IL2212 Embedded Software

Exercises
Ingo Sander
February 24, 2012

Contents
1 Modeling and Languages

2 Clock-Driven and Round-Robin Scheduling

3 Real-Time Scheduling on Multiprocessors

4 Priority-Driven Scheduling

5 Resource Access Control

6 Scheduling Aperiodic and Sporadic Jobs in Priority-Driven Systems

7 Real-Time Operating Systems

8 Interprocess Communication

9 Embedded System Design

A Solution to selected exercises

11

Modeling and Languages

1. (a) How can you model the functions to acquire a semaphore lock
(P(S)) and to release a semaphore lock (V(S)) by means of a Petrinet?
(b) Draw a Petri Net where a semaphore is used to protect a shared
resource that is accessed by two tasks.
2. How can you express a watchdog timer in Esterel? The timer shall send
a signal ALARM, if no signal ALIVE has been received for 60 emissions of
the signal TICK.
3. Given is the following synchronous data flow graph.

1
2D
1

3 2

(a) Give a periodic admissible sequential schedule in case it exists.

(b) What are the maximum buffer sized for this schedule?
4. Consider the following marked Petri net. Give all possible final solutions
after a sequence of firings of this Petri net. You do not have to draw
the solutions, but have just to give the number of tokens in all places.
Motivate your answer.

5. Given is the following synchronous data flow graph.

2

a
2

y
zD

(a) Give the smallest possible values for x, y and z, so that a periodic
admissible sequential schedule exists. Motivate your answer. Give
the schedule.
(b) What are the required buffer sizes for this schedule?
(c) How would you efficiently realize a system based on this SDF graph
in software on a single processor? Keep the discussion on an abstract level.

Clock-Driven and Round-Robin Scheduling

1. (Taken from [Liu00]) A system uses the cyclic EDF algorithm to schedule sporadic jobs. The cyclic schedule for a periodic task in the system
2

uses a frame size of 5, and a major cycle of 6 frames. Suppose the initial
amount of slack times in the frames is 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 1, and 1.
(a) Suppose that a sporadic job S1 (23, 1) arrives in frame 1, sporadic
jobs S2 (16, 0.8) and S3 (20, 0.5) arrives in frame 2. In which frames
are the accepted sporadic jobs scheduled?
(b) Suppose that, in addition to the sporadic jobs, an aperiodic job
with execution time 3 arrives at time 1. When will it be completed,
if the system does not do slack stealing?

Real-Time Scheduling on Multiprocessors

1. (Taken from [Liu00], who based it on [Gra69]) A system contains nine
nonpreemptable jobs named Ji , for i = 1, 2, . . . , 9. Their executions
times are 3, 2, 2, 2, 4, 4, 4, 4, and 9, respectively, their release times are
equal to 0, and their deadlines are 12. J1 is the immediate predecessor
of J9 , and J4 is the immediate predecessor of J5 , J6 , J7 , and J8 . There
are no other precedence constraints. For all the jobs, Ji has a higher
priority than Jk if i < k.
(a) Draw the precedence graph of the jobs.
(b) Can the jobs meet their deadlines if they are scheduled on three
processors?
(c) Can the jobs meet their deadlines if we make them preemptable
and schedule them preemptively?
(d) Can the jobs meet their deadlines if they are scheduled nonpremptively on four processors?
(e) Suppose that due to an improvement of the three processors, the
execution time of every job is reduced by 1. Can the jobs meet their
deadlines?
2. A multiprocessor system contains the following set of independent periodic tasks T = {(3,1), (4,1), (9,3), (10,4), (27,9), (56,5)}.
(a) How many processors are needed, if the task assignment is done
with the rate-monotonic small task (RMST) algorithm. Give the
assignment of tasks to processors.
(b) Can you find a better task assignment than the one produced by
the RMST algorithm? In this case give the assignment of tasks to
processors and motivate, why the RMST algorithm was not able to
find it.
3. A multiprocessor system contains the following set of preemptable independent periodic tasks T = {(4,1), (6,1), (8,2), (18,9), (20,4), (54,18),
(100,2)}. What is the mininal number of processors needed, if the tasks
on each processor are scheduled by the rate-monotonic algorithm?

Priority-Driven Scheduling
1. Given is the following set of independent periodic tasks, which shall be
scheduled rate-monotonically.
T1 = (2,1); T2 = (5,1); T3 = (4,10,1,10) 1
(a) Show with the graphical form of the time-demand analysis, if the
set of independent periodic tasks is schedulable using the ratemonotonic algorithm. Give the maximum possible response times
Wi for each task!
(b) Assume now that an additional task T4 = (8, 1) is introduced. Calculate the maximum possible response times for the task T4 by iteration of the time demand analysis function w4 (t).
(c) Do all tasks still meet their deadlines?
2. The following set of independent periodic tasks T1 = (3,1), T2 = (4,1), T3 =
(5,1) is scheduled using the rate-monotonic algorithm. In the following
practical factors shall be taken into account for a time demand analysis
in order to calculate the maximum possible response time of task T2 . In
the following subtasks you have only to take into account the practical
factors that affect the response time for task T2 .
For each subtask motivate the additional terms for the time demand
function in one or two sentences.
(a) Give the time demand analysis function for w2 (t) if no practical factors are taken into account.
(b) Take now the time for context switching is into account. Each context switch takes 0.05 units of time. Give the modified time demand
analysis function for w2 (t).
(c) The task T3 shall have a non-preemptable section that lasts for 0.5
time units. Give the modified time demand analysis function for
w2 (t).
(d) Assume now that the scheduler operates periodically. The period
p0 of clock interrupts is 1.0 and the scheduler takes 0.1 units of time
to complete, when there are no ready jobs to be moved to the ready
queue. The scheduler takes 0.1 time units of time to move a job
from the waiting queