 1.29 x70

.
. la,l JOCks
F

o
N
.n

f 600 ond sand

bo~es

.600

...
,
t

::.~.~~?

.
I

".

'-----.

-.A _

'
J

(a )

(b)

(d )

(e )

(n) Concreting of base, hinge, and stem of sloping pier

(b) Concreting of lower flange and lower junctions of stoping pier
(c) Concreting of webs and upper flange of sloping pier
(d) Concreting of deck segment over sloping pier
(e) Erection of mobiJe carriage-Cantilever construction or segments
Fig. 3.62

Bonhomme bridge-Construction stages for slopina pier

segments

---.---_""Y_.. . . . . . . --.--..--

I'

Temporory support

Bonhomme bridge--<:antilever construction

The temporary tower support and the falsework thus formed a triangulated
system of permanent shape. stopping all movement of the temporary tower
support in the longitudinal direction of the bridge. The construction stages for the
sloping pier and commencement of the deck are shown in fig. 3.62. The deck was
then constructed by the cantilever method (fig. 3.63).

,,

,
,

r. ..

(d) Two cP 508 mm tubes t perpendicular to the right-angled triangle's hyp'otenuse,

acted as intermediate support to the sloping pier form work.

Bonhomme bridge-Details of the temporary support cap

r___ --1

II

Fig. 3.63

_Tempotory
support cop

Fig. 3.61

Temporary suppO';t

't

_'r~_

.too

deck

Canlilever cOIIstruction by in situ concreting qf the segments

191

2.1 Tradldonal mobDc oarrl...

With a traditional mobUe cmiale. the segment weight, during concreting. is
transmitted to the deck thrQUp Jonaitudinal beams overhanging the end of the
cantilever.
CHAPTER FOUR

2.J.J Mobil' carriage with up~r main btaTnS (fig. 4.2)

CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION BY IN

SITU CONCRETING OF THE SEGMENTS

DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES FOR IN SITU

CONCRETING OF SEGMENTS
Several procedures can be used, depending on the method of support of the
segment during concreting (fig. 4.1):
I

The longitudinal beam" caIlcd main beams. are usually placed above the webs of
the seamcnt to be concreted. 1bc external forms, the base of the mould, working
deck ~d aanawIYI aro IUapclldcd from the main beams. The internal forms are
carried by I trlvelling carriqo, moviaa inside the deck.
During ~ncretin .. the ltabiJity of'the carriagcsis ensured by kentJedge on the
main beams. or by anchorlP to the lCCood last seament. When they are moving,
the weight of the carrilaCl is balanced by I rear counterweipt (ball1st or wlter

temporar}' steel gantry resting on the bridge supports during construction;

falsework moving on the ground, or on a jetty if over a river;
mobile carriage, carried by the deck, this last procedure being the most
usual.
2 CONSTRUCTION BY MOBILE CONCRETING CARRIAGE
CARRIED BY THE DECK

A mobile concreting carriage acts in two different ways:

-

it ensures the physical location of the segment;

it carries the segment weight before the concrete has hardened and been
cOMccted by prestressing to the preceding segment.

Bottom of suspended form

It is made of formwork hanging from a steel frame, carried by the portion of the
deck already built. The mobile carriage actually consists of the two sets of
form work necessary for the construction of a pair of segments.

Mobile c:'" :;e

Fig. 4.1

Steel beam

~TIQ"I~n9

~Jse_k

DiITerent construction procedures for in silu concreting of segments

190

Lateral fOl'mwork
Internal fOl'mwOrk

itt 1Q-.,

Fi&-4.2 Traditional mobile carriaae with upper main beams

192

The cantile~'er construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

~~-:-.~
"'~.-..-=-'"

"

--~~,

"," .

Cantilever construction by in situ concreting ofth,e segments

193

bags). The main beams, during concreting, often sustain significant deformations
which could lead -to transverse cracks in the joints between the segments. These
cracks appear on the upper side of the lower flange because of deformations of the
carriages due to the weight of the concrete in the webs and upper flange.
This problem can be avoided if one uses sufficiently rigid mobile carriages. But
these carriages can be very heavy, and their dead weight leads to an increase in
prestressing in the cantilever beams and}he stabilizing system. For example, the
Oisse! bridge carriage, weighing 110 t can be counted as a heavy carriage

..

.J

(fig. 4.3).

~.

If the carriages are lightweight, it is necessary to limit or to compensate for

their deformation during concreting. Carriages in this category weigh-kentledge
excluded-less than half the weight of the heaviest segment they are going to

Fig. 4.3

Fig.4.4

The Oissel bridge mobile carriale

The Trouville-laRiviere bridge carriage

Fig. 4.5

Traditional mobile carriages with lateral main beams

The canti/ever conslruction ofprestressed concrele bridges

194

support (250 kg/m 2 of formwork). The carriages of the TrouviUe-la-Riviere Bridge

(30 l weight) (flg.4.4) and Morlaix Bridge can be quoted as examples of light
\veight carriages.

2.1.2

>

Mobile c~rriage~ with lateral main beams (fig. 5.5)

The main beams, when placed above the deck, obstruct the upper part of the
segment under construction, and thus hinder the construction process. For this
reason, some mobile carriages include main beams placed laterally alona the webs
external to the segments. This solution liberates the working area of the deck and
allows easier access when placing formwork or reinforcement, when concret
ing. It is then possible, when casting segments in Sllll, to apply procedures nor.
mally specific to precasting: such as the prcassembly of reinforcement and pre..
stressing cable ducts. This results in a speeding up of construction.
Mobile carriages with lateral main beams were used during the construction of

or

the Avignon bridge on the Rhone and the Moulins-les-Metz bridge (fi&. 4.6).

Cantilever construction bjA in situ concreting of the segments

195

2.2 Self suppordn. mobDc carriascs (fig. 4.7)

With traditional mobile carriagcs, if deformation occurs during construction. it is

almost entirely attributable to the main beam.. The formwork acts only as a
moukl, and has no carryinS function; its stiffened panels deform very little.
In more recent structureS. carriases have been modified to include the forms in
the strensth of the mobile carriage, by forming a self-supporting rigid mould. One
then obtaiN nondetormablc mobile carria8cs which avoid:
-

some problems of control and correction of deck geometry;

cracQ created above the joints between seaments, by the deformability of

traditional carriagos;
conaestion afthe workinS swface.

This type of carriage was, at fir used for decks with a constant depth, as the
Kennedy Bridge in Dijon and Ute Canadicns Interchange in Paris (fig. 4.8).
Durinalhe concrctin. Phase, the cirriaici are linked by prestressing to the part
of the deck already built. Their positioning is determined by adjusring pins placed
at the rear of the carriages and slonina into holes made in the concrete of adjacent
aCanlcnls. TIu: movins of the carriages to their concreting position is made via a
mobile handling vehicle; moving along overhanging joists placed above the line of
the webs..
Puring cuntttruc;tiun ur the Clichy. Orlcnns

.,nu OCllnevillicrs hrit.lgc~.

the self

supporting carriages were transformed; they were adapted to decks with ,ar;Clble

depths and to three-webbed box beams (fig. 4.9).

The carrying clements are then constituted by the external forms of the side
webs and of the mould base, made rigid transversely ~y twojoisis placed in front

~:-

1- Concreting phose

~6Ch~;ij~~

Adlustjnl~ pins

l2\Olf

Preltre$Sif\9 5USpen$ion$ Sel'-aupporting corrioge

2- Trove mn9 phose

~ ~~Ii;~~~e
I

Fig. 4.6 The MouJins-lcs-Metz bridge mobile carriage

Fig. 4.7 Self-support,iq mobDe carriace of constant depth

The cantilever construction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

196

Cantilever construction by in situ concreting 0/ the segments

197

of and behind the carriage and braced together (fig. 4.10). The system fonns a
rigid trough linked by prestressing to the deck. The depth variation of the section
is obtained by vertical movement of the bottom of the mould \vhich is fixed, on
one side to the front joist and on the other side to the lower slab of the last con
creted segment. The internal formwork of the inside webs of the deck transverse
section is made of independent elements, resting on the front joist and suspended
at the rear from the previous segment.
During concreting of the Gennevilliers bridge, the stability of the self
supporting mobile carriage was er1sured by (fig. 4.11):
-

Fig. 4.8

Mobile carriages at the Canadiens interchange

hVo upper steel pins, linked to the outside shutter; they \vere slotted in holes
made in the upper chamfers of the external webs-Dywidag ~ 36 mm pre
stressing bars crossing each web made the connection;
hvo lo\ver steel pins) linked the base of the mould to the segment lo\\'er
fiange-Dywidng prestressing bars were also used for the connection.

The self \,eight P of the mobile carriage and of the segment concrete created an
overturning moment, balanced by two horizontal forces equal to F: a tension
applied to the upper pins and a compression on the )o\ver pins. The shear force
Mobile carrioge

Anchoroge

\ Bottom of the mould

s:-JOists~

Rear

Front

~, ,j

I
.
"Ar~
IIi: :mf~

Base of the mould'

3if.1

Fig.4.9 The mobile carriage or the GenncvilUers bridge

Self.supporti~
external forms

Fig.4.10

Dingrnrn of 3 self-supporting mobile carriage for three-webbed, variable

depth ~egments

The cantilever cOllstruction ofprestressed concrete bridges

198

Cantilever cOllstructioll by in situ concreting ofthe segnzellts

199

Prestressinq bars

S~iel plns/

!
Pre$tr.ss;n~

Fig.4.11

bars

Stability of the selfsupporting mobile carrialo used at the GeMevillicrs

bridge

..::

,n.u.

IF-

Pre",."ing bot,
.36

12 T 15 beam cable

LocQtic:'\ of pin

Fig.4.12

Precast blocks at the Gennevillicrs bridge

I

j
was almost entirely applied to the upper pins. Because of the large forces applied
to the upper pins, they were anchored in precast concrete blocks. This avoided
large stresses in fresh concrete (fig. 4.12). The stress in the pins was transmitted to
the precast blocks by friction; this way, the magnitude of the required prestresling
force could be evaluated.
2.3
2.3.1

\_

Segment construction cycle-lncreasing the rate,oCproducdon

Supporr sectiolls

Above each pier, a portion of the deck, called the support section, is concreted on
falsework. It can be used as the starting platform for the mobile carriages. When
the piers are tall, or in water, the falsework is often replaced by steel or concrete
corbels fIXed by prestressing on the top of the pier (fig. 4.13). The length of the
support sections is determined by the size of the mobile carriages and by their

Fig. 4.1 J

Concrete corbels replacing the support section faJscwork

_..--~-~~~-~

The cantilever construction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

200

method of mounting. Several solutions can be used (fig. 4.14):

(a) the two forms are placed side by side and move simultaneously; this is the
most common method for which the length of the support section is usually 7
to 10m;

(b) the same solution as (a), but the two forms are provisionally connected during
the construction of the fast standard segments-This reduces the deck space
requited by the forms;
(c) the second form is placed only after the construction of the first segment and
movement of the ftrst form;
(d) the support section is asymmetrical.
It takes a long time to build the support sections: usually severa/weeks. It is usual
not to include the support sections in the cantilever beam construction cycle. They
are usually built in advance.

ConnectiOn of truss.s

--+
.......

-If-

II

2J.2 Standard segments

The standard segments are usually 3 to 4 m long. The concreting stages of a
standard segment are as follows (fig. 4.1 S):
- .concreting of the lower flange;
_ concreting of webs after positioning of the internal formwork; the intersect
ing surfaces of the web with the'lower 'flange are prefera bly vertical;
- concreting or the upper nange~
The last two stages can be combined into one.
The normal rate of construction allows, with a traditional mobile carriage, the
completion of a cycle in six working days or a week:
_ one day ror tensioning of the last concreted segment, stripping of formwork
and moving of carriage;

_ two days for placing of reinforcement and cables;

- one day fot concreting segment;

._ three days for curing of concrete (including Sunday).

This cycle corresponds, in the case of 3-m long segments, to a travel speed of
(2 x 3)/6 = 1 m per day per mobile carriage (one pair of shutters). This is a rather
slow rate of progress and various techniques have been used to accelerate it:

(b)

(0)

.L:1SlZISJI

--l .

C1

(d)

Fig. 4.1~

I
Ic)

Mounting or mobile carriages over the top otthe pier

201

_ using carriages with lateral fna;n bean,s or self-supporting carriages thus

freeing the top surface of the segment being built. It is then possible to build
two segments per week and per carriage;
_ increasing the length 0/ the segments. T'he bridges over Rio Tocantins and
Parana in Brazil, and the Avignon bridges in France had segments 6.6, 6
and 6.1 m long respectively. Unfortunately, the weight and cost of the
mobile carriages increase rapidly with the length of the segments;

~.,

Cantilever construction by in situ concreting o/the segments

--@

Fig. 4.1 S Concreting stages of standard segments

202

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

constTucnon of lhe cross section in two slages. In the first stage, the lower
flange and the webs (with a part of the Qpper flange to form a table and to
permit the positioning of the cables) are concreted by means of the mobile
carriage. A U- or W-shaped beam is thus constituted (fig. 4.16), After
tensioning of the cables and travelling of the carriage, the upper slab is con..
creted over a simple travelling formwork.
The second stage is usually carried out wit~ a delay of two or three sea"
ments after the first stage. This technique has the advantage of decreasing
the volume of concrete to be placed by the mobile carriage, and conse
quently of decreasing the weight of these carriages. Furthermore, the cons
truction of the second stage is independent of the first and thus is removed
from the critical path.
The decks of the Saint..Isidore and Magnan viaducts and the AS Nice
ring road ,vere concreted in this way; the Saint-Isidore viaduct had 40-m
spans. Concreting of the second stage was carried out after the connection
of the candJever beams, by means of rormwork travelling on the lower
flange from one abutment to the next. For the Magnan viaduct. to take
n,,~uunt ~)r the si~nifiennt spnns. the secund Nlngc fuUu\Vcd the IinH \~'ith ..
three segments delay. The same happened at the Cliehy, JoinviJlc and
Puteaux bridges. Their deck cross-section had three and two webs
respecti\'ely (fig. 4. 18).

These methods lead to a notable reduction of the cycle, allowing the construc
tion, per week and per carriage, of either two pairs of standard segments, or a pair
9f double length segments. The speed of travel reaches approximately 2 m a day.
The major obstacles to any further improvement of the travel speed arc the

203

Canlilever construction by in situ concreting ofthe segments

MOBILE CARRIAGE
.1s' sl.
~I'tc"ono~

movemen'

:,\!.-;

... ~ ..... S:!tom of

').64

"

'r-e mould

Anchorin9 of the bottom - - - -

of 'he mould
1"'''01 10'1101 'orm

..... !!~

Front MYOtion
9.10
7.tO
~C)"

:.
~'GGI'.
F"on t

ho,.,

t:P\;,

t
....i
J!: S

lU'lI,UI

"cu".

RIot onC"Ot9'
ROll O"~"'~'o9'

,,,,,at """Jer .

Riot

U,,5"""'f.IC$

. Fron. (':SS b.om

hontIf

lOWlr .itrod

Bo'tom of

'--_ ...
FiJ. 4.11

.h. mould

t~

..

Principle of the mobile carriage of Puteaux bridge

Deck concreted in two stages

Upper flange-second stage

"

Fig. 4. J6 Construction of a cross section in two stages (case of a segment with

two webs)

strength o/fresh concret, and the problems relating to prestressing. These

problems can be solved by:

- high t,mperature curing ojthe concrete;

_ accel,raled curing of concrete in anchorage zOlles by insertion of electric
hcatin&;
- use ofpr,casl blocks or of precast webs.
We will disc\I5s ~ more depth the high temperature curing of concrete in Chapter
Five, which is concerned with ",It scaments (paragraph 3.4). For the moment,
it will only be said that in the case or cast in ,llu segments, the methods most com
monly used are concrete prehIGtlng and steam curing. In the first case, the can
crete~ before being poured into the forms, is heated to a temperature of 30 to

204

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

205

Cantilever construction b.\.' in situ concreting ofthe segments

by bonded \vires (fig. 4.19). The deck was built by the cantilever method. with 3m
long segments built in t\VO stages.. During the first stage, the precast \\'ebs.
maximum ,,'eight 16 t, \vere placed 'on cradles inside the mobile carriages. These
carriages followed the longitudinal prortle of the bridge, the predicted deforma
tions being taken into account (fig. 4.20).
During the second stage, the webs were, rigidly connected with the adjacent seg
ments by means of a dowel joint and temporary prestressing bars (fig. 4.21). The
other parts or the cross-section were then concreted inside mobile carriages, which
were suspended from the webs. This method, using the partial prefabrication of
19.20

t-I

so O

6.50

mm

1.60. 1.60.
i

Carriageway

6.50

1.50

Carriageway

2%
..-

of changing the \vater content of the aggregates;

heating of the water; this solution is not' very efficient as v/ater has a very
low specific heat (with water at 60C, the concrete temperature rises only
by 10C);
direct healing of concrete by injection of steam into the concrete mixer
drum-this is the best solution and is also the easiest to contro),

To avoid heat losses, the forms are generally insulated and a space heater
(radiator or infrared heater) is often placed inside the segment.
In the second case, the concrete is heated in its mould inside an enclosure
(steal1t chamber) where steam circulates at low pressure. In this way, within two
or three days, even in winter, it is possible to attain the compressive strength
required for prestressing (about 25 MPa). However, if it is desired to start pre..
stressing earlier, for example after 24 hours, it is advisable to act locally, at
anchorage level. One can then use embedded electric heating, as in the Candes
bridge. over the river Vienne. One can also use precast end blocks as in the Issy..
les-Moulineaux. Clichy and Gennevilliers, bridges. Durina construction of the
Gennevilliers bridge, despite the large dimensions
the deck, it was possible to
concrete two segments per week, thanks to early prestressml.
The h'tbs can also be precast. This method was fli'st tried during the construc
tion of the access viaduct and of the main structure of the BrotoMe bridge. The
webs, which \vere thin and sloping. were precast in pairs on a bed and prestressed

! ./"

I,

~.

,/

,."

steo,,'illg q( aggregates: this is a simple solution, but has the disadvantage

..

,i

5.60

Tendon strc~:S

Adjustable brackeTs

,",'

",

18

4.00

Tensiontn9 Jocks

.d-l

.,<>,
,",,~

.1

20'

.~ /

35 0 C. Different methods can be used to attain this temperature:

/>

20

Fig. 4.18 Mobile carriage at the Puteeux bridle

5.60

4.00

Connec.tlon bef'lle-en
Presfress.:-<; le"'ldoi"ls

tendons

ct> 36

,
.n" .~
~ .Jr,:-:.:11:
~r
"t2
.. : . ] ~::::'i""'" .. -.-<--~ -1. 1 11"

b
~

1m .. ~~----\.

~
."'\04 _

~:--'--~.-'_.' ----- - - - - - - - - ~.- .

OywidQq cr.:"oroq8

Fig.4.19

11

_ .

'~z==i. C-

brackets

Brotonne bridge-cross section and web precasting bed

Precast web

.
i

Mob,'e carrloge
Fig. 4'.20

or

I .

AdluSlo~le

Oywldoq onCl'\0t'0ge

Bast of mould

32 O,wida9 bars

OfSfrtbu',on
beams

Brotonne bridge-Positioning of precast webs

206

The conti/ever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

Dowel joint

Prefabricated web

~I--,,~

1-.-1

d!\

. f

Temporary stressing bars

FiBUI Brotonne bridge-Integration of prefabricated web.

CallJilmr construcl/cm by in situ concreting 0/ the segments

207

the seaments to use liahter elements, simplified the mobile concreting carriages
and reduced their wcisht (3S 0. The length of the construction cycle was reduced:
even for the cable-stayed bridge it was possible to concrete four segments per
week per mobile carriage, Le.' 12 m ofdcck per week (fig. 4.22). The positioning of
the prcc:ast weill was c,:a,rried out, on the banks, by a tower crane travelling
parallel to the bridge. and over the Seine by a self-propelled gantry.
A crossin. of tho Seine by the Metro line was another example of the use of
precast web This structure had a maximum span of as m. The deck is a three
web box beam without .ide clPtilevm. The upper flan&e, which carries the trains,
wa. lowered In order to decrease, U much as poSliblc, the slope of the bridge
ramps. Bcc:ause of the relative weight of the superstructure, the length of the seg
ments waa limited to 2.S m and the seaments were built in two stllges (lig. 4.23).

'.':'~~riI

Fig.4.23

Crolling of the Seine by the Metro line No. 13 (a)-Web positioning

equipment

108

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

The precast webs, with glued joints. were first placed by a gantry travelJing on the'
existing webs, and then were integrated by prestressing to the adjacent segments.
The upper and lower flanges were then concreted. two segments at a time.

Cantilever construction by in situ concreting ofthe segments

209

during concreting and everything must be done to prevent this occurrence.

Described here is the safety equipment used on the mobile carriages, during the ',
construction of the Gennevilliers bridge (fig. 4.24).
1

2.4

Safety of mobDe equipment

(a) the prestressing bars connecting 'the upper pins and the prefabricated ele.
ments were doubled up. Had o(1e bar failed, the' mobile carriage would notl
have fallen;
(b) the link between the prefabricated elements and segments was ensured by:

In Chapter Three, the difficulty of ensuring the stability of the balanced

cantilevers in case of a faD of a mobile carriage during travel was pointed out. It
can easily be imagined. that this problem is even more acute if the carriage falls

Safety 1

Had the tendon failed, the precast element would have remained connected to
the segment;

(c) the joint between segments. at the rear or the mobile carnage, was traversed
by reinforcement designed to ensure the joint strength, in the case of failure of
the cantilever beam tendons, which were holding the precast element and the
segment carrying it.

Prestressing

bars doubled

---

Safety I
Safety 2

Safety 2
Nominel reinforcement

a permanent 12 TIS prestressing. tendon, anchored in the preca'st

element;
two vertical ~ 26-mm prestressing bars placed in the webs;
nominal reinforcement.

Precast .Iemen,s

Safety 3

Prestressing bars doubled

Nominal reinforcement
Prestressing tendons
Longitudinal reinforcement

Precast elements
Prestressing bars

Prestress ing
tendons

J OTHER CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES USING IN SITU

CONCRETING OF THE SEGMENTS

Prestressino bar.

3.1

Safety 3

Lonoitudinol reinforcement

c
Fig.4.24

Safety systems for the mobile carriage at the GennevitUers bridge

Construction by support on Calsework

In the rdatively rare case ofa low deck crossing horizontal and accessible ground,
one can build the deck by resting the forms on falsework travelling on the ground.
This construction technique has been used for bridges crossing canals in
hydroelectric schemes, before filling of the can~ls. The segments can be 6 to 8 m
long, as was the case in the Channas and Bourg-Ies-Valence bridges (fig. 4.25).
The falsework can also rest, not on the ground, but in 8 river on a jetty structure
founded on piles. The contractors Polensky and Zollner have used this method for
the construction of several structures.
3.2 Construction with Cormwork luspended from a lona gantry beam
In the case of a viaduct with many equal spans. it can be economical to use a steel
gantry resting on the top bf the piers of the bridge. This gantry would be capable

210

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

Conlilmr coIIStruction by in sitU concreting ofthe segments

211

of $Upportina the weight oI'the segment during concreting. The formwork is hung
from the steel lantry and moved after construction of each segment.
The Jcnath of the segments can reach 10m, which leads to an average progress
of (2 x 10)/6 - 3.3 m per day, as durina the Siegtalbriicke construction
(fig. 4.26).

Fig.4.25 Construction or the Bourglca-Valcnce bridp

Fig. 4.26 Sicgtalbriicke construction

Cantilever constroctiolt method by assembling precast segments

CHAPTER FIVE

CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION METHOD

BY ASSEMBLING PRECAST SEGMENTS
1 ADVANTAGES OF PRECASTING

We have seen in the previous chapter that In situ concreting or deck sections
generally limits the rate of construction to about J mptr day per shutter (2 m per
day per mobile carriage). 'Vith that in mind, it certainly seems advantageous to
use precastlng, \vhich usuall)' allows the construction of one section per

day-about J m-in each construction cell. Precasting or segments has several

other advantages. It allows:

avoidance of missed shrinkage effects; a major part oCtile shrinkage occurs

before the placing of the segments in the structure (because segments are
stockpiled for several weeks) (fig. 5.1);
reduction or long-term deformations due to creep, which decrease with con
crete age when first loaded;
reduction of construction delays, as the sepnentI call be precast dUring
construction of the substructure;
removal of concreting from weather constramts (precasting being carried

out in a raclory) (fil. 5.2);

savina or labour in comparison with other construction methods.

Fig. 5.1

Stockpiling or segments

It also offers an excellent guarantee of the strength characteristics of the concrete,

as the segments are cast under factory conditions.

2 SEGMENTS WITH GLUED MATCH-CAST JOINTS

The rate of production of segments is of interest only if placing in the structure
can follow at the same rate.. But the classical processes assembling precast seg
ments assume that thejo/nts, several centimetres thick, must be cast or matched;
one must then wait for supporting and hardening of the joints before prestressing.
For this reason, joints are generally made with negJiaible thickness; they are

or

212

View of the precasting factory for the B3 South bridge

213

214

The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

usually coated with a polymer glue, with an epoxy-resin base, hardening quickly
and not sensitive to temperature or moisture. The use of such joints is possible
only if the adjoining faces are perfectly matched. To fulfil this condition, the seg
ments are made one after the other, in the same sequence as in the structure-by
casting each segment against the segment previously made. The front face of each
clement is then used as shutter for the rear face of the next. Joints made in this
way arc called match-cast joints.
The epoxy resins are thermosetting materials with high strength characteristics.
They adhere easily to the concrete, as long as the faces to be glued are clean and
dry; they polymerize at a temperature higher than SoC. At 18C, they harden in
less than 24 h.
2.1
2.1.J

First generation segments (fig. S.3)

Construction arrangements a/the segments

In structures built in recent ye'ars, epoxy glue has played a fourfold role:

during construction, before hardening:

it lubricated the matchina surfaces durina placing of the segments;
it offset the minor faults in surface matching;

in the fmishcd structure, after hardening:

it created a watertight seal in the joint. especially under the roadwa)';

it contributed to the strength of the structure by transmitting compres
sion and shear forces across the joint. However, because ofthcir lubrica
tion, the joints have virtually no shear resistance before the glue sets. It
was necessary, in the first structures of this type, to position in each web
a key which would stop any relative sliding at joint level and ensure the
transmission of shear forces. These keys, accompanied with a third key
placed in the upper flange, help in guiding and centring of the adjacent
segments, so that the position occupied during prefabrication is exactly
reproduced in the structure.
2.J.2

Temporary assembly o/segmellts-equfllbrlum o//orces injolllls

During deck erection, a temporary connection of two consecutive segments, made

by mechanical means or prestressing rods, rapidly frees the lifting equipment
without having to wait for the tensioning of the final prestressing cables. Figure
5.4 shows how a tYpical first generation segment was attached to the rest of the
structure. It was done by temporary devices placed, for example, at the upper and
lower flange levels; they created prestressing forces F 1 and F l , ensuring stability

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

215

Elevation AA ~

(v)

It.)
<D Glued joint

Web "',or joint

(!) Ali9nment of keyl

@) Holt. lor Iiftinv and ttll\POl"ory

ollehorCl\l'
.

@ Ovets for ptntr,..i", '.ndonl

k1\:4'r
S,etion 88
T

f;@

I
I

II
I

216

The cauti!tl'er COltstruction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Cantilever cOllstruction method by assembling precast segmenls

217

of the temporary prestressing forces F. and F2 are chosen such that the normal
force N is close to the centroid of the section; this allows an almost uniform
distribution of normal stresses over the depth of the joint, thus entailing a uniform
glue thickness.
J

2.1 J
(J )

Fig.5.4 Temporary assembly or the segment.

of the segment at the joint which had just been glued. These forces, combined with
the weight P of the segment, create a resulting force R acting at an angle to the
joint. Because of the low friction coefficient of the glue, the sliding force in the
joint produced by P, can be balanced only by the vertical component of the
sloping reaction C applied perpendicularly to the lower face or the web key
(fig. S.5). The resultant R can then be divided into a reaction C carried by the key
and a horizontal reaction N contributing to the closing of the joint. The distribu
tion of lIorn,al stresses in the joint area is different from the one reached by usual
calculations. In particular, N is smaller than the sum E of the temporary prestress
ing forces. If a is the angle with the horizontal of the supporting face of the keys,
(F - N) is equal to P tan a and in the usual case where Ian a equal to P12.
For a 50-t segment. temporarily attached to the preceding segments by a pre
stressing force of 100 t, at the level of the upper flange, the normal force is
decreased b)- 25 t. i.e. a quarter of the applied prestressina force. U' the segments
are placed rapidly enough in the structure, so that fOUf 5elmentl are placed berore
the setting of the glue in the first joint, the normal force in this joint will decrease
by lOOt; this roughly represents the elimination of one 12 T 13 prestreslinl cable.
The same apPlies in the case where, ir temporary usembly devices are not used,
the segment is secured by permanent prestressing cables.
Consequently, it is advisable, durin. checks or strenllh of cantilevers during
construction, to take into account the reduction or the effective prestressing force,
otherwise some joints may open up. It is recommended that the position and value

tt

,.1

F2
-.-otL

Permanent assembly ofthe segments-structural role of the glue

Regarding the cable layout for permanent prestressing, one knows that the beam
strength is provided by a rarst system of tendons, inclined or not, with anchorages
usually positioned at the face of the' segment; prestressing operations are then
integrated in the construction cycle, as a new pair of segments cannot be placed
until the tendons or the previous pair hav.e been stressed (fig. S.6).
The attachment cables of the variou~ beams-forming the second family-are
anchored either in the lower nange, in bosses, or in the chamfers joining web and
top nange. after having been positioned at these points. Under working loads, the
sllear forces in the joints vary greatly according to the characteristics of the
structure. In structures with variable depth, with inclined prestressing tendons in
the webs, the shear stresses in the joint are small; they a~~aJIYJ)~gU~der
permanent loads, and their values usually ~e between 1 and 2.5 MPa, (N/mm 2)
undef imfSOiJlciads. However, in a deck of constant depth, with long spans, and
with horizontal prestressing cables, shear stresses, under imposed load, can reach
4 MPa (N/mm2 ) in the joints; this happened in the Connans bridge over the Seine
and in the approach spans of the Rio NiteroI bridge in Brazil, where each web had
three keys. Both the selection and correct use of the glue are critical for shear
resistance; a close control 0/ glued joints is required. Generally, available glues
have a final strength higher than is 'required, on condition that polymerization is
sufficiently complete. This entails:
-

using correct proportions of components;

complete absence of solvents, as these are veritable poisons;
elimination of any solvent, such as Thiokol, which unduly increases the
deformabifity of the glue;
care in application.

(5)

Detail A

---

(J)

Fig. 5.5

Force equilibrium in the joint

Fig. 5.6

Permanent assembly oflhe segments

The cQlui/ever construcdon 0/prestressed concrele bridges

218

Concerning this last point, the trealment of lhe laces to be glued is most
important. Comparative tests have shown that sandblasting of the surface gives
the best results; the faces must be kept dry and clean at the time of placing. free of
any oil or grease. In case of rain, the joints must be burnt with alcohol to dry off
any superficial humidity. However, the presence of water in the concrete does not
affect the properties of the glue.
1t has also been found that the rapid placing of successive segments haa had a
fa vourable effect on glue be~aviour. If during setting, additional compressive
stress is applied, by placing the subsequent segments, the ultimate strength of the
resin is increased substantially. One can also note that, in structures with variable
depth, the plane of the joint is not perpendicular to the forces, especially at the
level of the lower flange. In this case, the glued joint is submitted to local shear
forces. which can be very high; in the case of nonpolymerization of the glue, the
shear forces can lead to a crack in the lower slab, as this is subjected, ncar the
joint, to vertical forces, which on one side act upwards and on the other side
downwards (fig,S ,6).
Further to the usual care given to ensure the normal polymeri~ntion of the glue,
such problems can be avoided by placing additional keys in the lower. slab, or by
lining the shutter to obtain a face perpendicular to the forcCt
2.2

2.2.1

Segnlents

Cantilever cO~lrucllon melhod by assembling precaSl segments

Longitudinal section

...

2~

219

Elevotion AA

2--S!!
t)

;::>

A
Section B8

(1 ) Web multiple k.y,

( 2 ) Keys in uPHtond tower slob
(3 )Rib

( 4 )Anchorov, bos.e,
( 5 ) Hole, fOt liftinv equipmtn.
( 6 ) HOj" 10t ttmPOfOlroncl)qrQ9"
( 7 ) Ducts for p'..tr."i~ tendons

fig. 5.7 Precast segment uf the second Ktncr iltiun

or the second aeneration (fig. 5.7)

Joints with multiple keys

Without prejudice to the characteristics and behaviour of the first precast

structures with match-cast joints, it appeared worthwhile to look for new shapes
of joint which \\'ould allow the transmission of shear forces between the segments
without relying on the strength of epoxy glues. This is the case of segments of the
second generation which include, in the thickness of the slabs, and over the whole
height or the webs, a series of shear keys regularly spaced. This improvement in
the function of UlG joint frees the glue from any structural role and is both simple
and sa ~e. This arraDgement has been used successfully in several structures, as in
the alpine motorway viaducts, the Saint-Andre-de-Cubzac bridge and the Sall
ingsund bridge.

2.2J Boltld ribs

Even thouah the glue can contribute in a certain way to the tensile strength of the
joints, it is not U$uaUy taken into account in the design, as segmental structures
arc usually completely prestressed, and consequently no tensile stresses can
theoretically appear in thejomts. However, a new improvement can be brought to
match-cast glued joints by amplifyina their lensile Slrenglh by bolted ribs. These
bolted ribs ensure the continuity of lonsitudinal reinforcement in the segments
(fig. 5.8),

3 SEGMENT PRECASTING METHODS

The different techniques of prccastiog of segments with matchcast joints, in fact,

2,2,2 I ntemal ribs and bosses

Bosses or websriffening ribs are now used inside the segments to locate the per.
manent longitudinal prestressing anchorages. The tendons, which ensure the
stability of the cantilever beams and which are placed as the deck is built. can then
be anchored a\\'ay from the Joints; segment placing and prestressing operations
are not independent. Usually, prestressing for temporary segment assembly is also
placed in the ribs and bosses, thus completely freeing the upper flange of the deck,

Fia. 5.8 Joints with bolted ribs

,,",.flo1o"-~

220

'fhe cantilever cons/ruction ofprestressed concrete bridges

come down

to t\VO

basic methods:

(a) concreting on a precasting bed (or slip form) of the whole length-of a balanced
cantilever system: pier segment and segments of the two adjoining
cantilevers;
(b) concreting of all the deck segments in one or several raxed moulds, called
precasting cells.
In the first case, the form work moves, but it is flXed in the second case.
3.1

Concreting on precasting or slip form beds

On a precasting bed which reproduces on the ground the exact shape of the deck
initial compensating hog being taken into account, the segments are cast
one next to the other, preferably in the order that will be used during assembling in
the structure. The Internal and external shutters, usually made in steel and
mechanized. are moved from one casting position to the next, ensuring the COn
tinuity of the outside edges and of the geometrical form. If the bed represents the
\vhole length of a balanced two-beam system, the pier segment is at the middle of
the bed. and construction moves towards the outside in a symmetrical way on
each side (fig. 5.9). This method guarantees the integrity at the soffit line;
however, it requires some fixed installations, which take up more and more rOom
as spans increase; it does not permit, without intermediary adjustments, the
achievement of profiles varying from one beam to the nexl Furthermore, the (orms
somt~

..-Ji.,Ll I

I I I I

I I IIIlJ II I

I I I I I

JOi.

Callri/erer COlls/ruc/ioll 111ethod by asselnblillg precast segl11en!S

must be specially designed so that they can move over the whole length of the pre
casting bed.
The precasting bed method was first used for the bridges of Choisy..le..Roi
(fig. 5.10) and Courbevoie (decks with constant depth, with webs respectively
vertical and sloping). The technique was' then extended to the case of decks with
variable depth for the Oleron viaduct; part of the structure was curved in plan.
Some arrangements were made to temove the pier segment from the bed by
lowering the bottom of the mould between adjacent segments, before completion
of the whole of the balanced two-beam system; the space was then freed to start
the next segment. In fact, four forms were working simultaneously over the whole
length of the bed for the fabrication of two or even three consecutive balanced
beam systems (see sketch in fig. 5.9).
Other structures ~ere built in France in this way: in particular, the bridge over
the Ardour River in Bayonne, the Tours bridge over the Loire and, more recently,
the Calix bridge in Caen.
In cases where there is not enough space, or if the size of the structure justifies
only a small installation, the precasting bed can represent only the length

...-l.I .

I I - , ~kk::. I 1 I I

build the symmetrical part of the rarst cantilever, the pier segment is turned around
so that the first segment or the second cantilever is match-cast against it.
The typical cross section of a mobile form is' shown in figure S.1 I. It can be
seen that the external forms move on rails; the jacks for striking the formwork and
the telescopic internal shutters also move on rails. The segments are removed and
carried to the stockpiling area by a mobile gantry astride the precasting bed or by
a crane travelling either on the ground (as in the Calix ~iaduct) or floating (as in

14-,.

I T ~ 1111-I4

SeQments beln9 concreted

Flnl,hed st9"'ent,

Fig, 5.9 PrccaMing on n bed

or half

of a balanced ltl'o-canri/ever system, the pier segment being built at one end. To

-f.'.!IIIIII.IIIIIII~

-1.\1

221

Fig. 5. JO Prccftstinlt bed at Choi5y~JcRoi

~,.

222

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

'"
Mobile external form

Choisy-le-Roi and Courbevoie. where the precasting bed was on the bank of the
Seine).
Coner.dng in precasting ceDs

In the second method, the segments are precast inside c,lIulQr /0111JS at a fixed
pi ace. It is then necessary t as shown in figure oS .12, to transport each hardened
segment to a position where it can play the role of form for the next SClment.

Up Lo now. horizontal preoutin. cells have been the most commonly used. These
cells arc usually made of onc rUled part and two mobile parts. The fixed part com
prises the lateral outside shutter, the soffit shutter-which is adjustable-and one
of the end shutters. The fltat mobile part, called the core, carries the shutter for the
inside void. The second mobile part, called the counlermould, is formed by the
selmont previouiJy concret'ed, which when placed against the fixed pan becomes
the shutter for this end oCtile sesment, and makes match-cast joints (fig. 5.13).
Each "Imene nrst occupies its cutina place, then moves to an adjacent position.
where it is used as a match-cast counter mould for the next segment, before being
carried to stockpiJe~,: The mo.ment of the segment from one place to the next is
most important for the accuracy of the seomctric shape qfthe deck; the bottom of
the mould on which each "Imcnt is built is provided witli friction rollers or sliding
skates moving on guide raits. As each 5Cgment stays on ~ts own mould bottom. till
stockpiling, this requires at least three mould bottoms for catch casting cell.
The. eXlernai ,hullen are usually hinged to allow striking of the segment
formwork. A jlxed{ace ,hutter forms the shutter for the end face of the sesment
opposite the countcrmould. The Internal shutters are hinged and adjustable; some
removable panel. ean bo placed in the lower part, to anow for variations in
scamcnt hciaht. Tho internal shutters arc moved through the fixcdfacc shutter on
an auxiliary carrialcmovinllo~&itudinaUy. The casting po~ition of a segment can

Form design and utilization are easier than in the first method, but the successive
movement of the segments creates some adjustment problems. The cellular forms
belong to t\VO families: horizontal precasting cells, where the segments are placed
next to each other, and vertical precasting cells, where the segments are placed on
top of each other.

To 510ekpile

Face shutter Counter

mould

[J
I

Bottom of the mould

Fig. 5.12 Precasting in cellular forms-principle

223

3.2./ Horizontal precastlng cells

Telescopic in!ernol form

Fig. 5. )1 Typical cross-section of a mobile form

3.2

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segn'cnts

I
Pi&- 5.13

Precastinl in horizontal ceUs-isometric view

The cantilever constructfon o/prestressed concrete bridges

224

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

then be cleared in this way for placing the bottom of the mould, the prefabricated
reinforcement cage and prestressing ducts.
The main cycle of operations during precasting of a segment in a cell is as
follows:

225

placing the prefabricated reinforcement cage together with the prestressing

ducts;

introducing the core into the centre;

adjusting the segment countermould;
concreting. then form striking;
removing the countermould segment and .transporting to stockpile;
removing the core;
displacing the concreted segment to bring it into the countermould position.

The first horizontally precast segment was used in the construction of the Pierre
Benite bridges on the Rhone, whose decks were a constant height. This method of
precasting a cell has since been extended to structures with variable height
(bridges on the Boulevard Peripherique in Paris (fig. 5.14), Aramon and
Bourg-Saint-Andeol bridges, Saint-Andre-de-Cubzac bridge and others). But it
can also be easily applied to the construction of,more complex geolnetrical/orllls,
such as are met in cun'ed bridges and in bridges with a variable crossfall. The
Chillon viaducts were amongst the first characteristic examples: in plan, they have
an S shape \vith a curvature radius of 700 m and a constantly varying cross-fall.

Longitudinal profile adjustment

Cross-foil adjustment

e-

"ttY
Alignment adjustment

Fig. 5.15 Adjustments of precasting cell

The precasting cellular forms had superimposed trays carrying the bottom of the
mould t which would be independently adjusted for the three components of the

relative rotation of two successive segments. In later structures, some equivalent,

but more simple solutions. have been developed. These were applied to the B3
South viaducts, where 13-m wide- segments had to be fitted in a curve of I SO m
radius and also to the Saint-Cloud viaduct (330 m radius, 20m wide deck, 102-m
long spans). In these cases, the adjustment is so large that particular attention
must be given to the problem or joining the shutters together and to the C:lunter
mould segment: the mould must be \vatertight and the edge line must be kept pre
cisely (fig. 5.1 S).

3.2.2 VerI/cal precQstlng cells

Fig. S.l4 Precasting cellular form for the downstream bridge

There are to date only a few examples of segment precasting in a cell with a
l'ertictllcLt;S. In France, lhe Saint-Denis curved viaduct (fig. 5. J6) and the Noir
moutier bridge were built in this way t but in both cases, the segments had
concreted joints, in which case the match-casting and adjustment problems did
not exist. However, more recently the segments forming the cantilevers of the roof

226

The cantilever construction ofpresIressed concrete bridges

Canlil~er

conSlruction method by assembling precast segments

227

P~tdge$)

EIfIOdId vt-of the cell

Lowtr"tt"

I
-,
L ~ d'1i 25 N""'bt'o'DtICf9"IO~.bu.ft

RemoYobitcore

~---.1.'

1---'" ';
~

.''-'
~t

LV "
Upper shuttet

0"'1""

NumOtf 01 ..

A.,__,""l'o'_
PrOduct"", " .....".. '

,.,
2100
60 kin

2~,o30b<ICl9t..

)'ICl'

10m

Fia. 5.17 Prefabrication scheme of the segments of the AREA (Rhone-Alpes

motorways)

Fig.5.16 Cell with vertical axis (curved viaduct of StDenis)

of Parc-des-Princes and the decks of the Vienne bridges over the Rhone were cast
in vertical ceUs, with malch-east joints.
Recently, several thousands of segments for the upper carriageways of the
Rhone-Alpes motorways were fabricated in this way (fig. 5.17). In this variant,
the segments are cast on their side, the countermould segment and tho cast
segment being on top of each other, no longer side by side.
This type of cellular form has the advantage of greatly facilitating concreting:
the prestressing ducts do not interfere with the flow of the concrete and conse
quently are themselves well surrounded with concrete. Furthermore, concreting is
done \\'ithout construction joints in planes perpendicular to the neutral axis of the
deck. On the other hand, a disadvantage of this method is that tilti"g of the seg
ments, before placing in the structure, requires a handling frame more com
plicated than a simple truck (fig. 5.18).

Pia- $.18

Tiltinl of a segment

3.2,] Asse,,,bling cells

There is a third prefabrication method: it consists of replacing the concreting cells
that we mentioned above, by assembling cel/s. Each segment is then made of
several prefabricated panels (upper and lower Oanges, and webs) which can be
prestressed by bonded wires and assembled inside the cell by concreting the joints.

._.~-",.~",.,:;j,

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

228

Canti/e1'er construction method by assembling precast segmellts

14.60
54

3.45

_t_~-'V'....

6.62

54

3.45

0.26

I.

04
Cell

Jilint

0.26100.34
0.84 to 0.10

Joint

7.~o

Fig. 5.19

.I

.,.

Cella

to
c;j

Cell C lreorn2/

i Teeml,

I
.

! t'

Cell AI

aI

Tlom2

14ft

. Cu,in ft 19n

I
I

f--r-~-----'

~eom': I
.

m2,
I' tjTeol

I.
I

14

23

~.9"'~1~.
.
I
.
:
I
Cell A ~1~;'iITeotn2 __ ~l't..~
':
~4.~hIl4 .. n~41/2nl

Cell B i
.

rr......,
.._..!Teom2
.......-.., wI
.
.
,
~_

CeIlC~
.
I

iT.
Cell 0 .
Teorn3
,'~

Shill 1

'
'!~L

,
~
I

.
I

Shill 2

Fig. 5.20 Precasting cycles

Chelepikhinsky bridge-cross section of a segment

This type of cell was employed in Russia for the construction of several
structures, including the Chelepikhinsky bridge in Moscow (fig. 5.19).
J.3

13

'6n~

o
o

Ce" 0

14

Cell A TlOm 1llOhll ~.i.'!9.l1!'__ ~

"~T

1018

vv...

18

229

Prccostlng cycles (fig. 5.20)

The usual precasting cycle, on a bed or in fIXed cells, corresponds to the construc
tion of one segment per day per shutter, i.e. about 3 m of deck per day, the seg
ments being cured overnight for 14 hours. This cycle was eastly reached, even for
the first structures, both for the ChoisyleRoi and the Pierre-Bernte bridges.
The precasting cycle was then shortened, first by improving the conditions of
segment construction: reinforcement and cabling, and then by mechanising the
shutlers. These improvements led, at the Connans bridge on the Seine, to an
output cycle of four segments a day with two pairs of shutten and two teams of
labourers: each team was fabricating its second segment while the first segment
WQS curing. The construction time of I segment WII then broulht down to about
live hours and the curing period for the segment could then reach nineteen hours.
If the weather is cold, the concrete is slightly heated to 30135C (preheating of
the concrete) and the shutters are heat insulated. Concrete can then be pumped
from the mixer to the prefabrication mould; this method proved very satisfactory

during prefabrication of the segments for the upper carriageways of the

Rhone-Alpes motorways.
A new sequence can then be arranged, providing that segment curing time prior
to form striking can be reduced to about five hours. It is then possible, working in
two shifts, to build two seginents per cell and per day, with just one team of
labourers.
(a) Precasting cycle at the downstream bridge of the Boulevard Peripherique
- two teams--{wo cells-one shift
- one segment/cell/day
- one segment/team
(b) Precasting cycle at the Conflans bridge
- two teams-four cells-one shift
- one segment/cell/day
- two segments/team
(c) Precasting cycle of the B3 viaducts
- four teams-four cells-two shifts
- twO segments!c,oIVday
- two segments/team
This is the theoretical cycle chosen for the segment precasting at the B3 viaducts.
Construction time for. a segment is still five hours and the shutters must be

.,
The cantilever construcllon o[prestressed concr.:le bridges

230

Calltllever COII$lrUCllon method by assembling precast segtnents

231

removed at the ninth hour. This result can be achieved only if an adequate
is applied to the concrete.

I henna/ treatment

3.4

Thermal treatment of concrete

In the case of segment precasting, concrete thermal treatment must achieve two
seemingly contradictory effects:
accelerated hardening to allow rapid form striking;
a final compressive strength as close as possible to the S\I'cngth of the con
crete cubes.
SeveraJ treatment methods can be used:
-

traditional steamina;
direct heating of the forms by electric heating elements;
direct heating of the forms by low pressure steam.

The use of a traditional steam enclosure has several drawbacks. First, it is difficult
to keep a uniform temperature inside the steam enclosure. Secondly). the parts
with different thicknesses in one segment are heated at the same temperature.
\vhich is damaging. Also, the treated unit can get a thermal shock, creating
thermal cracks, when the difference in temperature between the ambient
atmosphere and the steam enclosure reaches JOoC. Steaming can, however, be
acceptable for long-curing cycles, i.e. lasting 10to 14 hours.
Heating the forms by electric healing elemenl! is suitable for IOlZgcuring
cycles. This system allows a great flexibility for regulation from one area to the
next, and is very $imply adjusted by means of cyclic measurements. It is then
possible to give uniformity to the thermal tre~tment oftbick and thin parts of the
segment; this limits the thermal gradients, th\lS preventing damage from adverse
condhions in the concrete at the start of its solid state.
Heating the shutters by low-pressure sleam is preferable in the case of short
curing cycles lasting less than five hours: it introduces a lot of heat in a short time,
thus increasing the internal temperature of concrete by 10 to 15C per hour. But
this system requires complex regulation w~ch must ensure an equal temperature
at any time during the treatment in all the shutters, whatever their thermal con
ductivity, and the external conditions, (fig. 5.21). These different systems of treat
ment: steam enclosure, electric heating elements a~d low-pressure steam, have
been successfully applied to bridges with precast segments. The segment$ in
Choisy-le..Roi and Courbevoie bridges \\'ere placed in steam enclosures. For the
construction of the upstream and downstream bridges of the Boulevard Peri
pherique and for the Blois bridge, electric heating was chosen. Self-steaming
,shutters with low-pressure steam were used at the Pierre-Benite bridges, at the
:' Oleron viaduct and on the B3 motorway structures. Whether the shuttcrs arc

Faa, 5.21

ConUOl panels (B3 South)

heated by electricity or by steam, achievin, a longcurina cycle is not very

difflCult, and tho problem or,Jlulllrenglh ofthe concrete can be easily solved.
On the other hand, Mort cycle requires a lot of care and very precise control.
Among other precautions, one must, in particular:
-

chose a ",nenl whose performances can cope with rapid heating of con.
crete (preferably with ClA <; 1196 and C)S/CzS ~ 3);
produce concr,te with regular characteristics, minimal water content and a
temperature of 35C at placing time;
use lormwork stV! enough to resist the expansion of concrete durinl its
plastic stale when it is heated.
.

Furtbermoto. a Itriet coDtrol of the concrete must be made during construction,

by nondeatructlvt tam. or. if DOt possible. by core drilling; cubes are not very
rcpre....tivo because of the ditfacuky in living them the same thermal treatment
as appW to the aeaments.
Finally, r one wants to avoid a Ioweriq of the long-term concrete strensth of
the sclJDODtI, it is nccesaary to anticipate a the:mal treatment cycle including
(fig. 5.22):

"."tl.

a
period or two to three; hours when concrete is kept at the sur
roun_ tompcraturc;
a slow ',mpertll",., Increase of less than 20 0 C per hour;
a level of treatment with constant temperature, less than 80 C, lasting suf
ficient time to achieve designed strength;
a cooll", down period made at a rate similar to the temperature increase.

The long-term los$ c(It"",1lt. will be evCQ &reater if:

-

the prCKuinl period is sbort;

..

...._

....,.~ .......... ~ . . ,s.>"""'~.i-:V-"'-"""~'77"i:

232

8e

SC
100

Short cycle

65C

6501

80

Malt. temp <

Preheating cose

60

____
I

35~

.400,

eoac

CJ\'t

t-re:~

It

'h

18.lQr

~I

--.A
"t'
T
Presettino Temperature
increase

--~--~-

Level of
treatment

'N
J

CoofincJ down
Long cycle

Fig. 5.22 Thermal treatment cycles

the temperature increase is rapid;

the treatments maximum temperature is high.

35

a presetting period of It hours by keeping the concrete at its placing

temperature: i.e. 35C;
- a temperature increase of 15 C per hour for two hours;
.... a constant temperature of 65C for It hours.

4 METHODS OF SEGMBNT PLACING

As there are several methods for precasting. the problems of transporting and
placing the segments can also be solved in different ways, according to the site
and the general charaCleristics of the project. The different methods can be
classified into three main categories (fig. 5.24):

transport of the segments on the ground or on walter, Ind placing by an

independelll system (crane, shear legs or mobile gantry.) remote from
the deck.
transport on the ground or on water and placing by mobile lifting equip
Inent carried by the deck itself;

.~

I
J

'2h30~
4h
~
*.

I.

5h

19h

Healing lOh

'h
:~.
~l~
~ :~

!~

Fig. 5.23 Short and long cycles

We also show on the same figure an example of a long cycle: at the Connans
bridge, corresponding to a treatment duration or 19 hours.

SOC

60

lrns loss is orten behvcen 5 and 15%.

The short cycle for the segments at the B3 motorway viaducts included
(fig. 5.23):

233

Cantilever constroction method by assembling precast segments

The cantilever constructiQn a/prestressed concrete bridges

_ transport on the ground. on water or on the part of the deck which is

already built. and placing by a launching girder.
This classification does not include some specific, less common procedures such
as the use or an aerial cableway (fig. 5.25).
4.1

Placing by an Independent system remote (rom the deck

This first method is the most simple and the most economical. whenever it can be
used. It was used for the Choisy-Ie-Roi, Courbevoie, Juvisy and Connans bridges
on the Seine. where a navigable waterway enabled a floating crane to bring the
segments from the precasting yard and place them in the structure (fig. 5.26). A

The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

234

Cantilever construction melhod by assembling precast segments

235

Placing equipment,

,Pontoon

-------~
(Ex:

Upstream bridge of the Boulevard Piripherique)

( Ex; Pierre Benite bnd98

Lounchin9 gird...

( Ex: Oleron vloduct )

Fig. 5.24

Segment placing methods

Fia- 5.26 Placing segments by crane

..

Fig. S.2S

,/

Segment placing by an aerial cableway (bridge on the Ebrc)

machine travelling on the ground was used for the Gardon, Bourg-Saint-Andeol
and Bonpas bridges; whereas the same crane travelling either on the ground or on
water was used for placing all the seamcnts of the Upst~eam and Downstream
bridges of the Boulevard PCripberique in Paris. On convenient sites, it is possible
to use the same mobil' ,anlry cran, for the precastina yard and for transponing
seamonti to their place in the bridle (Hartel bridle in Holland), This principle was
extended for the construction or the bridges over the Loire, in Tours (Motorway
bridgo and Mirabeau bridge). For these structures, the segments were placed by a
mobile gantry, straddling the deck and moving on two longitudinal tracks made
from Bailey bridges. These tracks, of a total length double that of a standard span,
are moved forward as construction progresses; they are supported by piles driven
in the river bed. The segments are brought along the deck, then taken by the
mobile lantry (figs. 5.21 and 5.28).
In the case of placing by a crane, one often meets problems when placing key
segmenu in t~e central part of the deck, as the part of -the deck already built
restricts the movements of the machine and does not allow front placing. To solve
this problem, for the B3 motorway viaducts, a 'keying bridge' was used (fig. 5.29).
This system, which weighed SO t, was made of two longitudinal sleel beams cross

236

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

237

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

:'''';'.,;~

Cron section

~.

"
Bog,e

~
=r'=JO:L
Fig. 5.27

Method of sesment-placin& It the Toun bridge

"

",,<'

Conneclton~

'/

':

-\':
rronlcro~~bor "'1'(

. A

"

V)\

I:--EvtnlUCII
'i Itmpolory

.lJL

!i

"II "

~~

"

f'!er cross heoO

.~
~J1

r;ron~ r.'" 1~

L:Ii'J

Fil. 5.29 Diagram of the keying bridge

braced to each other. It was supported at the front, by the pier head of the
balanced cantilever beam to be built, and in the rear, by the part of the deck
already built. It was equipped with a troUey, carrying a winch for 6fting the seg
ments, and a motorized bogie placed at the back. The supports for the
longitudinal beams comprised front and rear crossbars whicb could transmit
vertical loads, directly above the segment webs.
This machine allowed the placing of all the segments for the cantilever situated
on the side of the deck already built. while the symmetrical segments were more
easily placed by a crane. The same machine can be used for the stabilizing of the
cantilevers during construction, when the structurc'slUpporU may not be strong
enough to carry the asymmetrical loads imposed. In this case, the twin etntilevers

are rigidly linked to the longitudinal beams of the keying bridge by connections
which are moved as placing progresses, and which can resist tension and com
pression forces. When crane and keying bridge work in this combination, it is
possible to build a 40 mlong span in four working days.
The placing of segments by mobile crane has found a new application in the
construction of structUrfS with small spans, as in the case of motorway over
bridges with three spans. Segments, which have been precast in a casting yard, are
carried by road to the different sites and placed by a crane, as shown in figure
5.30. The method comprises:
-

use of two adjustable temporary props, which can easily be removed; they

238

The canti/ever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

Callti/ever construction method by assembling precast segments

239

CD
-Adjustoble prop

Temporory pr"lr"'inQ

...,

cv

Finol prntr."illQ

PI.. S.31 Plaelnl I "Iment

was used for the construction of overbridges on the Rhone-Alpes motorways;
their spans varied between 18 and 30 m.

18lD30m ,pons

Fi&- 5.30 Erec:tioo of precast overbridgcs

are placed at one-quarter and three-quarters points of the central span

(whose length can vary between 18 and 30 m);
temporary supports, with jacks, thus allowing cantilever construction;
use of temporary prestressing, thus ensuring the successive connection of
the segments before fmal prestressing;
closure of the central joint between cantilevered sections;
final prestressing realised by threading and stressing complete longitudinal
tendons, instead of the usual cantilevering.

The overall construction of such an overbridge generally takes less than two
weeks, supports included: less than a week for the deck (fig. 5.31). This method

4.2

Placla, by means of moble ~Iftlni eqjdpment carried by the deck itself

For the construction of the Pierre-BCoite bridps on the Rhone it was considered
advantascous to \IIC IIIOblk lifting ,qulp~nt, carried by the deck, to place the
segments. It nccdI relatively simple equipment, supported by the cantilevers
already built, and successively If/b, transports and places the segments. A
diagram reprcsentin, the system is shown in figure 5.32. It comprises a lifting
equipment B carried by a trolley C traveUulg on the deck on a track D. The
segment A is brought, on land or on water, to the pier, where it is taken by the
lifting equipment. This then carries it to two cantilevering launchinl Birders E, and
the segment is moved to its final place (lig. 5.33). The sySlCm can be simplified if
the segments ate brought diree:tJy under their fmal position in the structure.
In its initial form, this system is not eiltirely independent, as it requires the patt
of the deck situated above the pier to be constructed by another method.
This first element had been cast in situ in the case of the PierreBenite bridges.
It had been precast and placed by a crane moving on the ground in the Empel

.... _ . r_ ....' .....__.___..__

Removel of the tower

Lounch,nq qirder

~-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:

.A

Fig.5.34

Pollel

Temporory support

Pier seament placing with a mobile crane

-Pier I

:-:7":-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:::-":-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-~:-:-:-":~:-t~~:=:=~~:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:=:-:-:

FiB. 5.32 Placing equipment. as in Pierre-Senile bridge

....

j.

'.

Fig. H3 P1ac1na at the Bayonne bridge over the Adour

Fig. 5.35 Pier segmcnt

placing at the Saint
AndrcdeCubzac bridge

-.
!.

,'. .

"~,,,,~~,~,

..........:
<

242"

The cantilever construction ofpreslressed concrete bridges

Caliri/ever construcliOlllnethod by assembling precasl segments

4J.J

243

Girders slightly longer than the spans

Let us rust review the method of deck construction at the O/eron viaduct
(fig. 5.37).

Segments were carried fllong the deck itself and placed by a launching girder
which is. overall, slightly longer than the bridge spalls. The launching girder \\'as
an E24 Iteel (highly ductile mild steeI)' lattice girder, of ree/QlZgular sec/ion.
entirely welded, with a total weisht of 113 t and a length of 95 m (maximum deck
span: 79 m). It included two fIXed legs, called the IUllnel legs. which allow the
ments to come through, placed one at the rear and the other about the middle of
the prder, plus a foldable front lea called the guide leg. The bottom chords of the
girder were used u tracks for the carriases, which could mo\'c the segments
vertically and rotate them by 90 horizontally.
Three distinct phases occurred during construction of the cantilevers (fig. 5.38).

seg-.

Phase I: Placing qfIlandGrd segmtnts

The girder was reslinl on two suppons: the central leg situated above a pier
sClmcnt, and the roar lea ancbored at the end of the last cantilever.
PM'. 2: Plac;nr qf'he pier segment
The aireler \\15 resting on three supports: the rear leg, on the deck in the adjacent
span, the central leg situated ncar ~e end of the last cantilever and the guide lea
carried by a temporary bracket (IXed at the front of the pier.
FiS. 5.36 Placing of a standard segment at Saint-Andre-dc-Cubzac

bridge in Holland. and by a.floating crane at the Bayonne bridge on Adour. This
system was improved at the Saint-Andre..de-Cubzac bridges where the pier scg
ments were placed by the same equipment as the standard $Cgments (fig. 5.34).
One of the two mobile carriages is temporarily hunS by cable stays, to an
auxiliary tower fixed on one side of the pier. The pier segment is brought on the
other side, lifted and placed by the winches the mobile camage. In this lame
position, the', next segment is placed, then tho auxiliary tower is removed
(fig. 5.35). Then, simple operations allow the placing of the two mobile carriages
", in a position convenient for lifting the standard segments (fig. 5.36).'

or

4.3

Placing b)' means of a launchinllirder

By this most elegant method, the segments are placed by a sleel girder launched

over the cantilevers. This method was first used at the Dleron viaduct; it'has since
been frequently employed. By reviewing the different structures built by this
method. \ve \vill try to show how launching girders have developed over the last
few years.

Launchina airder at the Oleron viaduct

244

The cantilever construction o/prestrlfs,d concrete bridges

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

245

The principle was as follows. During placing of the pier segment, the central leg
is on the end of the cantilever, at the same place as the rear leg during placing of
the standard segment The placing of a standard segment was done as a statically
determinate beam supported at two points as it is not possible to modify the reac
tion under the rear leg which applies well defined forces to the deck.
During placing of the pier segment, certain fottes must not be exceeded. The
reaction under the central leg must not be higher than the one under the rear leg
during placing of a standard segment, increased by the weight of the truck carry
ing the segment.
Several other structures were built with launching girders similar to the one
used on the Oleron viaduct.

CD

Guide

",leg

-f:'
support
TeMpotory

brae.,

Chi/Ion viaduct (figs. 5.39 and 5.40) overlook-jng Lake Geneva; a 122-m
long girder weighing 230 t (maximum deck span: 104 m) was used. The
girder, of constant rectangular section, was cable stayed; its adjustable
legs.. equipped with hydraulic mechanisms, allowed it to follow the slope
variations of the deck (fig. 5.41). To folJow the curve of the structure. the
girder pivoted around its rear leg, by travelling transversely on its central
leg. The girder had three adjusting mechanisms (fig. 5.42):

adjustment ~I by transverse movement of the carriage to allow the

placing of eccentric segments:

Diagram of the curve in plan: Phase J;

Diagram of the curve in plan: Phase 2.

~
'I

36.00

I_

79.00

43.00

Fig. 5.38 Launchina girder of the OJeron viaduet-operation phases

Phase 3: TrtMlllng o/the girder

The girder was rolling on its back leg and on the carriage which was connected to

an auxiliary steel frame, or temporary tower, placed on top or the pier segment.

During the travelling of the girder, the rear and central legs were rolling on rail.

fixed onto the deck to carry the bogies.

A support atQuslment was made when the girder was supported by the rear Ie

the central leg and 'the guide lea, before placing the pier segmeftt. This adjustment

was made by jacks. to distribute correctly the weight of the &irder on ita three

supports.

"-li iI .
III

nil . ~

'w

...... 1
.'

Fig. 5.39 Chillon viaduct-launching girder during placing

..

246

The canlilever construclion ofpreslressed concrete bridges

Cantilever construelion melhod by assembling precast segments

Olojrom of lhe curve in pion I phON 1

Phose 1- Standard placing position

122.50

Guidi 1t9

9 n
Phase2;Ofpierse me ls I i

!!!!!..!!!

--------~-~~~~-

~~~~~~~~~~

PhQ'e 3 - Preparation for travelling

G:fUlF

"I

---- ....

~--.--..

~_!e~O..!.!.t!~!r

--_.-. ...... '"""'..,- ... -

Guide1et-
$UP",'

Phose :

~1~;~~:lIin9

""W"'

Fig. 5.41

Chillon viaduct-construction or curved spans

Fig. S.40 ChiUon viaduct-operation phases of the launching girder

adjustment A1 by transverse movement of the central leg for curved con

struction;
adjustment l13 by levelling of the bogies for the cross-slope;

The guide leg was designed as the other legs, letting the segment come

through.

- Blois bridge over the Loire. A 112-m long girder, weighing 123 t, wq used.
(maximum deck span: 91 m). The su'der had a constant triangular "ellon,
and could be entirely taken to pieces, so that it could be transported by
road (ftg.5.43). AD the components of the Sirder were connected by high
strength' friction grip bolts (fig. S.44).

The usc of a lightweight frame in E36 steel (high strCDlth weldable steel) could
create larsc deflections in the girder. To reduce and control these deflections, two

-... -~-

~3l

=:::!~ ~:~~~~pe
5.6-/.

Fig. 5.42 Adjustmcots or the launching girder of Chlllon viaduct

247

248

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

","

249

. ~-;...

1,

~rLII~~.~:,~~~~Jf{4f4i~,
k,:; .~", ~ j"t"""\I'~.~
'1".,.,.O~j'n"li\I~J~j',~J~j~I~J~~~~~I~"j~~_.!
~~y -~/tj ~At'. .,.~ ~,~! ~~::
.
:
~
.
.l.,._,.~-,-"
;k~~d~:~': .....;. ;: .~., :;'~i" ~~~~~~;,-:-~~;"':::;"':-'~\~~4'A
~!!~
rp/"-::~

."l \f:l~i~~ '~ ~,1~';';J, ,,'l:i~'J'/Q~':'":'''

i'lllI ~i .;.:,::' . ': .'. " <;. y?
f.
v
.
~
;
~
p;;)i}
!//.ql ~~"<.:;;.~
',_~
~,~:..;;;t.!
t
F)iJ .,' :-:',::
--~~,,_,,,,~.J.,'
~':~.
~ '-.ti~ I: "IT"",~,,",,::-.~-':~':'~"'?'~tl
~-,;._: ~~?-~~'';_.~:-I L
/".\f;

"I

i'

t,jl..t", -,..

"

' .,," .,.<

' ',:..-'
\

Fig. 5.43

1'"." ''''

,.r

",-.'

Fig. 5.45

I'

. ,'; ,

..... / ....,:

.'

. : -

_.:'

",

..0\

.,:

Aramon bridge over the Rhone

- ,-

r'

. ,',-

11~\,,$~~~;~~;!{.~~:~~~: .~' ~

Blois bridge-launching girder

e--,-,

/'

'

"

~;;~

(It
.
;-""1'" ". :

.....

types of cable stays were used; untcnsioned or tensioned, which were successively
working during the segment placing phase (untensioned upper cable stays) then
dwing the girder travelling phase (lower tensioned cable stays).
The girder of the Blois bridge was then used for the construction of two other
structures: the A ramon bridge on the Rhone (fig. 5.45) and the 900 m long Seudre
viaduci.

Elevation.

i.
(

Section A

Fig. 5.44 Joint detail in the Blois bridge launchinglirder

Fig. 5.46 Saint-Cloud bridge-launching girder

250

The cantilever COllstructio" o/prestressed concrete bridges

-Guide le~

I..

55,49

...l..

52.22

.1

Fig. S.4 7 Saint-Cloud bridge launchio'lirdcr-aeneral arran.cmcnt

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

The operation method is ~e same as before (0 Ie ron, Blois and Chillon

launchina girder&) with the usc of cable slays (untensioned upper cables, tensioned
lower clblc')i tho airdcr was in E36 steel and had a trlallgular section t with its
components bans u\cmbled by prestressing (fig. $.48). Thc girder was unusual,
because. apart from its larse dimensions, the adjustments necessary to follow the
deck's curvature were very larac.
The same &rr&IJICDIODti u in the ChilloD viaduct were used but, in addition, the
girder bad to move to several IUCcessive positions during construction of one
cantilever to brin. all the aeaments to their final position. This ovctaU lateral
movemont could reach 6 m. The rate of deck construction was 40 m per week,
includill.tll the movemOllts of the Iaunchinaairder.
Two other Itruetures were bunt with .the same girder: the Angers bridge
(fig. S.49) and the SaUiPpund viaduct.

Saint-C/oudbridge over the Seine (fig. 5.46).

This is the most recent example of a largc launching girder, capable ofplacina scg

Illments weighing 130 t on a bridge with maximum spans of 102 m and a minimum
1IIIcurvature radius of 330 m (fig. 5.47). The girder weighed 23' t and wu 122 m
"long.
Placing of pier segment

Guide leg

Travellirl9 of the launching girder

Placing of standard segments

FiB- 5.48 Operation ofSaint-Cloud launching girder

251

Fi&. 5.49 Angers bridge

252

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

Cantil~'er

construction method by assembling precast segments

253

the moton,ay viaducts of the Rhone-Alpes network

In the range of smaller and tighter spans, the launching girder designed for the
construction of the viaducts is a ~haracterjstic example of a versatile machine,
which could be dismantled and reused for several structures (fig. 5.50). This girder
was used for placing segments of a maximum weight SO t on spans not exceeding
60 m. The study of these launching girders shows an evolution on two main
points: structure andjoinrs.
The structure involves an increase in the external variable forces according to
the loading case. The external forces are transmitted by activt cable stays which
allow the structure to be placed in the most favourable condition for the applied

..~ . j;.!.~

"i

Fia. S.S 1 Prestressed couplings

U:

loadings, and lead to an optimal use of the constant section and to an economy in
the \veight of the frame.
At the same time, a constant section, identical from one end of the girder to the
other. led the contractors to stop using welded joints and to replace them by joints
which could be dismantled, thus building the girder in standardized and
interchangeable panels. The length can then be altered according to the span and
to the \veight of the segments. Some prestressed joints, making the bolts work in
tension-thus reducing the number of bolts and shortening the time necessary to
assemble and dismantle the frame-were recently substituted by joints of plates
and high strength bolts (fig. 5..5 1). These prestressed couplings were used at the
Deventer bridge and subsequently on the B3 viaducts.
At the same time, the operation method had also changed. The deck need no
longer be submitted to forces transmitted by the supports of the launching girder
as these can now be placed above or near the structure's piers.
Some new schemes for launching girders have been designed: their total length
is slightly more than twice the standard span of the deck and this allows the
standard segments of cantilever N and the pier segment of cantilever N + 1 to be
placed at the same time.

43.2 Girders slightly longer than twice the deck span

Fig. ~.50

Launchin"irder (or the viaducts or the Alpine lftOtorways

The rarst examples of such launching girders were used on the Rio Niteroi" bridge
in Brazil, .:>n the Devenler bridge in Holland and on the B3 South Motorway.
viaduct, east of Paris.
'
The Rio Nlteroi bridge, linking Rio de Janeiro to Niteroi, has a 16-km-long
deck (fig. 5.52) which was built by fOUf identical launching girders. Each
launching girder, which could be completely dismantled, had a constant triangular

The cantilever construction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

254

,~.~i::!:.;:.:; . .

>'.t~
.. '~ ",.,o\1~

0
0

00

. . . .. :

":

::.

:::~~o~:.o~~:!

..... .. ;.

. '..

.;.,

...

Cantilever constl1lctlon method by assembling precast segments

255

section and was 166 m Ions and weighed 400 t (maximum deck span: 80 m). The
joints were basically similar to the Blois bridge joints. The girder had three legs,
which did not form a tunnel; with one leg being fIXed and the other two moveable.
The operation was as follows (ti.. 5.53):

Phase J: Segment placing

..

The launcml11 airdcr rested on three supports, each placed above a pier. It placed
simultaneously two seam-ts onto the cantilever, one on either side of the central
leg, and could alio place tho'pier alament ofthe next cantilever.
.

/",,"

of'' '

Fla. 5.52 Launchinl prder for the R.io Nit~roi bridle

,1,.,

Phcu, J: TraNlIInI
1aJUtC1U",
The lauachia. airder w rollin. on two auxiliary temporary towers, placed one
above tho pier of tho ftDiabod cantilever and the other 'one above the next pier.
Theso ~poruy tow. . wert connected to curiaacs which allowed them to lift
the launchiDI pdet and rclc_ tho lop. As the deck was partially curv~ in plan,
tho two tempOrary cowon , equipped with tranlyerse mechanism which
allowed tho beam to mo" OIl curved path.
Tho Iaunchin. a1Jder a110 comprised three systems of active cable stays: lateral,
central and Jaunchins cables. The lateral cable stays, placed in the lower part of
the two spans, and permanentJy in tension. played an important role when the
load wu pauing at the airder's midspan. The central cable stays were tensioned
only durina the travellin& operations or the launching girder, and transferred the
reactions of the front and rear legs to the central lea. As the deck was very long,
and because of the water under the structure, the seaments were brought by sea
on Pontoons. The stability of the cantilever was ensured by the launching girder
itself, as some intermediate IUpports could be moved is segment placing
progressed.

~~::~3:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Fig. 5.53 Rio Nitcroi bridge launching girder-kinetics

The girder uacd on tho Deveater bridae in HoUand (file 5.54) could also be
completely, dilmantled; it had constant trill1&ular section and was 156 m lona
and ~d 180 t (maximum deck span '074 m).
The jointa were made by prcstnssina rods placed perpendicularly to the plane
of the joint (4 5.5 1). Tho lauricbing girder had three fiXed legs, the rear and
CCJltral lep forming a tunnel, and' two cable stay systems: the central and
launchinl cable stays. The operation was the same as for the Rio Niteroi' bridge,
but tho launching girder could place only one segment at a time, with the segments
being broupt along the deck.
Its main feature was that it could lift IlseV: the girder, assembled at ground
level, could 6ft itself to its working level by means of the central tower which was
used as a lifting jack.
In the case of the BJ South Motorway viaducts (fig. 5.55) a highly mechanized
launchiDa girder was used for the construction of a deck with constantly changing
geometrical shapes which was resting on 200 piers and crossed five railway
tracks, the Ourcq canal and several urban roads. The laWlching girder allowed the
"';.'~"~

256

The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

Calltilever colistruction method by assembling precast segments

257

~~e'''''''''l''"''!J .... ~. -.

C'OSIltchOft

..

~
-l.J

Sysllmfo,_
lIlIoodincj
Ihllt-aAtlJ i i Vi,.~ i H! -i
ii
"'Y"-'

Syi,"m lot stobi~lincj IIlo conlileYl'

Ro1hn9 trock

Fig. S.56 Launching girder of the 83 South motorway viaduct- general arrange
ment

V''11
~.

Fig. 5.54 Launching girder for the Deventer bridp

,----

c..
PO

PI

lr

c..

P2

P3

(a) Segment placing

PO

Fig. 5.55 Launching girder for the 83 South viaduets

simultaneous placing of two symmetrical segments, 30 to 60 t weight, on one
cantilever with a remote control system synchronizing the loads at each end of the
cantilevers. The launching girder was slightly longer than twice the standard
spans, which vary between 30 and 50 m (fig. 5.56). The reactions of the girder
were then applied near the final piers and the stability or the cantilever during con
struction was ensured by the launching girder itself. The stabilizing system is
shown at the len of the central leg on figure 5.58.

(b) Travelling of the launchina ginler

Fig.5.57 Launching lirder of the B3 South viaduct-operation
The segments were brought by a self-propelled trllck rolling on the top slab of
the deck (lig. 5.59). An unloading and storing system, at the rear of the girder,
allowed some freedom to the self-propelled truck and the arrival of the segments
on site was no longer part ofthe critical placing cycle.
Figure 5.57 shows the operations for segment placing and travelling of the
girder. The pier segment of the next balance bar was placed during the same phase
as the standard segments. The sequence for segment placing was about two spans

The cantilever construction Q/prestressed concrete bridges

258

~
,.
..
... . '

",'

..

.....

;,~

-~"-.;;.,"O:""'"

...;

,.-=--'..

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

':-r

259

........ :.

11:~~:""""

~~ .

.:~fi~! ;~

::;':~~~::f~t:::

. _

. ..~ ..~,"'~~'

Fia. 5.60 Launching girder of the cast Escaut bridge

lew. . . .

A'

x'

Fig. S.S8

'rot.-ll

._cCbeb

I}JaL.L:l:.."

. WI

Placing of standard segments

length' was two-and-a-haV times the length of a standard span; it rested, in its
working position, on four legs, three of which were placed above the piers, while
the fourth leg was at tho CrId 0{ the last built cantilever (fig. 5.61). It weighed 500 t
and was about ZSO m 1001 (maximum deck span 95 m). Each deck span was
made of seven prefabricated subunits. The pier subunit weighed 600 t Ilnd WIlS

1_

2~O.00

~;'O'jjljj'~""j"''Icr
~~""")t""""~

'II'

~H~8Ii~B""II~

If

4~DY''''iC~

1l'

~ .~~"i:HZ:P""'~

err

2 c::e:'

fig. S.S9

Self-propeUed vehicle used for the transport of segments (BJ South)

a week, i.e. four to six segments a day. The average construction speed was 60 m
a week, including travelling of the launching girder. The B3 South launching
girder was used again recently for the erection of the Marne-la-Vallee viaduct.

4.JJ

Very long launching girders

This category includes the launching girder used for the construction of the bridge
on the East Escaut in Holland (Ocstershelde Brug) (fig. 5,60). The girder's overall

~"8iir

ca::x:::::ct '

I.
Fig. S.6J

I!

Rollers

"W'If""""'i
----.

11

..

rUT:C~l[ru(l~rrttrtUti

"'00

.1,

95.00

.1.

95.00

.1.

9~OO

.1

Launching girder on the east Escaut bridge-operalion

.:.,~~~,.,..-r:;:

260

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

I 0<

17.S m long; it was placed at high tide by pontoons; the pontoons carried two
lifting towers equipped with jacks which had a I-m lift. The standard subunits,
weighing 190 to 275 t (13 m long), were placed symmetrically and simultaneously
by the launching girder. They were placed alternately on one cantilever. then on
the next, to allow the concrete joints between the subunits to harden.
4.3.4

26]

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

18.00

I ot(

..

Trovel 14.5

J- .

~ ..

II

I
:

Other types 0/ launching girders

A launching girder with a different desilft, WU used Cor the construction of the
Vienne bridges over the Rh6ne (maximum span 98.4 m). This aitder was slightly
longer than the span and allowed ,'multanlOUl plad1l, qf"""",11' Cor each ofthe
two boxts formln, the deck (fl,. 5.62). It wu formed by two steel frames
(triangular section, 120 m long) placed paraUel to the 18-m centre line; the
frames were used as a rolling track by a self-pro~lled gantry (fig. 5.63). Each
frame rested on fOUf supports (fig. 5.64):
-

a front support placed on the cantilever under construction;

a rear support situated on the cantilever already built;
two intermediate supports, one above the pier segment of the cantilevers
under construction. and the other at the end of the completed cantilever.

I:ig. 5.63

Vicnnc hridgcs--gnntr}' for scg.ncnt pl.lcing

The steel frames were launched over the intermediate supports which were
equipped with sliding bearings. The movement wu ensured by electric winches
incorporated in the frames which pulled them from a faxed point located at the
end of the completed cantilever. The segments were "brought OD an auxilia,,'
' ..

SJ

..

-r

."'

,,-~~;

i.-=-~~.:.5.=~~,,-~,::

.' f,'"

fl.l~~.~~:~~':~:~1
Fig. 5.62

.-.
H

--~.~ -V':~~i~.:_.~ ~

Vienne bridges-operatioll method

I
1----".... -'.'-98.40
.-.- ..- _..- -'.- _. -----:

.~ I':; ~.".~.

:~

;MM)\MMtw

~-""""'~~>P4.~ ~:,~.~-:,,~- _~,~

-r.,

~~ ..,~ .

;T~V"1}{Tj.i~~

,_~::'1':~

. -

~~~~,

-....-

.J"

.~

.' ' .1 . '

12000

~.'f: 1:111~.111..nlll}.,.lilo
~ ~. "'1"'I"A~~~'
'
' .'Io".h~:.~ .
:.;:-. , ~ .. ' ~_ {<!"r.r,.~~ '1,11,1
~ ~,
_., .....,,:.c,t,:i t. ~ ..._'~ '";'Vi r, r, ;':: /' ~,~,r ..,rf~.r~:}......~
1:;2~
~~;~
' .,. ".,,,.

.
I

~y
J

P:

p-u

c==:::r
I

~'

Fig. 5.64

Vie~ne

bridges-operation method

262

The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

Cantilever cOILflrucdon method by assembling precast segments

gantry moving on tyres, drawn by a tractor and could be loaded and unloaded
independently. This machine completely separated the. precasting and placing
operations.
The launching girder of the VieMe bridges could build structures of IOSm
spans with segments ~ighing up to SS t.
The development of cantilever construction by the usembly of precast seg
ments led some companies, which were already specialized in handling and lifting
gear, to design equipment for segment placing and to hire it to construction
companies. These girders belong to the same category u the one used during con
struction of the VieMe bridges. They usually comprise two steel frames, made
of standard clements which can euily be dismantled and transported, and a
mobile truck (fig. S.65). As they easily deflect, these girders must rest on the deck
in several places and occupy different positions during placing of the segments of
one cantilever. Figure 5.66 shows the different positions occupied by one of these

g
~

:1tl
G

'6

~
:I
~

..f i

I
'is

:1

J1J

b
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101

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e

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Fig. 5.65 Hayange bridge-gantry for segment placing

t'l t'l

t'l

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~~j 88 :!!
88
8
u u

c:
u

ffi~

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~:::l"""'2:::l:l~:q2:~

--- -

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.... CIOt'l

7.10

263

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_....------.

The cantilever construction ofprestrased concrete bridges

264

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

ITransport of segments)

9600

~'::J

( (kIXXXXiXXkikXkAXA

2~

..

~n9~om \~;::eom

<D

. : PIocilcJof pier segment 1

Gantry

A&

(l.

--rr.

:':
:'280
.
..

s.,,~ W

14~440;
. :'1 ~400
- - - - -I'
I

11'
\::!3.

PIOCifMJ oI~ts 5 to 8
A~
r

: ..

C!

2240

- C :. end 8 f.ltd supports method

.. '. 2 end 3 shd.nQ supports
:. Frte support

.,

::.

II

27.20::m:=
.

gUO

I -,

: . 1920 .:

~ of Mc)tnlftts 9 to 11

@,

Fig. 5.66 Hayange bridge-operation method

or

girders (girder or 'societe Ie Treport') for the construction a standard cantilever

of the Hayange viaduct (span: 80 m). The launching of thelfrder itself wu done
by sliding on supports 1, 2 and 3. which are mobUe supportl, _hUe, at tHe same
ti me, the extreme supports A and Bare cOMected to the steel frames..
The main drawback of this type of girder is the large Coree wbleh it applies on
the deck, as weu as the largo number of operations which it requites for launching.
On the other hand, its structure is simple and its depreciation Faster than in the
case of more sophisticated glrders, such as the ones described i1l paragraphs 4.3..1
10 4.3.3.

5
5.1

Sf Cfoud bridge

B
1I I I lIZ
3Q40
:

265

PROBLEMS SPECIFIC TO SEGMENTS WITH "MATCH-eAST

GLUED JOINTS
Maintaining the match-casting

Some precautions must be taken, so that the joint's match-caatinais still effective
despite the deformation. occurring in the segments dwina tll,tlng, Itoc1cplllng and
transporting.
During the precastlng stage. it is necessary, if higlt-ttmpll'aturf curing is
applied, that it is applied homogeneously t~ each segment, in ita concreting posi
tion and in its countermoukl position.
.
During stockpiling, it is necessary to avoid crtep deformations and warping or

Fig. 5.67

Handling of segments

the segments by, for example, supporting it on three points. The same applies if
the segments are transported when the concrete is very young. At the Saint-Cloud
bridge, ror example, because of the large size of the segments, it was necessary to
use sloping tie-rods to ensure the stability of the shape during transport and
placing.
Lifting and handling of a two-webbed segment is usually done by a slngle
lifting beam. For a three-webbed segment, it is advisable to use a triple lifting
beam (fig. 5.67).
5.2

Grouting of prestressing tendons

In the case of structures with prefabricated segments. grouting can be a probJenl

at the joints where ducts are interrupted. The waterproofing role of the glue is
inefficient in the area of high concentration of prestressing tendons, and as the
ducts are close to each other the grout tends to now from one duct to the next
(fig. 5.68). It is advisable to use 'retarded' grout which is more versatile than
ordinary grout =
-

longer workability (up to 10 h);

grouting of a larger volume (up to 5 m3);

possibDity of washing out the ducts in case of accidents.

The longitudinal cables will be grouped in distinct transverse grouPSt which can be
isolated from each other by waler slOps, made during precasting, at the joints in
the webs and in the flanges (fig. 5.69). Despite these measures, cables grouting is
still a difficult operation and some research was undertaken on how to keep the
duets tight at the joints. and thus, how -to grout the tendons separately. Different
. methods have been studied.

266

. The cantilever construction a/prestressed concrete bridges

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

267

Section AA
Expandable
sleeve

Polymerizab1e
resin
Expansion
system --""-;=~;;"'.-61-IFlliii:T~~.

Duct
Pi pes for expansion
fluid

Grout

Fig. 5.70 Use of a connecting expandable sleeve

Fig. 5.68 Section at a joint at the level of two prestressing ducts

Col/ar joinls, placed at the duct jW1ction, y,'ere tried~ but this system was
inefficient \yhen tendons were close to each other. Today, the most satisfactory
solution is the use of expandable connecting sleeves glued with epoxy. These
sleeves arc made of a cylindrical folded envelope threaded inside the duct by an
inflatable tube, until it is across the joint. The expansion system at the end of the
tube causes a plastic dilation of the tube, thus pressing this against the internal
walls of the ducts, where the sleeve fits tightly (fig. 5.70). "This joint is made
watertight by a preglueing of the sleeve: a rapid hardening resin is placed inside
the longitudinal folds of the sleeve, before introduction in the duct. Such sleeves
were successfullr used at the Saint-Andre-de-Cubzac bridges.
Groups of tendons

6 LIMITS AND EVOLUTION OF CONSTRUCTION BY

PREfABRICATED SEGMENTS
In the actual state of the art for bridge construction by precast segments, the
max/Inurn economical span seems to be around J50 m. Beyond 120 m, the cost of
the plaeina mechanism--especially launching girders-increases very
rapidly-at the same time, the weight. of the segment increases. At the other end
of tho ranae. 18..m long spans were built during the construction of the
Rhone-Alpes motorways.
None of thesclimitina spans is definite: on the one hand, motorway structures
are tending to become standardiled, on the other, continual progress is made in
lifting equipment and mechanization.
The number of identical structures to be built, as well as their size, play an
important role in the choice of the construction method. By referring to the overall
deck area, the following values give an idea of the economical limits for con
struction by prceast segments.
SOOO m1:

minimum area for use of prefabricated segments. Placing by an

independent system (crane, mobile gantry...) or by mobile lifting
equipment carried by the deck.
10000 mZ: minimum area for placing of precast segments by a launching girder.

Detail A

Water 'stop
Glued joint

Fig.5.69 Separation of tendons into transversal groups

The values must, of course, be u,ed with care, as they can vary considerably with
the availability of cquipment:within the contracting company. The development of
bridge construction by preCast segments with match-cast glued joints, and
technological advances allow rapid Construction speeds; the field of application of
this method has been extended to structures with very variable spans and con
stantly changing geometrical shapes. In the following chart is shown a general
review of precast bridges finished or under construction in France, since the cons
truction ~ the Choisy-lc-Roi bridge.
It is interesting to Dote that, during the last IS years, a steady evolution in the

The cantilever construction ofprtstressed concrete bridges

268

Start or

Area

Prccasting

Chois)'JeRoi
Pierre- Benile
Oltron
Courbevoie
Juvisy
Pont a\'al
Pont amont
Bonpas
Blois
Bayonne

1962
1962
1964
1965

3600
16400

Aramon

Bourg..Saint-Andeol

1968
1970

Tours

1969

Structure

1966
1966
1967
1968
1968
1968

...

30300
4800

B
B
C

3200

10100
10900
16200

C
C

26800
5000
6900

B
C
B
C
C
B
C
C

7900

4700
4200

3300

Platina

EM
PL
G

0
GandBM
o and EM
G

PL
B

Coignet

(CD)
(CD)

1970
1970
1971

10200

PL

73600

Saint-Cloud
CaUx
St-Andre-de-Cubzac

1972

22500

1972
1972
1972

19500

C
C
B

GandEM

Coignet

(Cn) J\rc:\

PL

(CB) Arc:a

EM

Coignet

PL

BOUYJUfS

aM

1972

Angers
Pont Leon Bureau a
Nantes
Viaduc RATP
Marne.. la..Vallee
Le Scorff et Le Blavet
Beauregard
Saint.. Brieuc
Echangeur Saint..

J974

13800

PL

1974

2600

(ETPO)

1975

18000

PL

(CD)

1975
1976
1977

C
B

EM

7000

C
C

PL

Coignet
BouYlues
BouYlues

C
B

PL
M

1977
1977

~faurice

Oumarsheim

7800
16600
29400

15700

Area: concrete area

Placin,: G floating or ground crane

EM mobile placing equipment
B wheeled gantry
PL Ilunchinalirder

C'

PL

(C)
(MB)
(WO)

(LO)

Precasting: Bprecasdnl bed

C horizontal cell

C' vertical cell

Contractors: (CB) Campenon Bernard

(ETIJO) Entreprise de Travaux Publics de l-ouest

83 South Y10ducts

~_

I
I

I
I..

Coignet

!o

'N

_I

I. 650 .:
13.00
204C

.. __

I:

-.,

!
I

Ch,1I0ft vkJducts

I~

(CD)

Bouygues

9.50
1525

-0

i\:!-'==D ~l

(CD)

1972

r j
j
1660--...,

St Cloud vloduct

, (CB)

Corbeil et Evry
Vieone

i.i..J...Q.Q
718

:.

(Ca)
(Ca)

77100
25300
7900
19800

1972

~t ~1

(CD)

1970

C'

Ballot

. ;:._. !

(CB)

Connans

28100

14.00

r~~
~'. ~;

:-

Stud,e bridge

(CB)

Gardon
Seudre
Viaduc B3 Sud

P.S. Rhone-Alpes
Viaducs Rhone.. Alp~s

I.

(CD)

(CD)
(CB)

PL
PL

Lj-M
! :~Il!il ~.66.1 I

(CD)
(CD)
(CD)
(CD)

Coignet

~~

! U

Contractor

EM

PL

St Andre de CublOC bridge

Choisy te Roi bridge

Prefabricated bridges with match-caSl glued joints buDt in France

construction

269

Cantilever construction method by assembling precast segments

Fig. 5.71

~.OO

I.....

tJOO"

2ft
Ntj'

,i-.
t

."
,I)

Evolution of the cross sections of bridges bllilt with precast segments

direction of increased transverse dimensions of prefabricated segments and. their

unit weight has taken place. The problems linked to casting, transporting and
placing heavier and heavier elements have been progressively solved in a safe and
economical way. This evolution is clearly shown in figure 5.71: the cross-sections
of several characteristic structures, built with precast segments have been com
pared. The difference can be seen between:

the Choisy-Ie-Roi bridge, built in 1962~ the 14-m-wide deck comprises two
parallel box beams at 6.6-m centres, made of 2S t segments;
the St-Cloud bridget built in 1972; its 20.4 m wide deck consists of a single
spine beam, with three cells, made of segments of 130 t maximum weight.
Some contractors, however, prefer using sInall segments. precast by
traditional methods (precasting bed ) and placed with equipment com
monly available (crane, gantry ...). The Calix viaduct is a typical example;
it was built with segments of maximum weight 43 t, which were placed by a
tower crane and liftina equipment.
~

Cantilever colUtruclion qf cable-stayed bridges

271

However, over 200 m span, 'this type of structure has several drawbacks, which
soon become prohibitive:
-

CHAPTER SIX

CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION OF
CABLE-STAVED BRIDGES

However, some cantilever bridges have been built with spans greater than 200 m:.
the Bendorf bridge in Germany (208 m span), the bridge over the Urado bay
(230 m span) and the Hamana bridge (240 m span) in Japan.
In some cues, specific st~ were taken to limit the drawbacks which we just
mentioned:
,tronatboning of the lower flange by introduction of continuous passive
reinforcement at the Beadcd' bridge;
use of li&btweiabt all1C.lte to reduce the self-weight in the Ottmarsheim
bridaO over the Rhine.

TRANSITION BETWEEN CANTILEVER BRIDGES AND CABLE

STAYED BRIDGES
In the span range of SO to 150 m and in the case of concrete decks, bridgel built
by the cantilever method still form the most satisfactory solution from both
technical and economical points of view (fig. 6.1).

p'ET..g"""r",.. ,. .-,
I

E;,='"

considerable increase of moments due to self-weight because of the varia

tion in stiffness of the cantilevers;

increase in compressive stresses in the lower flange;

multiplication of prestressing tendons in the cantilever beams.

However, It it more efT'lClont to increase the lever arm of the prestressina by

artificiaUy aparatina the tendonl from the deck. The tendons, outside the con
crete. then behave al stay cables, supported by a tower which ensures their
deflected Ibape. CablNtayed bridges can thus be considered as cantilever bridges
with IJCtertlQl prestressing.
Tho stay cables are usually made of (fig. 6.2):

lock-eoiled ropes, made of strands of round wires, wrapped in layers of

wires with a Z-shape profile, the ultimate strength of the wires is about
1500 MPa for a modulus of elasticity varying from 1SO to 170 GPa;
cables with parallel or sheathed wires, similar to prestressing cables, with
an ultimate tensile strength of 1800 to 2000 MPa, for a modulus of
elasticity of around 190 to 200 GPa.

LodltOIed cables

Preslressed cables
A.. ,oqnt

_ _ '0'
I

-~Ol

101

,~t~ ..

__.i~~

coase lob<es

Fig. 6.1 Transition betwcen cantilever bridaca. and cable-stayed bridges

-t.

POCklflQ

. envelope

Prestre~~d' :
Wlfe~

Fig. 6.2 Lock<oiled ropes and prestressing cables

270
-;

....

_-......

~~~

The cantilever construction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

272

2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CABLE STAYS AND PRESTRESSING

CABLES OF CANTILEVER BRIDGES
As they are outside the- deck section, cable stays behave in a different way from
prestressing cables in a cantilever bridge.
2.1

First, the variations in tension are higher under working loads than for cables
placed inside the concrete and made integral by grouting. Then, it is necessary to
protect the cable stays against strain phenomena (fig. 6.3):
-

one one hand, by limiting the maximum prestressing force to a value

around 0.4 UTS (U15: ultimate tensile strength), which is smaller than the
value used for prestressing cables in cantilever bridles. where the maximum
stressing force is around 0.6 tITS;
on the other hand, by limiting the variation In maximum ,tress under alter
nate loads.
.

The fatigue tests made to date show that:

or

permissible variation of stress under 2 million cycles altetnate load must

not be more than 200 MPa;
failure is slowly propagated: if a rtrst wire breaks at O.S )( 10', the cable wiD
usually fracture at a number of cycles greater than 2 x 10';
.

fr 1800

1000
0.50fr

273

the strength of an area of anchorages and of cable splay saddles is usually

smaller than the strength of the cable itself.
Some comparative tests, made in Germany, on prestressing tendons, grouted or
not, have shown the favourable effects of grout on the strain capacity in
anchorage areas.
The strain capacity is even more increased if the grouted prestressing cables are
placed, near the anchorages, in ducts a/diameter and thickness greater than ducts
used in standard areas: it reduces the additional variation in tension carried by the
cable under local bending moments due to the rigidity of the cable stays.
2.2

The stay cables are exposed to weather condillonsj it is necessary to protecl/helH

against corrosion. This protection can be made in different ways:

- nonstij]inlng
by the structure of the cable: lock-coiled ropes;
by the Corm of steel treatment: stainless steel or galvanized wires;
by sheathing of the cables: grease, paint. epoxy-based or not, resin.
watertight sheath in plastic or steel;
by the medium where the cables are placed: nitrogen or inert gas;
. - stiffening, when the covering of the cables contributes to their strength.
This is the case of prestressing cables, threaded in metal ducts and grouted
with resin or cement.
The ducts can be either of stainless steel or of steel with paint protection.
However, one must note that, because of the low stres'sing force in the cable, the
risk of stress corrosion is negligible (it is usually assumed that the risk appears
only when stresses are higher than 0.4 UTS). The best absolute guarantee against
corrosion seems to be the possibility of rep/acing the stay cable if it deteriorates.

tr sup

(MPo)

0.65 fr

Cantilever construction of cable-stayed bridges

t---.. . . .

2.3
The stay cables, which are submitted to wind loads, can be the cause of vibration
phenomena, which could flead to fatigue failures. The risk of this happening is
increased if:

'"

750

- the stay cables are round and have a smooth surface, thus having a high
lin;

100

200

300

"'et(MPa)

Fig. 6.3 Maximum permissible stress value of the stay cables in accordance with
the variations of stress to which they are submiJted

- . their behavitJur is close to that of an elastic body with a low damping

capacity.
On that account. rigid stay cables. made of prestressing cables threaded inside
steel ducts and grouted, are less advantageous than lock-coiled cables. The latter

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

274

Canlilner construction of cable-stayed bridges

have a rough surface which stops air flows separating from the structure; their
structure allows them, by internal friction, to dissipate the vibratory energy. One
can alleviate these drawbacks by giving some antivibration mechanisms to the
stay cables; these mechanisms can be of two sorts:

aerodynamic, by asymmetrical elements, for instance a wire bound as a

helix around the cable;

mechanical, by hydraulic shock absorbers or friction dampers placed near
the connecting point of deck and cable.

275
./

--Neoprene shock obsorbers

i~d';::"'"

..... .:""'... _l . . . . . ' , ; ;........l.

/~L..

At the BrotoMe bridge, where vibrations of high amplitudes (300 mm) were
noticed during medium velocity winds (15 mls) blowing at a 30 Mgle on the
horiz:ontal axis of the deck, this last solution was used (fig. 6.4). However, the
FiCo 6.S Neoprene shock absorbers
most simple apparatus i, better, such as the neoprene shock absorbers which are
placed insi~ metal d\U:ts to provide access for the stay cables through the deck
(lig.6.S).
At the Hocchst bridge, the stay cables, also made of prestressing tendons
grouted inside a plastic sheath, but placed transversely in pairs, began to vibrate in
pairs; they had to be linked to each other at several points. Despite all the preced
ing su8&eadonI, a rigid S1Up,nsion, i.e. made of prestressing tendons inside a
grouted steel sheath, with a roup surface, olTers an interesting solution to the
problems created by radaue strength and protection against corrosion.
For the same weight or steel, the stress variation under alternate loads, is
reduced significantly as the steel sheath contributes to the elTective section.
Furthermore, the prestressing steel, with an ultimate strength higher than the one
of lock-coiled cables, increases the range of stresses which can be applied to the
stay cables.
3

SPACING OF STAY CABLES

Advantages ofsuspcnslon by multiple Inclined cables

...::"

Fig.6.4 Hydraulic shock absorbers at the BrotoMe bridge

For construction reasons, each segment of a cantilever bridge is usually pre

stressed by two or more tendons (fig. 6.6(a. In the case of cablestayed bridges
built by the cantilever method, the same could apply: the cables can be spaced at
a value equal to the length of a segment: Le. about 3 m (Iii. 6.6(a)). For aesthetic
reasons, and to keep a sufficient 'wind permeability through the ran made by the
cables, it is advisable to space the cables at a distance of 6 to 10 m, which
corresponds to the length of two or three segments; it is then necessary to use
temporary prestressing to ensure the stability of the segments without stay cables,
or to increase the length of the segments (fig. 6.6(c)).

276

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

~~
(a)

fb

Call/ilever cOllstruction ofcable-stayed bridges

277

/. .'----- ""

?ayoables

~ro~

rn~

( b)

(c)

Deck
:
compression

Fig. 6.6 (a), (b), and (c) Spacing of stay cables

/r
.< <,>'" '<'~:~~~<::,

The stay cables are then regularly spaced longitudinally along the deck and the
general arrangement is called multiple inclined cables. This type of cable-staying
has several advantages:

\,

Eros!,c Support
V reocliOn

~--. I
==.:sJ
I

N;

\,

.,

T Fc'ce ,n lhe sloy ccble

'N:~.
"".:

,
-

ease ofdeck assembly, as the construction can proceed by suspension from

successive stay cables;
simplification oftM transmission offorces: to the deck on one hand, and to
the tower on the other, by the reduction of concentrated forces at the
anchorages and by the decrease of bending moment between points of
suspension;
ease qfreplacing the stay cables in the calle of deteriotatlon, without having
to interrupt the traffic on the structure: if one stay cable is removed, the
distribution ri forces in the structure is hardly changed;
excellmt aerodynamic stabiliry, by the increase of ddlplng capacity of the
system due to the large number of stay cables with mabie lengths and
different natural frequencies.

It should be noted that there is an important differ" between standard

cantilever bridges and cable-stayed bridges. In the first cue. each cable applies a
primarily horizontal compressive force, which prestresses tile deck (the vertical
component, when it exists, tends only to improve the shear resistance of the
beam). In the second case, the force created by the stay cable his two com
ponents, a compressive horizontal force and a vertfcalforct. which provides an
elastic support reaction for the deck (fig. 6.7). Schematically, it can be said that, if
a stay cable is placed above each successive segment of the deck. and a force
applied in the stay cable calculated to cancel the vertical component of the per
manent loads applied to this segment, it is possible to cancel all bending moments
in the unloaded deck; under service load local bending between two stay cables is
reduced to small values.
In multiple-inclined cable bridges, the bending strength is tnOl'e efficiently
achieved by a closer spacing of stay cables, which are able to support high
stresses, than by an increase in the deck stiffness.

.,
Fig. fI,7

Fig. 6.8

Principle of n collle-stnyed Ilridge

S<:'Jrnr.nl !.eJf weight

278

The canlilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Cantilever construction of cable-stayed bridges

279

4 HISTORY AND INVENTORY OF BRIDGES WITH MULTIPLE

INCLINED CABLES

The idea of supporting a bridge deck by inclined elements sufficiently close to

each other: chains, rods or cables, is not new. The flJ'St application was probably
in 1784 when a German carpenter, named LOscher, designed a wooden bridge
with tie-rods anchored in a tower (fig. 6.9).
In 1821, a French architect, Poyet, suggested the use of steel bars suspended.
from a high mast (fig. 6.10). The designs, by Gischlard-Arnodin, and in 1840, by
Hartley, using chains this time, are other examples of cable-stayed bridges (fig.
6.11 and fig. 6.12).
But the collapse of several cable..tayed bridge.ln the 18201 (e.g. collapse of a
bridge over the Saale in Germany) led to a long eclipse of this type of structure:

Pi" 6.11 Giachlard-Arnodin bridge

Fia.6.12

Fi&. 6.9

Loscher's bridle

Fi&.6.10 F. Payet's bridge

Harlley's bridle

the principle of their desian was severely criticised by Navier. Since 1940, the
development of cable-stayed bridges has revived, with.the construction of several
sleel structurea, especially in Germany. At the beginning, these structures had
only a limited nwnber of stay cables, even at times only one (fig. 6.13). Professor
Homberg was tho first to deep a sl,,1 structure with multiple-inclined cables. for
the construction of the Friedrich-Ebert bridge in Bonn over the Rhine (fig. 6.14).
Even tbouah a patent for cable-staycd concrete bridges had been registered in
1923 by Engineer Bousairon. it appears that no structure of this type with a con
crete deck was built before 1972.
Attar tho Mindin bridge in Saint-Nazaire, which has the longest steel span
(404 m), the BrotoMe bridge with a 32Q-m-Iong span, holds the record for cable
stayed bridges in prestressed concrete; its central span is much longer than the
Corrientes bridge built o~ Rio Parana in Argentina, which previously held the
record with a 24S-m-Iong span (fig. 6.16). Another structure, the Barrios de Luna
bridge, ICtually being built will have the longest concrete cable-stayed span. It will
be 400 m long (lig. 6.17).
Figure 6.15 gives a list of concrete bridges with multiple inclined cables
designed or built to this day.

_...

,-~.~~--

Nome and characteristics of work

'
us~
1u04~;
.
i >119.00 l

Hoechst
(Germonyl

1972

14

"~

~~

Srotonne

2 (Ftoncel
1977

PlI!lCo-l<ennewick
(USA I

'l:l

'l:l

'C

.c

1:l

:25
III

..

'0
]

.~

:;

'0

RioEbro
(Spain)

.!I

.c
III

1980

Barriosd8Luno
(inconslruct1on(Spain))

-=

PosodasEncornocion

(in conslruclion (Argentine II

U;

'l:l

Easttbllongton

9 / inCQn$truction (USA))

..,
.0

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Melico II

I
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and
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tl:1
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Leonhardl

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SOGELERG

3.401 Molhivol,

590

F"I&- 6.1 S Principal concrete bridges with multipleinclined cables

Paulik

The canti/ever cons/ruction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

282

OO
rr
if'~,-r~,-rOO ,-roo

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::

.:::

1226~ 1~2.~ :

lliBS

it

163.70

"1"

..

t'

245.00

..

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'1'

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163.70

..

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Fig.6.16 Corrientes bridge

,. 98.74 ~I~

22.50

I~

98.74

~I

~o~ o~~~
Fig.6.17 Barrios de Luna bridge

5 FIELD OF APPLICATION OF CABLE-STAYED

BRIDGES-AERODYNAMIC STABILITY
5.1
At present, the cost of building cable-stayed bridges under 150-m spans does not
seem competitive. Bridges with spans 200 and 250 m could be cheaper than pre
stressed concrete bridges built by the cantilever method: they have shallower
beams, around 2.5 to 4 m, thus giving higher clearance under the bridge. For the
large span range, beyond 250 m, cable-stayed bridges can compete with suspen
sion bridges, as they have the following advantages:
-

removal of expensive anchorage blocks;

greater stiffness;

283

gain on the weight of cables, which could reach, according to Leonhardt,

50% for spans of 1000 m;
_ gain on weight of the structure; for the St Nazaire bridge, this gain would
have reached 30%;
- also, improvement of aerodynamic stabi/ily.

5.1

440.00

,.

Cantilever COlIS/ruction qf cable-stayed bridges

The problem of aerodynamic stability is crucial for suspension bridges and cable
stayed bridges. When the deck of a bridge with a long span, belonging to a light
and flexible structure-as in the case of the suspension and cable-stayed
bridges-is placed in an air flow, it tends to be subjected to flexural and torsional
osciUatioDS, under the effcct of wall variations in the wind incidencc, which
modify the lin of the section (rll. 6.18).
For a critical wind velocity, the oscillations are not dampened and can lead to
failure of the structure. This pbcnomenon, called flutter, became evident when the
Tacoma bridge l:Ollapsed in 1940. Under a wind of 19 mls (68 kmlh), the deck
twisted by around 45 0 on the horizontal, alternately one way, and then the other
until it collapsed. The collapse wu filmed by a bystander and is very impressive
(f... 6.18(b. The car which can just be seen on the right-hand side or the picture
will rall in tho river a few seconds later; one can note the inclination of the lamp
posts: it aives an idea of the torsional warpina of the deck.
Flutter has been the subject of several analytical theories and or systematic
studies. Even though it is advisable to make tests in wind tUMels in the case of
large structures, it is, however, suffICient at the predesign stage, to make sure that
the torsional and bcndina frequencies are different from each other to avoid the
creation of flutf" phenomenon. A value of the ratio of frequencies higher than 2.5
seems to be adequate.
.
This result can be obtained by giving to the deck a box section with high
torsional stiffness. One can note that the risk of flutter is higher for steel cable
stayed bridges which have a dock lipter than concrete bridges. Similarly wide
bridges are less sensitivo than narrow bridges.
Decks of cable-stayed bridges and or suspension bridges are subjcct to Karman
vortices, which can lead to resonance, thus making the bridge very uncomfortable
for its users.
The $Olutions are simple and generally consist of improving the deck pr0)7le
either by the design of the leading edges of the cross section (as on the Severn
bridge in the UK) or by adding deflectors (as on the cable-stayed bridge in Saint
Nazaire)(fig. 6.19).
The vortices can initiate nutter by initiating the first torsional movements of the
deck.

284

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Cantile~'er

(~

construction 0/ cable-stayed bridges

. . . . , . . ,",""",OO"

--=

?.

285

b-----'~ ,,,",,," ",",.!I----..J

~

Defleclors

Profiled leoding edge

( SI NOlOi" b,idge )

( Severn brodge)

Fig. 6.19 Solutions for the Karman vonices

.!L
Ir ~ 2.5
6

NONLINEAR BEHAVIOUR OF CABLE-STAYEO BRIDGES

Cable-stayed bridges show, in comparison with traditional bridges, two significant

features from the structural viewpoint.
6.1

The stiffness of stay cables Is not constant

The stiffness is a function of the tensile stress and of the length and depends upon
the denection of the cables, which varies as a third power of the tensile stress
(lig. 6.20).

./

C Co
82 {2

1+

Fig. 6.18 (a) The phenomenon of nutter; (b) Failure by nutter of the Tacoma
bridge

12 cr 3

Co

Fig.6.20 Value of the apparent modulus of elasticity of a stay cable

The cantilever conslruction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

286

The apparent modulus of elasticity E of a stay cable is such that:

1

0 (1
)
E = Eo/ ( 1 + --) Eo
12CJ
Eo:

A:
1= Acos a:
o(y):
0:

In figure 6.21, the C!Jl'VCI show the primary importance of the stress in the cables.
For a stress of 100 MPa, the stay cable stiffness. for a horizontal span of
100 m, is equal to one half that of a straight cable. This explains why the first
IT

IGpo)

Eo'

200

180

Main field of ulilizotion

1- 400 m

Tension

750
700

~650

-600
~ S::550

.~~

o
50
100
150
zoo 250 300 (m)
Vmarion of the apparent modulus of elasticity of a stay cable with
length and stress

CJ =400 MPa
CJ =500 MPa

E= 0.94 Eo
E=0.96Eo

In concrete cable-stayed bridges with medium length spans, where the dead
weight is usually a significant proportion of the total load, the permanent stress in
the stay cables is sufficiently high, so that the variations in apparent modulus of
elasticity, due to variablo loads, can be neaJected.
~
This no 1011l0r applies to bridges with long spans; the efficiency of a stay cable
decreases rapidly, as its length increases:

(Mpo)

" 350
400
30

Fig. 6.21

cable stayed bridps--cven with small spans-did not possess adequate stiffness,
because of the low permissible streases in the cables. However, for cables with a
horilontal span of 200 m, stressed beyond 400 MPa, the value of E remains close
toEo:

1= 200 m

modulus of elasticity of straight cable

length ofthe cable
horizontal length of the cable
specific weight of the cable
tensile stress in the cable.

287

Canillever cOlaslrucl/on ofcable-slayed bridges

CJ 400 MPa
CJ = 500 MPa

E=0.80Eo
E=0.93 Eo

In that case, it is necessary to use stay cables capable of supporting high stresses;
the same applies at the anchorages.
6.2

The strU\1tulC bas a variable aeomelry

The dqormallons of the structure cannot be considered as being i'!finllely small;

one must take into account the additional stresses due to these deformations
(second order theory). The slresses are nol proportional to the addilionalloads
(first order theory).
They can be calculated by successive approximation.as described below. They
are first calculated from the initial geometry of the structure, according to the
principles of linear analysis. The deformations thus obtained are tlien used to
determine the modified geometry of the structure. A new linear analysis is made
for the structure with its modifJCd geometry. This is repeated until the deforma
tions remain constant from one step to the next. The convergence is rapid: three
or four approximations arc normally sufficient. In practice, the effect of second
order deformations on cable stayed bridges is relatively small: about 5 to 15% of
the bending moment in a sleel deck. The effect is even more limited in a concrele
deck sllspcnded by rigid stay cables: it is less deformable than a steel deck. The
values of bendin. moments in the BrotoMe bridge deck, calculated by first order
theory, differed by only 3% from the values calculated by application of the
second order theory.
.
6.3
Because of these two featurcs, the slructural behaviour of cable-stayed bridges is

.... "~;

.&3.

A .P. ...

288

The cantilever construction ofprutrusld concrete brldgu

Cant/lever construction ofcable-stayed bridges

289

not linear. Nevertheless, the relative importance of permanent loads in relation to

variable loads, in the case of concrete decks, associated with the use of numerous
and highly stressed stay cables, allows generally the assumption as a first
approximation, that the behaviour of bridges with multiple Inclined cables is
linear.
1~5?p

7 LONGITUDINAL STRUCTURE-GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

7.1

DllTerent static concepts

16100

r.

~~.-:."

16100.

<0

~~,

384.00

Fig. 6.23 Example of a two-span cable-stayed bridge: the Ottmarsheim bridge

The study of existing or projected cable-stayed bridges, shOWI three main ty~s of
structure, as a function of span. When the gap is asymmetrical, designers
generally tend to use cable-stayed bridges with an tectntrlc tOWlr. The balancing
span usually includes intermediate supports at small intervals, which contribute to
the anchorage of stay cables and increase the stilTness of the suspension. One can
quote two interesting examples of such structures (fig. 6.22):
-

~~~

for concrete bridges, the Hoechst bridge over the river Main;
for steel bridges, the Kniebriicke in Dusseldorf.

If the structure has to span two gaps close to each other and of approximately the
same length, one might choose a symmetrical tll'O-Spall cable'sta~d bridge. The
Ludwigshafen bridge (steel bridge) in Germany and the Ottmarsheim bridge
(concrete bridge at design stage) in France, are examples of this type of structure
(fig. 6.23).
Three-spall cable-stayl!d bridges (with two towers) form the third group of
structures. If the Opening is nearly symmetrical-which is the most frequent
case-these structures can have a very long central span. This type or structure is
the most common; the BrotoMe bridge (fig. 6.24(a and the Pasce>-Kennewick
bridge belong to this group; the Mindin bridge in Saint-Nazaire, Is an example of
such a structure in steeL

In the following paragraphs this type of structure will be considered, whether

flanked by access viaducts or not (fig. 6.24(b. Besides the main span the deck is
sometimes made up of a continuous beam resting on closely-spaced supports
which help to anchor the stay cable (equals the restraining stay cables) and
increases the rigidity of the suspension (fig. 6.25).
7.2

Geometricnl and structural parameters

It is relatively simple to obtain a satisfactory distribution of permanent forces by

judiciously fIXing the values of the stresses in the cables. In order to choose the
dilTerent parameters which can be subjected to some adjustment. it is sufficient to
analyse their influence on the envelope or rorccs created by the service loads. For
the Brotonne bridge, the bending moment diagram (fQr half the structure) in the
deck under service load, shows that four sections of the deck are highly stressed
(fig. 6.20):

the section over the side support, because of the continuity of the cablestayed bridge and of the access viaduct;
the section under the tower;
the section at midspan of the central span;
the section at 0.4 I in the side span; the value of the variation of moments in
this section usually determines the size of the cross section.

We will examine the influence of the main geometric and structural parameters
on the stress distribution in the bridge:

300.31

Fig. 6.22 Example of a cable-stayed brid&e with eccentric tower: the Hoeehst
bridle

ratio or side spans over central span (IlL);

continuity of deck above side supports;
nature of the connections: deck-tower and deck-main pier;
ratio of height of tower over central span (hIL);
relative stilTness of deck and tower.

The canlilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

290

.~~

Cantilever conslruction ofcable-stayed bridges

291

--rt
--; i
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'>I_I1

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All example of a side span with closely spaced supports (Rio Caroni
bridge)

Qsg

B.M. clue to variable loods

6730
Heovlly slressed sections

,.......--:

'.

( 1) Above side pIer

(2) AIO.4{

(31 Above cenlrol pier

1l

(<11 A' mld~~n of etnl,ol l)ltr

i;'

1il
U

i U:0
'"

'"'

O--I-~
r!t
e
-

Iii

t-~
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-8910
Side span

Fig. 6.26

eenhol SIlO"

Brotonne bridge-Bending moment distribution in the deck for variable

loads

The ratio IlL usually ranges between 0.4 and 0.5. The curves in figure 6.27
show that small variation in this ratio leads to large changes of bending moment
in the highly stressed sections.
The shorter the side spans, the more limited wiJI be the variations of moments
there: to the obviolls effects due to span shortening, can be added the increase of
number of stay cables, whose efficiency is increased by a more rigid anchorage
near the side piers. It is tempting to bring the IlL ratio to below 0.4 but, if the
shortening of the side span improves the behaviollr of the deck, the corresponding

292

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Cantilever construction ofcable-stayed bridges

loaded centrol spon

293

Loaded centrol span

Bending moments in I x m

-1375

I
Imposed load: 1t1m run over
centrol span

1t/ml
t

t t t

t t"

,,'~FU"Y fixed

I
I

~800

1250"

I
Loaded side span
~

Loaded side span

~ddltloflol

load 111m run

over side spon

IJ..'

T
f

-1390
-1040

. 'I

1tlml
.4~
~rITIl"I-I.r-....- .. /l-n

,~.L. __ LJ-L!. '7'.l_~-_.,~

\.

"

"'-__

--=
~
----~ -75

50

,'-'660
Simply supported

Fig. 6.28

Influence of deck continuity over lateral supports (B.M. in t x m)

1314

Fig.6.27 Influence of the ratio I/L (bending momenta in I x m)

increase of the lifting reactions under the side supports creates new technical
problems.
It seems advisable, whenever possible, to ensure conti""lty between the cable
stayed structure and its access viaducts. By rlXing the tide .pans at theit ends. the
variation of moments is reduced (by about 25%) while an eJeaant solution is then
fOWld for the problem of deck uplift on the side supports (rll. 6.28). Furthermore,
during construction. this system decreases the 1eDlth or cantilever beams to be
built from the main pier-this point will be further discussed in paragraph t 1.

Regarding the deck support conditions over the main piers, figure 6.23 shows
that simple support and fixed supports lead to extremely different results.
In the first case, the bending moments over the supports remain small, but
those created in the side span are relatively high, as the forces are acting on this
span. On the contrary, in the second case, the bending moments over su pports
become significant, whereas the bending moments in the side span are effectively
reduced. But the strength of the deck can easily be improved with little cost by an
increase in the dimensions of the sections near the supports. Also, jf the main piers
are sufficiently high and flexible, it is essential to have full fixity of the piers. In
practice, partial fixity of the deck to the main piers will often be beneficial: it
brings a compromise between the extreme solutions. The BrotoMe bridge deck is
partially faxed on the main piers by a ~rown of neoprene bearings (fig. 6.30).

The calltilever construction o[prestressed concrete bridges

294

295

Cantilever construction ofcable-stayed bridges

Cross section

Loaded central span

2.60

.~

~~~9;6

I
i
I

Loaded flanking span

-1200

~-146

Loyout of bearings

350

Fig. 6.30 Partial fIXing of the Brotonne bridge

Pig. 6.29

Influence on the main piers of deck support conditions (B.M. in I x m)

\

8 SUSPENSION
From a construction point of vicw,Jzxing the tower is the most simple solution;
the tower stability is then achieved even before positioning of stay cables. The
ratio hiL depends only on the type of cable-staying, as we wiU see in the next
paragraph. However, hIL is normally close to 0.2, except for structures with small
spans when the ratio can be considerably higher.
If previous choices seem obvious, this is not the situation for the respective
stiffnesses 0/ deck and lowers. However, it seems that there is an equivalence for
"the ~tresses induced in the structure, between a bridge with a stiff deck and flexible
"towers (e.g. the Brotonne bridge) and a bridge with a flexible deck and stiff towers
{e.g. the Pasco-Kennewick bridge).

To demonstrate the importance of this part of the structure on the cost, it can be
said that the coat of suspcDlion at the Brotonne bridge was 29% of the total cost
of the main structure, whereas the tower was only 496 of the same figure.
8.1

8.1.1

Cable-staying arranaements

Longlludinallayolll of the cables .

One can distinguish three cable-staying arrangements (fig. 6.31):

_ radial layout, where aU the cables converge at the top of the tower;

296

The canJilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

Radial layout

297

Cantilever construction ofcablestayed bridges

suspension arrangements, radial, fan or harp, can easily be compared both at

economic and structural levels.
Let us suppose that each stay cable, stressed to its permissible value 0" takes
the total load applied to the deck section y,rhich it is supporting; this allows a good
approach to accuracy for the estimation of its cross-sections (fig. 6.32). It ean
then be noted that the weight PI of the stay cable A,BI , which forms an angle at
A;

F~I

h;

Si

.!!.:...!!

A,

(T

_x,_o_
cos a,.
28qux;

8qulj

Pi. as;A;

Hor

tu

.I~

sin ai

(T

Fig. 6.31

III

1 .

Fan layout

sin ai cos OJ

t:f

sin 2a;

Ai

Longitudinal layout of stay cables: radial, fan or harp

- fan layout, where cables are regularly spread along the top part of the tower
does not differ much from the previous one, and has the advantage ofeasier
anchoring, because the cables are further apart;
- harp layout, where the cables are parallel to ca~h other, reduces the risk of
tower instability, as the pAssage points through the tower 4te spread alOftg
the whole height of the tower; this allows simpler construction procedures
as the incidence angle of the cables is constant. From the aesthetic point or
view, this is the most elegant solution for cablestayina with two parallel
planes: the cables remain parallel whatever the angle of vision.
Genera]~Yt the deck suspension is stopped over a certain lenlth on eithtt side or
the towers and of the central span (partial suspension, as in tht Brotonne bridge);
but in some projects stay-cable anchorages are spread continuously alona the
deck~ the deck is no longer supported by the piers (total suapenslon ,,& in the
Pasco-Kennewick bridge). However, it is advisable to reduce as much as possible
the length of the main span which is not suspende~ as this area would then
require important internal prestressing, with adverse redundant effects. The three

fI,.

~v

!iF

!if'''tna;
~Yi

~u ~.
'Ai

tierS;

!:lX,
&

sin aj

~v
tiy;

P; -

Fig. 6.32

E5j sin' ai cos aj

Xi

Weight and efficiency of a stay cable

~)..iCOS
Xi

Qi

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

298

over the horizontal, is an inverse proportion of sin m,. This weight will then be
minimal when llt = 45 0.
In the same way, if the efficiency of stay cable A,B, is the ratio P, of the
reaction at deck level over the vertical deflection Q, at this point, it appear. that
the efficiency is proportional to sin 2 Q, cos llt and maximum for a value of Q, near
55 .

If the weights P, of all the stay cables is added, the steel weight R in each ofthc
three suspension types can be compared by a graphical representation of their
variations in relation to hlL (fig. 6.33).
By studying the corresponding curves in the case of total deck suspension, one
cnn notc that:

the minimum value of steel weight is achieved when hlL is equal to 0.29
with a radial system, or 0.50 with a harp system (in this case, this is the
absolute minimum value as all the stay cables are at 45 with the
horizontal);
the radial system is more economical than the harp system when
hlL <0.30. In the usual case of h/L =0.2, the steel saving i. 18%. Beyond
hlL =0.3, it is the reverse, as the decrease in cable length is compensated
by an increase in the cross section area due to a smaller angle of incidence;
the fan system gives similar results as the radial system when

.-

<h/L
system.

0.15

hl~ROdio'(R)
I
L
I

When h/L

>0.2

steel saving is 14% over the harp

A comparative mady can be made in the case of partial suspension o/the deck.
The above comments are still qualitatively valid, but the weight of sted is
decmmd: a. the deck is partially supported on the main piers, some of the
vertical load. are directly transmitted by bending over a length nearly equal to bo
(fiS. 6.24(b.
Finally, if' the length near the tower without stay cables (bo) is equal to one
tenth of the length of the CCIltral span L(bo = 0.10 L}, the saving in steel due to
partiallUlpal.ion can reich 20%.
Tho following chart alvo" for an /tIL valuo of 0.20, the values of no/96Ll
corresponding to different cabling systems.
Partial suspension

Total suspension
Radial

Fan

(R)

(F)

Harp
(H)

Radial
(R)

Fan
(F)

Harp
(H)

1.23

1.29

1.45

1.01

1.05

1.19

Radial cabling

In .... q8LI/... 1

L - 2bo 4qo (~(bl

oh
3

~Horp(H)

n = 2(b _ bo}

~Fon(F)
1.4

L- 2b

4q6 1

n= 2(b -b o} -0 -k
o

1.0
I

-----j-

?ol

--: II
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 03

0.4

h2(b - bo})

I .
-(I + k 2Xb 2 (2'

b~) + (1- k 2)k'(b - bo) + k 2k,2

.

L-)
h
h

Harp cablina

--:1

0.5

b-bo
lVith k =- - and k';: kho - bo
h-ho

~!j--- ~1-1---.11

0.2

_bt)

Fan cablin&

1.2

<0.25.

In the predcsign stage. a reasonable approximation to the steel quantities

required for a cable-stayed bridge can be obtained by using the following
formulae:

...

0.8
0.6
0.4

299

Cantilever construction ofcable-stayed bridges

0.6

h/L

Fig. 6.33 Weight of suspension steel for different stay cabling systems (total
suspension)

n..

L - 2bo 2qo Jrl + b2

---(b'
2(b-bo} a
bh

-b~}

....i"' "';ICI..4...,.. ."...

..

300

The cantilever construction 01prestressed concrete bridges

However, it is advisable to increase these values by 10%: the theoretical cross

section of the stay cables must be adapted to the real cross sections which can be
achieved with the chosen type of cables.
As a conclusion, one can say that the hIL values between 0.4 and 0.5 with a
harp system of cables lead to minimal cable steel weight and represent a 20%
saving in relation to an h/L value of 0.20. On the other hand. high towers create
enormous problems with regard to their wind resistance and elastic stabDity. hIL
values of 0.3 can be used in the case of structures where the centtal span is less
than 200 m long.
Usually an hlL value between 0.15 and 0.25 is adopted. Within this range the
radial system (or the fan system) is more economical and, unless aesthetic con
siderations dictate otherwise, this is usually adopted whenever the towers. by their
design, are sufficiently resistant to transverse buckling (A-shaped towers, or cross
braced twin towers).
8./.2

Transverse layout ofstay cables (fig. 6.34)

Transversely, the stay cables can be placed either in a single plane in the deck axis

Cantilever coltstroction ofcable-stayed bridges

(axial suspension) or in two lateral planes, either parallel or converging (lateral

suspension).
Axial suspension is normally used when the deck supports two carriageways in
different directions, separated by a central reservation. The advantages are mainly
aesthetic: bridge users have a clear view 'Iooking outward from the deck and
bystanders looking diagonally at the bridge do not see a double line of cables.
However, a significant torsional stiffness is required for the deck: it must be
capable of supporting eccentric vehicle loadings.
Lateral suspension comprises two planes of cables positioned either to the
edges of the deck, or within the sidewalks. In the first case, no part of the deck is
restricted but the transmission of forces from stay cables to the deck can require
specific arrangements which can be expensive.
In the s~cond case, cable anchorages can transmit loads directly to the deck
webs, but vehicles are not allowed on part of the deck. The t\\'o cable planes can
be parallel and vertical or inclined towards each other, thus intersecting above the
bridge axis at the top of an A-frame tower. Laterai suspension improves the
{lC!rol(I'IUlIllic: stability of cable-stayed bridges by increasing the torsional stiffness
of the structurei The resistance of the cables to torsionaloscillation of the deck is
even more enhanced in the case of A-frame towers, where dilTerentiallongitudinal
"10Vcment of the anchorages of the two cable planes is impossible.

8.2
The

02

~atetol

03

suspension
I

!
!

b1

Fig. 6.34

II

.,.I

b2

b3

Example of a rigid suspension: the Brotonne bridge

SlIS!lCIlSinn

of the Brotonnc hridge is achieved by 21

Sl,l Y en hies

per tower,

placed ill a fan layout, anchored at both ends in the deck and crossing the lower
on saddles which form a fixed point.
The stay cables are made of stranded prestressing cables. threaded in steel
ducts and grouted with cement. The number of strands ranges from 39 to 60 from
the shortest to the longest cable. The steel duct has a standard external diameter
of 165 m and a wall thickness of 4.5 mm. Continuity and water tightness of the
ducts are ensured by welding, and the protection against corrosion by two coats
of paint.
The ducts are strengthened at sections where the cables are fiXed into the tower
or the deck so that they can resist ~he flexural forces induced by cross winds or by
the structural deflections under imposed loads. The anchorages of the stay cables
into the deck have two main purposes:

AXIal suspension

01

301

b4

Transverse layout of stay cables: axial and lateral suspensions

tensioning of the cables before grouting;

changing of tension after grouting (with a 1SO mm toleran :e) either by
releasing the cables or by increasing the tension. to compensate for defor
mations or to balance new imposed loadings.

The stay cables are not fixed to the deck so that their positioning can be changed;

302

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Section A.A

Ii

Section B.B

...

r;

~
~ .,ffJ>;'\
.

~
II

IA.

(8) Anchorage of stay cables in the deck

Cantilever construction 0/cable-stayed bridges

303

they can also be replaced in cue of ~amage. Stay-cable tensioning is done by four
12 T 13 parallel jacks. A hydraulic jack, designed for this project, allows varia
tions in positioning by acting on the screw which locks- the anchorages (fig. 6.3 S).
Pigure 6.36 shows the changes in tension in the shortest, the middle and the
longest cablC$ during construction. It can be observed that the maximum force in
a stay cable, under permanent load, is sustained just before tensioning of the next
cable, and that this value i. seldom equalled under working load (except for the
longest cable).
In terms of construction, the BrotoMe bridge presented two problems: the
positioning of the stay cables and the bVcction of grout.
A lightweiaht carriage system, supported from the cabla above the one under
consideration, allowed placJns of the ducts in 12-m IDng sections (fig. 6.37). More
difficult wu the threading of the last strands of the last stay cables, not only

600

500

:: 4

End plole

!
.5

'"
~~OO
8

(b) Tensioning arrangement

'0
c
0

'ilI

200

100

'0

.....:.J.Tl.TJT.l.TJ:;.t;i-LTa..;:J.:rfr~ttrT.-!:T:!:T:'-ir5-5*ij

~tj

I! ~

VOllable
Imposed klods

(c) Retensioning jack

Fig. 6.35 Tension in the stay cables Qn tOMes)

Fig. 6.36 Variatioo of tension in stay cables during deck construction

"'-'."'J~:":C;'~

304

The cantilever construction qfprestressed concrete bridges

Canll7ever construction ofcable-stayed bridges

305

9 TOWERS

9.1

longitudinal and transverse arrangements

The towers are concrete elements submitted to high compressive forces because of
the vertical components of the tensile forces in the stay cables; and in conse
quence they pose a significant risk of geometrical instability. Their longitudinal
arrangement can be of the flexible type and have a single vertical element; or be of
the rigid type with an Aframe tower (for example: the Maracaibo bridge)
(fig. 6.38). Their transverse arrangement depends on the type of suspension, axial
or lateral; it can take different forms (fig. 6.34):
one or two vertical towers;
Aframe towers;
portal towers.
Bending of the towers can happen in both longitudinal and transverse direc
tions. The longitudinal flexural forces are caused by permanent and imposed
loads. To reduce these forces, the adjustment bfthe cables under permanent loads
attempts to eliminate the bending moment at the foot of the tower, by balancing
out the horizontal components of the tensions in the stay cables placed at that
level.
The only longitudinal bending moments induced in the tower in service come

Fig. 6.37

Positioning or stay cables at the BrotoMe bridge

because oftheit length (340 m), but also because the ducts had a eonstant section
for aU the stay cables, while the number of strands increased.
Grouting was done in good conditions, despite the proportion of the ducts
occupied by strands, the length of the cables, the difference of level between the
base poinfwhere grout was introduced and the saddles on the towers, and the fact
that the total volume of grout, taking the duct diameter into account, could have
led to clogging and segregating problems, which required some complicated
adjustments.
,
The pressures requited for grouting rarely exceeded 35 MPa because 01' the
thixotropic role of the additive.

II ~

Fig. 6.38 Longitudinal arrangement or a tower

The cantilever construction 0/prestressed concrete bridges

306

Cantilever construction 01cable-stayed bridges

307

from the highway vehicle loading and the effects of temperature and moisture.
The transverse bending moments come mainly Crom "'ind effects; the wind pres
sure can be very significant as the towers can be very tall. The bending oC the
towers and geometrical stability are conditioned by:
-

9.2

longitudinal and transverse arrangements;

linking mechanism with deck or main pier (hinge, elastic fIXing or full
fixity);
cable-staying system including the type of connection between the cables
and the tower: fIXed or mobile support.
Loniltudinal bending of the towers

For construction reasons, in concrete structures. the towers are usually fIXed at
the base, either in the deck or in the main pier. The flexural forces in towers are
much higher in the case of harp systems than in the case of fan systems; this is
shown on the bending moment diagram for the two cases (fig. 6.39).
In the example under study, the towers are fully fIXed at thcirbaso and the stay
cables are fixed to the towers. The more favourable behaviour oC fan systems is
explained by the specific role played by the cables near the abutments or the bank
piers: they act as holding cables, restraining the movements oC the top of the
tower. In the fan system, where the cables converge near the top ofthe tower, and
load ploccd on the centrol span is directly trunsmlued to the holding cable, and the
only flexural forces applied to the tower are the ones due to the lengthening of the
cables. On the other hand, in the harp system, loads placed near the quarter point of .
the central span can be transmitted to the holding cables only by the combined effects
of extr~ tensioning ofthe nearest cable andofflexureofthe tower.
The stfffness of the tower has only a small effect on the flexural forces as is
shown in figure 6.40(a).

Bending moment diagram

__

Fig.

~I

Operation 010 Ian system

6.39 Longitudinal bending of the towers-effects of cable-staying system

Cables fixed to the tower

Holf the cables on
sheor-blocks

101

(b)

Pia. 6.40 Lonaltudlul bendina of the towers: (a) Influence of the tower stiffness;
(b) Influence of stay cable connection to the towers

In the case oC a bod aupport, the stay cables can be tenninated at the tower
and attached to it, or colllilUlOlU through the tower; they would then pass over a
saddle or throuah an encaled stccJ duet. The support fixity is ensured by cable
friction or by special flxinl s)'Item (iii. 6.41).
AI the toworl aro usually .ufficiently braced by the stay cables which alway.
includo ono or more fixed polnta, deformations under the applied loads remain
small; these second order dTects can be neglected when checking for longitudinal
bendin&
9.3 Transverse bendial of the tower
Because oC the extreme beiaht or the towers, it seems advisable to estimate the
wind effect. according to the French 'Snow and wind regulations 1967' rather
than according to the 'Ministerial circular' which gives a constant pressure of
2 kN per square mctrc of exposed area. It is best, whenever possible, to refer to
the maximum speeds recorded on site.
The distribution of the tower drag coefficient by the 'Snow and wind regulations'
is not very accurate; it is therefore advisable to check the value of this coefficient
experimentally in a wind tunnel; but most often, this experimental valuc is lower
than the 'Snow and wind relulalions' estimate. In the case of cablestayed bridges,
the forces applied by the wind on the stay cables cannot be neglected. The drag
force on the stay cable is a function of Reynolds number R. and therefore, for a
wind velocity V and a diameter d oCthc stay cables (fig. 6.42):
Vd
dVq
::: 4.04
v
,

R, ::: -

= wind pressure (q = Vl/J6.3)

v = kinematic viscosity

-.,

....

< .

,~.

308

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

Cantilever construction ofcable-stayed bridges

309

'Snow and wind regulations' distinguish three different fields, each corresponding
to different values of the drag C,.
When V == 45 mIs, the minimal value ofthe drag coefficient is reached when
dyq > 1.5, i.e. when d) 135 Mm.
It can be noted that the dotted curve in figure 6.45, which has been drawn from
measured values of the drag coefficients, has an absolute minimum when
d == 1SO Mm. A siightly larger diameter of the stay cable i.e. d = 160 mm, is then
the optimum in the case of a wind velocity of 45 mls. Fot maximum wind

(I)

(0 )

(b)

Fig. 6.41

v
~
----..

Ct

12
.....

..... ~.~r~:-:J:..-t:
".:,
II

10
0.7
0.5

_.+._.
(c )

O.Z
(d )

~t~- ~=:_=t--"'~-----'J~'.r;.1- i :

00

jl 1

~---_,...----

,~.

Expertmentol

1'\..;.....;..-......

4 6 8

I4

6 8

meo~uremer"s

... of the drog coefflclenl

-.1---1- ~ I---J . tJ i

:.. . ...
-- 'I r--- \,' -------r.::--
//.
..

I ':.

==

! '

t\ I;
1\ .~ .

- - ---'1-- - _.-' --

04

'-J~

'I

0.8 - .

=E
=::

Snow and wind regulations 1967

6 8

Re: Vd/,..

13.5

Fig. 6.42

L__ ~l Ll , J J

VaJue

10

20 30 50

100 200

d ( em )

or the drag coefficient in relation to Reynolds number and cable

diameters

The cantilever construe/ion ofprestressed concrete bridges

310

velocities encountered on site, between 30 and SO mis, the diameter of stay varies
between 120 and 200 mm.
If the stay cables are close to each other, the velocity of the airflow is increased;
this leads to higher pressures than in the case of isolated c~bles; this phenomenon
must be taken into account-When the transverse structure of the tower consists of
one or two isolated masts, one must take the second order deformation. into
account when checking for bending caused by wind pressure. On the contrary,
these deformations can be neglected if the towers arc of the portal or rigid
Aframe types.
9.4

Geometric stability of the towers

The problem of geometric stability of towers is critical mainly if the towers com
prise one or two Isolated masls; the transverse stability is the most critical.
Before occurrence of any transverse de/orlnatlon of the tower, the stay. cables
are situated in a vertical plane detcnnined by their anchorage points in the deck
and the points of passage through the tower. For each cable, this plane becomes
inclined in the case of tower deformation, but its projection on the plane or the
deck always crosses the centre of the tower foot; this creates a recoil moment
(fig. 6.43).

The tower can then be simulated as a cantilever lupportins a normal (orce N,

passing through a flXed point C (representing the foot of the tower). The tower i'
then considered as hinged at both ends. If the material of the tower II
homoacncous and elasdc, it is possible to find an approximate value or the cr/llca/
force from the Euler equation: Fc =n% Ellh1 by takin, for I the averale second
moment of area of the tower, and for N the sum of the self-weight and of the
vertical reaction of the stay cables concentrated at the top of the tower. But the

Euler equation requires a constant modulus 0/ elasticity E during loading and a

constant inertia in each section. But E, the modulus of elasticity of concrete,
varies with tim, and with load, because of creep; J of the section in bending
decrouCl beeluae or crackl. furthermore, limiting values are faxed for stresses in
the tower. Tho acomctric stability of the towers is consequently closely linked to
.the value of the applied Ircznsverse forces, and to the real charact,rlstlcs of
strength and df!ormallon. of the materials.
Chockins or acometric stability must be done for the ultimate limit state by
using second order theory. The main parameters of this calculation arc:
_ mechanical characteristics of concrete and reinforcement;

- erOl,aeotiona! area and reinforcement layout;

- shape of the tower cross-section;

- hIL ratio of the tower and eccentricity of loading;

- loadlnl combination.

Tho second order deformations are evaluated, taking into account concrete
cracks, 'the effect of reWorcement on the stiffness and creep correspondini to
service loads. They arc determined by neglecting the concrete in tension and by
aivinl to the coner", In compression a stress-strain diagram of the rectan&1e
parabola type.
Checkin. of the limit atate can be done according to the 'General Directives
relatina to calculation of structures dated 13.12.71' which is compatible with the
new .omiprobabUistic theories on safety. It consists of showing that there is a state
or strOSI whorl the calculated forces arc compatible with the calculated material
strenatb.
Tho loads applied to the towers will be introduced with specified i1Jit;al
eccentricities (flS. 6.44).

N,

SunshIne on one stde

of the most

Construction errors
Error in verticolity

N2

lmm/m
.

<

Inilial
/

ec:c:enlric:iliel
11

311

Cantilever conltrucllon of cable-staled bridges

~/OO.035m

Error in strO;9htneu
R 200h

\1'

7~=-

[..., ...., !c>a0 085m

85\

9
Hin

I
I

, * 50C

~
II

,* 3O"C

..c:

20r;::\
.... /
... ,.~

c
Fig. 6.43

10

Recoil force of the stay cable.

Fig. 6.44

Initial eccentricities of the mean fibre of the tower

312

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

final construction errors:

error in verticality of the tower axis: for example t mm/metre
error in straightness coming from a curvature of the axis: for example
equal to 200 times the height of the tower;

thermal effects:

different solar radiation on opposite sides of the tower (linear gradient or

10C between the two sid'es).

Cantilever construction 0/ cable-stayed bridges

to high axial forces, nearly 9000 t of permanent loading and 10 000 t maximum
imposed load; this leads to a mean permanent compressive stress of 9 MPa.
Because of the small cross section of th,e tower, the reinforcement is very dense:
it can reach Soo kg/m J at the level of the ,tower foot; it is on average 300 kg/m J
At first it was planned to use HEB steel joists, which could give a high concentra
tion of steel in a small area. After further study. it appeared preferable to use steel
bars of 56 mm diameter. which are less cumbersome and avoid the use of con
necting plates. The last problem concerned the continuity of reinforcement. The
usual overlap of such bars could not be envisaged near the face of the tower; nor
could continuity by welding be contempla'ted. Eventually the continuity of these
steel bars was ensured by mechanical sleeve connectors.
The process consisted in mounting at the end of the lower bar a sleeve inside
which the upper bar was sealed by a resin. The cOMection of the sleeve to the
lower bar was done on the ground which caused little difficulty; had this operation

A temperature difference of 10C between deck and stay cables will also be con
sidered.

F or checking of the ultimate limit statet the concrete and tower reinforcement
are usually highly compressed; the tensile stresses in the reinforcement remain
small. even under limited wind effects. It is advisable, for tower construction. to
use well-compacted cOlfcrete placed inside sllp-[orm shuttlrlng (sliding shutters
must be avoided). The tower reinforcement will preferably be or high tensile steel
of large diameter \vith continuity ensured by mechanical connectors (threaded
sleeves, mounted sleeves, smooth sleeves with injections of cement grout or resin).

,
J

9.5 Example: Brolonne bridge towers (fig. 6.45)

Each tower or the BrotoMe bridge was made or a single reinforced concrete mast.
70 m high, fixed in the deck and exposed to wind up to a height or 120 m above
ground level (total height: 124 m). The stay cables cross the tower on saddles
which form a rlXing point. The slenderness or the tower is very imPressive; it is
then unnecessary to point out its vulnerability to buckling. It is indeed submitted
Sf.CT~ A

..

stCT~"

{jH i

! ~
-.

~i

............,..."....

.....

.. .
0 ': .

IfCflONCC

'I'

..... ..,....
' ..

_ It.

-.

StClI~OO

A1
~(

..

I
I.

! c=

JIt4 t\

,It

~.

."..'"

( ~,.

. ,,:

...
~l

Fig. 6.45

Brotonne bridge--elevation of half-the balanced cantilever system and

detail of the tower

313

Fi,. 6.46 Drotonnc bridgo-relnrorcemenlll the base or the tower

314

The calltllever construction oj'prestressed concrete bridges

Cantilever construction of cable-stayed bridges

been made in the air on the upper bar, amidst all the reinforcement, it would have
been almost impossible (fig. 6.46).
Complete continuity in compression is ensured by direct contact of the bars,
while tbe continuity in tension (the tensile forces arc small) is ensured by the resin.

The towers arc built in slip-form formwork, with 3m lifts. The error in verticality
at the top did not exceed 40 mm, and the average compressive strength of the con

crete is about 60 MPa.

/.

I
1"1300

Ib)

10 TRANSVERSE CROSS-SECTION OF THE STRUCTURE

Ie)

~~

'<:Zb~

Id)u

Fi.. 6.48 Triangular box beams with two webs

r----- ._ _. __..
18.00

(0)

.:::_--1:

(0)

.,

c",

I
I
I

'" ~

jl_.-.-:.u," ~

18.00

(b)

18.00

(0)

The transverse cross section of the deck of a cable-stayed bridle must comply
with a certain number of requirements: lightweight, sativactory aerodynamic
stability, and ease of cable-stay anchorage. The design of the transverse structural
section differs according to the type of deck suspension: lateral or axial
suspension.
. In the case of lateral suspension, the plane of the cables can be placed outside
the deck working-area, or within the sidewalks, if any. An example of the first
solution is found on the Pasco-Kennewick bridge over the'Columbia river, Wash
ington State, USA, with a central span of 300 m.
The deck cross-section comprises two triangular section box beams, placed at
the sides and joined by a top slab with ribs positioned at 2.7 m interval (fig. 6.50).
The side box beams give anchorage points which are independent of the rib
distribution.
When the stay cables are placed inside the walkways, the cable anchorages can
directly transmit the forces to the webs of the deck. Such a solution was used on

315

200/2.50

-l

r;7i
I

Fig. 6.49 Transverse structures in the case of lateral suspension

(c)

( d)

Fig. 6.4 7 Box beams with three or four webs

the Hoechst bridge on the river Maine; this deck carries two roads and a railway
line (fig. 6.51).
In this case. al 'In the case of an axial suspension. a tubular section is most
appropriate, because of the high torsional stiffness. The projected cable-stayed
bridge at Ottmaraheirn. with an axial suspension, comprised a box girder with
three webs; the stay cables were anchored in the lower part of the central web (fig,
6.52). One of Ihe main features of this design is the top flange which, because of its
large span, was ribbed in both directions, the main ribs being placed transversely.
."i_.. . ~._. .~" JlC'aj_;;'~

316

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

Cantilever construction 0/ cable-stayed bridges

317

Cross section

24.40

30];7 I

j~

:::

(,()
(Jt

~.10

15 to 20

6.00

.1..

12.40

..

I..

6.00

Stay - coble anChorages

oo

",

'.

This type of structure, unfortunately, has a high transverse derorma~iJity. The

transfer of force. from the Itay cables to the side webs, creates hlah tensile force.
in the transverse ribs. A variant for the Ottmarsheim bridge \':as proposed: a
sinlle cell cross-section, internally ltiffened by inclined braces (fiS. 6.53). The top
slab was ribbed, II in the adminiltratlon's project, but the main rib. were placed
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the structure: the strocture wu thus divided in
fOUf panels, about 4 m wide each, and two side cantilevers. The ribs were
supported every 3 m, either by the sloping braces, or by vertical posts resting on
the lower joints of the box girder. The lower flange was also ribbed, but the ribs
were placed laterally in the plane of the braces and of the postl, I.e. at 3-m
intervals. One could thus decrease the thickness of the lower flange, while avoid
ing the creation ofcracks at the time of striking the rormwork.
Such a cross-section combines, at the same time, a light deck (average
thickness in standard section-o.43 m) and a good feasibility of construction.
A similar solution, without vertical posts or ribs, was adopted tor the Brotonne
bridge; the single cell section was stiffened internally by sloping props, converging
at the anchorage point of the stay cables, and placed longitudinally every 3 m
(fig. 6.54).

\,J

5241

. -.---- .J

Fig. 6.S 1 Cross-section of the Hoechst bridge

Fig. 6.50 Cross section of the Pasco-Kennewick bridle

"

~~~'---e.--.-._---. . ---.- . .

The choice of a triangulated cross-section made of .thin elements,. combined

with a systematic use of prestressing, brought about the creation of a light
structure, with an equivalent thickness of about 0.47 m (fig. 6.S5). The deck is in
fact prestressed in three directions (fig. 6.56). A longitudinal prestress. made of
12 T 15 and 12 8 Frcyssinct cables is added to the horizontal component of the
stay cables in some parts of the structure.
The top flange is supported continuously on the webs and discontinuously on
the props; because of its wide span, it is transversely prestressed by ) 2 ~ 8 cables.
The lower slab is also transversely prestressed. but by TIS monostrands placed
below the props; the T 15 monostrands balance the tensile force created by the
props in the sections without stay cables. The two webs, which are 200 mm thick
for a 20-m-wide structure, are subjected to very high shear stresses. They had to
be vertically prestressed by tensioned stirrups. As the webs were prefabricated, as
will be explained later, the vertical prestressing is carried out by four pretensioned
bonded wires (8 mm diameter), with a special anchorage mechanism to a\loid
problems of bond length. The props which take the forces from the stay cables
(one prop in two) can be subjected to high tension; they have to be prestressed by
12 T 15 cables.

The cantilever cOllStruction a/prestressed cOl/crete bridges

318

I:

"0

'75

,.

319

23.00

."

Cantilever construction of cable-stayed bridges

~,oE~r ~ J1
4

I.

Fig. 6.52

:!~

7.25

.1

7.25

Cross-section of the Ottmarshcim bridle (projccted design

administration)

j'

or lbe

23000

i.

9.75

..

_,

;.3.50.:.

"I

9.75

Fia 6.5$

Interior ofthe Brotonne bridle deck

SIOy coble 391060 T 15.8 cobin

'o"d" "2~ "" ~d ~-., .,..

113

I
Fig. 6.53

----

9.00

....

,/

Toptlonge 12~8cobles

K~V

./
_ .

Cross-section of the Ottmarsheim bridge (alternative solution)

L
"'..'

'.

'.

::~/

Precast web 4 ~ 8
tenSioned stirrups

'/

Y. .-

Props 12 T 15 coble

Lower flonge 2 monoslr"nd T 15

19.20

Lonqiludmol preslrns wilh

12 Tl5 ond 12.; 8 cobles

'j

Fig. 6.56 Prestressing of the Brotonne bridge deck

II

11

. . . . - - . . . .VV

Fig. 6.54

i......

.""""

~,o'"

Cross-section of the Brotonne bridge

CONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS

Concrete cable-stayed bridges are, as mentioned in paragraph I p. 270, a natural

extension of cantilever prestressed bridges; consequently, they are well suited to
this type of construction. However, some problems are specific to cable-stayed
bridges.
... _ .. ~-"

.,,--,..-~

320
11.1

The cantilever construction ofprestressed concrete bridges

Cantilever construction ofcable-stayed bridges

321

StlibDity of the balanced cantilevers during construction

A symmetrical bridge with two spans is the most simple example. Such a structure
is, in fact, constituted of balanced cantilevers of total length equal to twice a span.
Because of these large dimensions, the stability of the balanced cantilevers from a
static or aerodynamic point of view, the deck must be fIXed at the top of the main
pier. The fixing mechanism must be capable of supporting very large forces.

"

(1) Construction of the lateral cantileve" and of the tow.r

fll. 6.57(b) Construction of balanced cantilevers-Brotonne bridge

In the case of the Oltmarshelm bridge, the balanced cantilevers would have
been 330 m lon&: these forces in the deck fixed at the very large and stiff pier
would have been much higher than the forces which would have occurred during
the service life of the decks. Because of this, the tendency is to design, whenever
possible, total or part/Qljlxlty of the deck at the piers; furthermore, this arrange
ment saves designing the most sensitive part of the structure for two different
systems of forces: during construction and in' service.
We can also observe that the continuity of a cable-stayed bridge with access
viaducts is advantageous from a construction point of view.
(2) Construction of the main balanced cantilevers to the junction with the lateral cantilever

(3) Extension of Ihe balanced cantilevers into the centrol span

Fig. 6.57(3) Construction phases-Brotonne bridae

Construction of the lateral cantilevers and of the tower.

(2) Construction of the main balanced cantilevers to the junction with the lateral
cantilever.
(3) Extension of the balanced cantilevers into the central span.

(I)

Let us take the Brotonne bridge as an example. Without a connection to the

access viaducts, the length of the balanced cantilever system to be built without any
intermediate support would have been 290 m. But with the structure as designed
this length was reduced to 228.5 m: part of the side span could be built from
the bank piers and cOMected to the balanced cantilevers before their completion
(fig.6.S7). There is one drawback: lengthening the balanced cantilevers in the
central span requires rearrangement of the main pier support in order to eliminate
the bending moments transmitted during the final construction phase. The partial
fixity of the deck on neoprene bearings can solve this problem by an adjustment
effected by flat jacks.

322

The cantilever construction 0/prestressed co~crete bridges

Calltilever construction of cable-stayed bridges

323

11.2 Effect of inaccuracy in the weight of the segments and In the tension of the

stay cables

12 TEMPORARY USE OF CABLE-STAYING DURING

CONSTRUCTION OF OTHER TYPES OF STRUCTURE

The fonns of the mobile concreting carriages, or the precasting formwork of the
segments, caMot be absolutely identical, or precisely adjusted during the con
struction of synunetrica1 clements of the balanced cantilever system. Some varia- .
tions in the segment dead weight and in the tension of the stay cables are unavoid
able (taking into account the precision and accuracy of gauges used on site).
Despite the transfer of forces from one cantilever to the next through the tower
and the suspension, the. randomness of weight of the segments brings a severe
additionalloac1 The same applies, to a smaller extent, to the tension of the stay
cables.
Figure 6.58 sho\ys the distribution of bending moments induced towards the
end of the construction of the balanced cantilevers, in th~ deck and tower of the
Ottmarshcim bridge by a 196 accidental increase of the weight of ~he segments of
one cantilever. The additional stresses in the lower fibre, near the main pier arc
close to 1.2 MPa; because of this, during the design stage of a proj~t, some
important margins must be made in the limiting stresses and the weiaht~ of the
segments must be checked during construction (for example by checking the
su pport reaction at the ma~ pier).

The use of cable.-stayinl is not Umited to permanent structures.

The construction of prestressed 'concrete bridges by incremental launching
often requires a cable..tayma system with adjustable tension to ensW'c the
strcnath of the deck durin& the launching period (fig. 6.60). But this technique
diffen substantially from cantilever construction.
At times during cantilever construction, the mobile carriages of the balanced.
cantilevers arc supported by stay cables (the Finsterwalder method). However, the
most characteristic examples of the use of temporary cable-staying are:
- progressive constNction;
- erection of arch bridges.

730fm(leff deck)

12.1 Prosrcsslvc conltru~tlon

This method, eliminates the discontinuity apparent during cantilever construction

when Proceedinl symmetrically from the supports. With proaressive construction.
the dock is built continuously from one end of the structure to the other. The seg
menta are built by successive cantilevers on one side of the piers. When the deck
reaches a pier, the rmal bearings are placed and construction is carried into the
next span. Prolfeslive construction was first used for the construction of In 1/IU
conor,to dock Tho OunujokJ bridlo, on the Arctic Circle, wu built in this way
(fig. 6.60). The 3.5..m lonl seaments were concreted inside a mobile carrilac. The
shuucrs were covered by a thermal insulator which protected the segment from
the I.mal climatic conditions.
1bi1 method was then extended to the construction of decks with precast seg
ment.; the first structure of this type 'was the Rombas viaduct in the East of

Franoc.

Pulli1\9 rod

Sleel nose

mA

~J~I~!
~~j

n
n

r:===:~!riWi iF.&.:==
.

1130 tm ( right deck)

Fig. 6.58

Ottmarsheim bridge-diagram of bending moments induced by a 1%

increase in the weight of a segments ofone cantilever beam

P'et3

Fig. 6.59 Deck construction by incremental launching

,.-.-

'c'.~

- ........

_"if"~~.",f;.J~~.

, .

324

The cantilever construction o/prestressed concrete bridges

Cantllever construction 0/ cabie-stayed bridges

325

The main advantages of this procedure are as follows:

.:..-

th~ operations are continuous and are made from the part of the deck
which is already built. Access for staff and plant is then easier, without any
interference with the ground; this last point is of major interest in the case
of urban viaducts passing over numerous obstructions;
the supports carry only vertical reactions during construction and are not
subjected to asymmetrical bending moments; this avoids the need for
temporary supports;
this procedure is well suited to the building of structures with a constantly
changing shape (curved bridges, for example).

On the other hand, this procedure has several disadvantages:

-

3
~c

:w

.~

I'd

Cl

, I

6
~
.0

It

._~

it cannot be directly applied to the construction of the first span, which then
presents a special problem (construction on falsework or cantilever con
struction from the abutment);
the forces applied to the deck during' construction are very different (in sign
and in value) from those applied during the service life of the structure.
Consequently, it is necessary to use a special system to maintain reasonable
internalltresses and to reduce the unproductive costs caused by temporary
prestreulng. Intermediate supports can be used, but the most common
Kolution is a tower supporting stuy cubil!~' as In the case of construction by
incremental launching. But in the case of progressive construction, the
tower and stay cables move from one pier to the next, instead of moving the
whole deck stayed by cables in the front portion.

Furthermore, It can be noted that during deck construction the supports arc
subjected to a maximum reaction under dead weight, which is double that
corresponding to the flnal system of forces. But this circumstance generally does
not have a critical consequence on pier and foundation design, as the efTect of the
dead weight is rarely more than half the total load including the inOuence of
horizontal forces.
When segments are concreted in situ, progressive construction is a slow
process, ns only one working position can be used instead of the two employed in
trnditional cantilever construction. The lack of speed can be counterbalanced by
an increase In the unit length of segments; but there is an obvious limitation due to
the weakness of fresh concrete. It is then preferable to use precast segments with
match-cast glued joints, as by this method one can reach speeds similar to those
achieved with launching girders.
Some conclusions can be drawn from the Rombas viaduct construction, which
was the first application of this method. Positioning was carried out by a swinging
jib lining the segment, which was conveyed to the finished part of the deck on a
truck. The jib positiqned the segment in its final position after application of the
glue (fig. 6.61).

--

.wau:_,

=4L4JG'.44i;~J

326

The cantilever construction oj'prestressed concrete bridges

327

Canillever conslrucllon oj'cable-stayed bridges

About one-third of each span was built following the cantilever method, with
final prestressing over the support. Beyond this point, a pair of temporary stay
cabloa wu placed at each scgmentj the tension in the stay cables (140 t) was
desipcd so that ita vertical component exactly balanced the weilht the ICl'
mentl (4' t): the deck wu then submitted to additional normal loads, as placing
progresses.
The only variable forces applied to the deck were the weight of the swinging jib
and the forces due to the movement of the segment along the deck. Figure 6.63
ShOWl, in tho cuo of a 33.5.m span, the portion of the loads which is taken by the .
stay cablos and by the deck when a segment is placed above the next pier; the
weight of the swinging jib is taken into account (total weight = 80 t). The deck
carries about three-quarters of the load, the rest is taken by the variation in
tension or the stay cables; this variation docs not exceed one tenth of the stay
cable initial stress.
Several other structures have since been built in this way: the Fontenoy viaduct
was one example.
Progressive constNetlon is of sroat interest for the span ranse 30 to 50 m,
where it compete. with construction by incremental launching and where
traditional cantilever construction is .tllJ not economical.

or

Fig. 6.61 Swinging jib foc the Rombas bridge

It can be observed from fisure 6.53 that the jib support, temporarily anchored
to the deck, was placed asymmetrically above one web of the box beam. This
arrangement not only freed the deck for the passage of the segment, but also
reduced the torsional forces durins placing, as the centre of gravity is not much
displaced during rotation of the jib.

Trcnsport truck

~~PICCing
. lU- _
j;'

1000

Stressing
Staycabl. anchorages

80'

Segment being placed

Fig. 6.62 Progressive construction-perspective in view

Fia. 6.63 Progressive construction-'forccs in the stay cables and in the deck

328
12.2

The cantilever construction ofprestressed eoncrete bridges

Construction

Cantilever construction ofcable-stayed bridges

329

or arch bridges

PrincIpal pIer

Construction of arch briQges by successive cantilevering with temporary cable

staying is of value as it avoids the need for partial centring; centring is usually
expensive and difficult to build. This method was conceived by Freyssinet for con
struction of the Caracas viaducts (figs. 6.64 and 6.65).
We can see three construction schemes:
-

In the rltst is arch construction by successive cantilevering from the abut

ments by using temporary stay cables resting on the top of the maiD piers
and anchored to the foundations of the adjoining piers. AUX11iary supports,
placed in the main piers, improve the efficiency of the main stay cables.
The plan of an arch bridge with a 260 m span which was proposed for
the Magnan viaduct on the AS motorway provides an example ofthis cons
truction scheme (fig. 6.66), although a more traditional beam structure was
finally chosen.
In the second scheme. the lattice structure is built in successive sections of
\vhich the lower framework is the arch and the vertical uprights are the

Mid- span centring tie rod

Figure 6.65 Construction of the Caracas viaduct-diagrammatic

E::2J Pnmary arch

r::J Secondary arch

~o

.__.1.

.~:~

25

i:i..__i....
::

l...

410.00

175 3.50 1.75

'I

I ....

14
Fil.6.64 Construction of the CaraclS viaduct

26000

Fig.6.66 Proposed construction of the Magnan viaduct

;)0

The camilever constrUl:tion o/prestressed concrete bridges

330

Canlilel'er construction q cable-sta.I'ed bridges

- ---_

~$~'

};:....

S~\~ ;,:~"l"l(l

--_.-

6700
..
' ......"",,,r-.':'-

..................._

331
"
.
mC'n

.j~~\.'

..

\1(1(1
;

:1

'.....'"
,.

V\.I

n' ! UIT11P.:=~~~Il7~'{Y.
~o~
.. ~
I
..... - - y l
I
'I
I

!..

26800

Mobile formwork carriaQ85

I:'

39000

~._

_
:!3 50500

1140
I~~

?44 00

pli-Jill9-~
500

1140

,~-,I

0
. - ;:400

635

. T

480 .

]650

..

'~.~

1'3.00'

800

Fia. 6.69 Kirk bridges

252.00

~_J~7'

-;-:='7

flGllI ~
Fig. 6.67 Construction for the construction of an arch bridge

3750

190.00
115.00

..d1 TempotClry stay

~"'\ :;

.I~,

170.00

.1
c~bles

3750 ..

..

(0 )

I:

7360

33000
"2>0

..

T-!l'O -I

~
~30 ~=={lm
~
'Sta.. MWj 55

'i5';;;

(b)

Fis. 6.70(a) and (b) Brisbane bridge construction

Normal concrete
LiQh'wei9hl concre'e

Fig. 6.68

Project for the construction of an arch bridge

intenncdiate piers of which the taut diagonals are the temporary stay
cables.
This scheme was adopted for the Hokawazu bridge in Japan which has
span .of 170 m. The segments of the arch and the voided slab. which form
the upper deck were concreted into place from mobile carriages (fig. 6.67).

332

The canti/titer constructfon o/prestressed concrete bridges

A similar solution was envisaged for a bridge in Corsica using light
weight concrete for the arch and upper deck. This brought about a 30%
reduction in the cross section area of the temporary stay cables (fig. 6.68)
~n this plan, the arch was built by positioning the precast segments with a
mobile crane travelling along the deck.

Finally, in the last scheme, the weight of the lattice structure is reduced by

setting up the upper framework from only temporary stay cables and not

building the deck until after the closing of the arch.

The construction sketches of the Kirk bridges in Yugoslavia which hold

the \vorld record for the longest concrete span of 390 mare sho\vn in
fig 6.69.
Finally. we should mention the Brisbane bridge of Australia, \vhich,
although it has the appearance of an arch, is, in fact, only a framed arch
with a central span of 183 m.
..
The deck section consists of five precast T-beams held in place by stay
cables and transversely assembled by prestressing. The elements of the
frame diagonals are also precast and enclose the stay cables to which they
are joined by concrete (fig. 6.70).

BIBLIO'GRAPHY
BOOKS

ConstructlollS en beton preeolttraint, Y.

GUYON,

Vois I and II (Ed. Eryolles).

(1968l.

Co"rs de betoll preco"traillt du CHEBAP, J. FAUCHART. (Unpublished).

Splll,,,bcIUII fUr clie Praxis, F. LEONHARDT (Ernst und Sohn, Berlin). (1964).
Le projet de bilo" precontraint. R. LACROIX, A. FUENTES (collection Cours de
I'E.N.P.C., Ed. Eryolles). (1977).
COllception des pants, G. GRAlTESAT (collection Cours de )E.N.P.C. Ed.
Eryollcs). (1978).
Ponts elf beloll preconlraint construits par encorbellements successifs. Bulletin
technique du SETRA (Service d'Etude Technique des Routes ct
Au toroutes).

2 ARTICLES

Evolution de la technique de construction des ponts en encorbellement en

France, J. CHAUDESAIGUES (Rewe Travaux, 1/1966).
Une nouvelle !alnille de ponts en beton precontraint. G. GRAITESAT (Revue
Travaux, 1/1966).
La construction des pants en heton precontraint par fa methode de
I'encorbellenzent. G. WORONTlOFF (numero special 'Ouvrages d'Art' de
1'lngenieur..Constructeur, 4/1971).
L'evolulion des procedes de cons/ruction des pants en beton precontraint, J.
MATHJYAT (numero special 'Ouvrages d'Art' de Plngenieur-Constructeur,
4/1971).

COllstruction par encorbellemenl des ponts en heton precontrant, J. MULLER

(Revue Travaux, 11/1972).
Durcissemenl accelere du beton par la chaleur. application aux ouvrages d'art,
M. PantER (annales ITBTP. 2/1973).
JJ3

334

The cantilever construction 01prestressed concrete bridges

Structures de piles adaptees fa cons/ruello" par encorbellclIrclJ/, J.

(Journees de I'A.F.P.C., Paris, 4/1974).

MATHIVAT

De quelques efforls secondaires dans fes hourdis i'lferieurs des pouires

caissons, P. FAESSEL (Journecs de l'AFPC, Paris, 4/1974).
Tell years o[ experience in precasl segmen/al cons/ruction. J. MULLER
(Journal of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, 1-2/1974).
Idees nouvelles pour la construction de ponts en belon leger. M. VJRL006UX
(lABSE Congress, Tokyo, 1976).
El'olut;on el recents developpements des ponts a vousso;rs pre!abriques, J.
MATHIVAT (Anna1es ITBTP, 9/1976).

J MONOGRAPHS
La reconstruction en belon precontra;nt des ponts sur /a Marne, J.
CHAUDESAIGUES (Annales ITBTP, 1/1952).
La recolls/ructioll du viaduc de /a Vou/le, N. EsQUILLAN (Annales ITBTP. 7
8/1957).

Ponts rouliers de Serre-Pon~on, J. COURBON (Revue Travaux, 6/1960).

Le pont sur la Medway, A. BOUCHET (La Technique des Travaux. 9-10/1964),
Le pOllt sur Ie Val/all dll MOll/iII a POlldre a Brest. J. S. MULLER (Revue
Travaux, 1/1966).
La recollstruction du pont de Choisy-Ie-Roi. J. MATHIVAT (Revue Travaux,
1/1966).
COllstruction du "iaduc d'O/eroll, J. MATUIVAT (L'ingenicurConstructcur,
3/1966).
La constructioll du pont Saint-Jean a Bordeaux, J. MULLER, M. MASLOW
(Revue Travaux, 6/1966).
Le POllt aval sur Ie Rhone a Pierre-Benite, J. MULLER, G. GRENIER (Revue
Travaux, 6/1966).
Le pOllt en betoll precontrain/ sur J'Escaut Oriellial. C. Van LEEUWEN. J.
SCHERMER (Annales ITBTP, 12/1966).
Boulevard peripherique-Franchissement de la Seine par Ie 'pont aval, J.-F.
COSTE, J. MA THIVAT (Annales ITBTP, 10/1968).
Le POll! de la P.vle, J. COURBON (Annales ITBTP, 12/1968).
Le !raJlchisselnenl de la Seille par /e boulevard peripherique a I'est de Paris
COllstructioll du pont a/nonl, J.-L. DAMBRE (Revue Travaux, 3/1970).
Le \'iaduc de ChiJ/oll (La Technique des Travaux, 1-2/1971).
Le pont de Blois sur fa Loire, GARNIER (numero special 'Ouvrages d'Art' de
l'Ingenieur-Constructeur, 4/197 I).
Le POllt de Gil-'ors, J. COMBAULT (numero special 'Ouvrages d'Art' de
l'Ingenieur-Constructeur, 4/1971).
,Collstructioll du pOllt d'Oisse/, L. COURAUD, J.-L. BRAULT, R. LACROIX
(Annales ITBTP, 1/1972).

Bibliography

335

L, vladuc de fa Ylosne, A.

GOUDEMANO,

Travaux, 12/1972).
LeI nouveaux POlltS sur fa Loire
12/1972).
Les viaducs de l'autoroute EJ, J.-F.

a Tours,

H.

GRELU,

R.

PERZO

(Revue

G. LACOMBE (Revue Travaux,

BAUER, J. MATHIVAT (Annales ITBTP. 7

8/1973).
~
Le nou,eau pont de Sa/nlC/oud sur Ie prolongement de l'autoroute A JJ de
Saint-Cloud a Paris, J. MATHIVAT (Revue Travaux. 12/1973).
Le pont du Bonhomme, C. RENIE, A. PLOURIN, N. BELIAEff. J. MATHIVAT
(Revue Travaux, 10/1974).
LeI IGbllen en bi/on pr;conlra/nl pr;.(abriqu; du pont de Rlo-NUerOI, Dr
ANTONNIO A. NOROUHA, J. MULLER (Revue Travaux, 12/1974).
Le pont autoroutler de Cubzac, M. FUZEAU, C. MARTINAND, P. DUCOUT
(Revue Travaux, 1/1975).
La construction du pont mlxt, rallroule Morand Bis en beton precontraint
sur I, Rhinae, R. LACROIX (Revue Travaux, 3/1975).
Le poll' de Brotonn, - Enseignements acquis apres 18 mois de travaux, J.-L.
BRAULT. J. MATHIVAT (Revue Travaux, 2/1976).
Le pont de Gennev/llier, sur /a Seine, BOITEAU, BRAT, BAUR, GRELU,
MA""UVAT (Revue Travaux, 6/1977).
Le Vladuc de Calix, G. 1..ACOMBB (French contributions FIP Congress, London,

1978).

The Brolonlle Bridge, J. MATtllVAT (Proc. FIP Congress, Vol. 2 p. J 64, London,
1918).
The Colulnbia River Bridge al Pasco-Kennewick, F. LEONHARDT (Proe. FIP Con
gress Vol. 2, p. 144, London. 1978).
The Rip Bridge, A. FRIED (Pree. FIP, Congress, Vol. 2, p. 154, London, 1978).
Le ponl sur /e canal d'A/sace
Ottmarshe;m. B. GREZES, P. FA ESSEL, R.

JACQUES,

J.-P.

TEYSSANDIER,

M.

VUa.LOOEUX

(Contributions fran9aises, Con.

crcss, London.
La reconslructioll du ponl de PUleaux sur /0 Seine, M. DUFRESNE, M.
FaoESTIER (French contributions, FIP Congress, London. 1978).
Le pont de Tricaslin sur Ie canal de Donzere-Mondragoll. M. PALCJO'
(French contributions FIP Congress, London, 1978).
Les viaducs du COIUournelnent QUlorOUlier de Nice, J. BUFFA (French contribu
tions FIP Congress, London, 1978).

337

INDEX

Box beams. 56-65, 195, 314

Box girders, 67
Box sections. 54, 5S
Bridge categorie~ I
Brisbane bridle, 331, 332
Brotonne bridle, 12, 15, 11, 88, 204, 205,

Accidents, 166
Aerodynamic stability, 283,301
Amsterdam-Rhine Canal, 20
Anchorage cables, 71
Anchorage plates, 82.84
Anchorages, 81, 87, 92, 273
mortise and tenon, 24, 2S, 26

prestress, 86

steel plate, 83

Angers bridge, 121, 123, 124, 2S 1

Aramon bridge, 224, 249
Arch bridges. 328-332
Ardour river. 221
Assembling cells, 227
Avignon bridge, 194, 20 I

206.214,277,279,288,289.291.
293,295,296,301-4.309,312-314.
317-321

B3 motorwaybridges, 60, 86, 213, 232,

235.253,255,256,257,258
Bailey bridges, 26, 235
Balance bars, deflections of, 91... 102
Banquiere viaduct. 65,66
Barrios de Luna bridge, 282
Basse-Combene bridge, 29
Bayonne bridle, 240, 242
Beaucaire bridge, 8
Bending moments, 39, 45, 54, 55, 56, 114,
148. ISO, 152, 1'4, 155, 156, 157.
291.292,305,306,322
Bending stresses, 115
Bendorfbridge, IS, 16,71,15,271
Blois bridle, II, 58, 84, 158, 246, 248
Bonhomme bridge, 18,93.96.97, 185-189
Bonpas bridge. 29, 235
Bo~86

Bourg-Ies-Valence bridge, 209

Bourg-Saint-Andeol bridge, 224, 235

Cable-stayed bridges, 12,270-332

nerodynamic stability. 282-285. 301
apparent modulus orelasticity of stay
cables. 28S, 286
axial suspension, 30 I
cable-stay types. 271
cable-stayin. arranaements. 295-301
comparison with prestressinl cables,
272-275
~
construction problems, 319-322
deck continuity, 292
deck support conditions, 293
field or application, 282-85
geometrical and structural parameters,
289-94

hlL ratio, 289, 294

IIL ratio. 289-291

lateral suspension, 301

longitudinal bending. 306

longitudinal stNcture-general

arrangement, 288-294

multiple inclined cables, 275-276,

278-282

nomenclature. 290

nonlinear behaviour, 285-288

partial suspension. 299

336

principle of, 277

rigid suspension, 30 1-304
scglllcnl weight inaccuracies, 322
spacing or stayed cllbles, 275
stability during construction 32~321
static concepts. 288
stay-cable tension inaccuracies, 322
stiffness of stay cables, 285-287
stress distribution, 289
stress in stay cables, 286-287
structural behaviour, 287-288
suspension. 295-304
three-span, 288
towers, 305-3 14
bending. 305
eccentric, 288
geometric stability, 310-312
initial eccentricities, 31 I
longitudinal and transverse arrange
ments, 305-306
stiffness. 306
transversc bending, 307-310
transition between cantilever bridges
and. 27Q-27 I
trnnsverse crosssection. 3 14-318
transverse l:tyout of st"y c:ables.
300-301

two-span, 288

varinblc gco.netry structure, 287

with eccentric tower. 288

Cable staying. 171-175

temporary use of, 323-332
Cables
cantilever beam, 80, 81-89
horizontal, S2, 87-89
inclined, 82, 88
integration. 80, 89-~3
longitudinal, 78-81
lower integration, 89-93
profile examples, 93-94
standard. 85
supplementary, 86
tensioning arrangements, 86
transverse, 95
upper integration, 93
Cabling arrangements, 79-95
Calix viaduct, 12, 14, 16, 111,221,269
Canadiens Interchange, 195, 196
Candes bridge, 204
Cantilever construction

advantages of process, 13-15

continuous systems. 41-46
field of application. IS
from abutments, 29-33
from piers, 21-29
hinged cantilevers. 33-37
history of, 2
organization of cantilevers, 33-46
principle of, 1-2
spans, IS, 19
steel and reinforced concrete, 3
suspended bay, 38-41
Cantilever joint, 39

Caracas viaducts,S, 6, 328. 329

Chamfers of upper flange, 72-73

Chamfer design, 78-79

Champigny-sur-Yonne bridge, 1J2

Charmas bridgc, 209

Chatey bridge, 7

Chelepikhinsky bridge, 228

Chillon viaduct, 12.46.47, 6 I, J4 I, J60,

224,245,246,247,25J
Choisyle-Roi bridge, II, 12,41, 78,85.
96, 134, 135, 160, 221, 222, 228.
230.233.259
Clichy hridgc.19S, 202. 204

Coblenz bridge, 7, 8, 73, 74

Collar joints, 266
Collectcur bridge. 6S
Compensating camber. 97-102
Concrete deformation variations, 1J9
Concrete preheating, 203-204
Connansbridg~6S,9S,21~232.233

Continuity of deflection, 33
Continuous structures. 41-46
Core, 223
Corrientes bridge, 282
Corrosion protection, 273
Countermould, 223
Counterweight. 22
Courbcvoic bridge, 138. 139, 221, 222,
230.233
Courbevois bridge, 78
Creep, stress distribution due to, 115-125
Creep deformations. 120
Creep effects, 42
Creep forces, 123
Creep stresses. 1'21
Croix- Luizet bridge. 22
Curved bridges, 53

338
Deck design, 21-125
ceU form, 57
cell number, 56, 57
constant depth, 85
depth effects, 77-79
equivalent thickness, 75-76
final adjustment to structure, 95-97
longitudinal section, 76-79
span distribution, 47-53
special problems, 102-125
stress distribution due to creep,
115-125
thermal gradients, 112-115
transverse cross section, 54-76
notation, 67
transverse stiffening, 102-111
variable depth, 84
variable width, 64-65
Deck stability during construction,
126-189
analysis of requirements. 16D-16S
applied loadings. 165-169
assessment principle, 169-170
cable staying, 171-175
normal loading, 166
random londing. 166-169
statemcnt of the problem, 159-160
Deck support, 126
Deck widening, 65. 66
Deflection curves, 41
Deflections
of balance bm, 97-102
statically determinate, \/9
Deformation variations of concrete, 119
Deformations
at mid-span, 42
long-term, 43
neoprene bearings, 143-146
under constant load. 47
under dead load and prestress, 42
under imposed load, 43. 46
Deventer bridge. 253. 255, 256
Diaphragms,l03-111
displacement characteristics. 131
flexible. 128, 129. 130-143
sloping. 109
vertical, 109. 129, 141
Donmere canal, 26
Donzere bridge, 4, 5
Drag coefficient, 308. 309

'--"'

Dynamic stability, 54
Eccentric prestressing, force, 1.60

Elastic modulus, 117, 118

Elastic stability, 54

Epoxy resins, 214

Equivalent thickness, 75-76

Escaut bridge, 37, 259

Expandable connecting sleeve, 266

Expansion joints, 45, 46, 47

Fatigue tests, 272

Felsenaubnicke, 58

Flangcspan and thickness, 71-75

Flevieu bridge, 78

Freyssinet cables, 318

Freyssinet nat jack. 96

FriedrichEbert bridge, 279, 280

Fiihlingenlake, 19

Gardon bridge. 235

Gennevilliers bridge, II. 16. 5 I, 60, 71, 87,
88,95.163,168,174.195,196,197,
198,204.209
Givors bridge. 10, 11,25,51, S8, 94
Goncelin bridge. 22
Gr:lIldc-Cote bridge, 37, 38
Grouting of prestressing tendons, 265-267
Guyon formula, 71, 73
Hamana bridge, 15, 17J 271
Hartel bridge, 235
Hayange bridge. 262, 264
Herval bridge, 4
Hikoshima Ohashi bridge, 16
Hinged cantilevers, 33-37
. Hoechst bridge, 275, 288, 315, 317
HokawlZu bridge, 331
Houten bridge, 20
Hydraulic jack, 303
Hydraulic shock absorbers, 274

In situ concreting of segments. 190-211

construction cycle, 198-208
construction procedures, 190, 209-211
formwork suspended from gantry beam,
209-211
support on falsework, 209
Incremental launching, 323
Initial compensating camber, 36

~l

..

339

Intermediate supports, 75
/ssyles-Moulineaux bridge, 204

Mortise :lnd tenon anchorage. 24, 25, 26

Moulinsdes-Metz bridge, 194

JoinviUe bridge, 60, 114, 202

Juvisy bridge, 138, 140, 160,233

Neoprene bearings, 126, 129, 143-159,

293

deformation, 143-146

deformation coefficients, 148

doublelineof,146-152,157-159

horizontal movement, 146

relative rotation of two faces, 146

thickness effects, I 52-IS 7

Neoprene shock absorbers, 275

Karman vortices, 283, 285

KeepinllClment, 41
Kennedy bridge, 195
Keyinl bridles. 235, 237
Keyiqjoint, 44
Keyinl sqment, 43, 44
KleinpoIdcrplcin interchange, 19
Knicbnicke, 288
KRK bridCC, 331, 332
La Orandc-Cote bridge, 33
Laeroix-Fallarde bridge, 9, 22,161
Launchina cirders, 233, 242-264
chatlCteristics of, 263
~typcs,260-264

sliahtly longer than spans, 243-253

sliahdy longer than twice deek span,
253-258
vcry long. 258-260
Lightweicht aurcl:ltes, 19
Lillhtweiahl concrete. 19,27
L<x:k-coikll ropes. 271
Ludwicwfen bridge, 288
Luzancy bridge, 5
Lyon-Grenoble motorway overpasses, 3~
Macnanviaduct, 10, 11,29,31,143,144,
202,3211, J29
,
Maracaibo bridge. 16
MIlIIC bridees,.5, 6
Mame-la-VaDee viaduct, 64,114,2.58
Match-eastjoints, 212-219,226,264-267
Match-eastinl precautions, 264-265
Mcchanical efficiency, 54
Medway bridlc, 21, 23
Mindin bridle, 279, 288
Mirabcau bridge, 235
Mobile concrcting carriage, 190-209
function of, 190
lateral main beams, 194
safety measures, 208-209
selfsupporting, 195-198
traditional, 191
upper main beams, 191-194
Morand bridge, 107. 108

Oestcrshelde Brug, 2.58

: Oissel bridge, 10, 11,59.60,192,193
Oleron viaduct, II, 13,49,83, 149, 157,
159,221,242-245
Orleans bridge, 195
Ollmarsheim bridgc, 18, 26, 271, 288, 289,
3 IS, 317, 318. 322
Ounasjoki bridge, 323, 324
Overbridges, 238-239
Paris Boulevard peripherique. 13, 33. 34,

58,59,65,67,78,110, J II,

11I0-185.2J5

l'ascoKcnnewick bridl:c, 21111, 296, 3 J4.

316

Pier structure, 126

PierreBenite bridge, 11,29,79, 178,224,

228,230,239.240

J>loullaMcl bridge, 4

"ortde 1J0uc bridge, 22

Precast segments, 212-269

advantages of. 212

assembling cells, 227

bolted ribs, 219

concrete thermal treatment, 230-232

concreting in precasting cells, 222-228

concreting on precasting or slip form

beds, 220-222

construction arrangements, 214

equilibrium of forces in joints, 214-217

/irst generation, 214-218

internal ribs and bosses, 218

joints with multiple keys. 218

limits and evolution of construction.

267-269

permanent assembly, 217-218

placing, 232-264

'

.."'.

340

341

Precast segments (contd.)

precasting cycles, 228-230

prccasting methods, 219-232

independent s)'stem remote from

deck,233-239

launching girders, 242-264

mobile lifting equipment carried by

deck. 239-242.

second generation. 218-219

structural role of glue. 217-218

temporary assembly, 214-217

with glued match-c:astjoints, 212-219,

264-267

Precasting bed, 220

Precasting cells, 2'20. 222

horizontal, 223-225

vertical, 225-226

Precasting cycles. 228-230

Prefabricated beams, 18

Prefabricated construttion, 2

Pressure laules, 169

Prestressed building methods, 1

Prestressed toncrete structures, 5-12

Prestressed couplings. 253

Prestressed stirrups. 69-71

Prestressed tic rods. 2~, 25

Pre$trc:ssinl cables. 271, 212

Prestressing rods. 7

Prestressing tendons, S. 9

grouting, 265-26 ~

ProBrcssive con$tru~lion. 32l-327

l'ulcaux bridge, 24. 27. 202.203, 204

Ravensway bridge, 20

Reanon rivcr, 29, 30

Reinforced conc:ret~, .:

Reshaping process. 6"7

Reynolds number, 301,309

Rhone bridge, 107

Rhone-r\lpes nlotor\"ays. 226,227, 239,

:52,267

RibbeJ slab, 61,73

Rio Caconi bridge, 291

Rio Cuaiba, 22 .

Rio l'iteroitbridge, 12. ';8.88,95,217,

253.254

Rio Par3na, 38, 39. ':0.

~Ol

Rio Tocantins, 22, 201

Rio Ulua, 38, 39,40

Rombas viaduct. 32:. ~25. 326

Roquemaure bridge, S5
Rosal correction, 70

T-beams, S5

Temporary cables, 34

Temporary fixity, 32, 160, 161

Temponiry staging, 33

Temporary supports. 22,26,29,34, 163,

Saint..Andrc-de-Cubzac bridle, 12, 14.49,

61,62, 73, 108, 111.224.241,242,

267

Saint-Cloud bridge, 12, 14,64, 162, 21S,

225,249,250,259

Saint-Denis viaduct, 225

Saint-Jean bridge, 9, II, 32. 59. 79.94.

176,117

SaintJeande-Maurienne bridge. 40

Sallinasund bridge, 62, 63; 25 I

164, 177-189

Tendons

friction in. 125

longitudinal profile, 94

prestressin&~

Savina bridge. 8,9

Seine river, 207

Scudre viaduct, 249

Severn bridge, 283

Shape coefficient, 14S

Shear keys, 218

Shear strength, 56

Shear stresses, 68. 69

Shearing forces, 33,68., 69

Sicgtalbrucke, 210, 211

Skew bridges, 52, S3

Sliding connections. 36

Sliding hinges, 35, 36

Slip form bed, 220

Snow and wind regulations, 307-308

SPAll "iltribution. 47'3

Special clements, 103

Standard segments, 201-208

Statically determinate deflections, 99

Statically determinate structures, 36

StaticaUy indeterminatemotnents, 93

Stay cables. See under Cable-stayed

bridges

Steam curing, 203

Steam enclosure, 230

Stc:l structures, 3

Stiffeners, 103-111

Stress corrosion, 273

Stress distribution due to creep, 115-125'

Support sections, 198-200

Suspended span. 38-41

Symmetrical construction. 22

Tacoma bridge, 284

Tage bridge. 73, 14

..........

Thermal gradients, 112-11 S

Torsional moment, 69

Torsional riaidity. 54. 62

Torsional strength. 54

Tours bridge. 221. 236

Tourville-la-Riviere bridge, 112

Towers. See under Cable-stayed bridges

Tricnstin bridge, 28

Trouville-Ia-Riviere bridge, 192

Web arrangement, 68

Web positioning equipment., 207

Web spacing. 56

Web thickness, 68-71

Wind effects, 307

Wind gauges. J69

Wind loads. 273

Wind velocity, 308

Worms bridge. 7. 8

Ulthnutc strength. 54

Zero moment. 46

Zoolcn bridge. 20

Urado bay, 271

Urnto bridge, 17

U:;sy bridge. 5

Somt shape, 77

Solar radiation, 112

.:
I:

8, 9, 265-267

Vallon du Moulin a Poudre bridge, 9

Vejle Fjord bridge, 63

Verberie bridge, 29, 3 J

Vertical deflections, 4 I

Vibration phenomena, 273

. Vienne bridges. 226. 260. 26 J, 262

Voided slab, 73, 74

Voisne viaduct. 63

Voulte bridge, 8,28,29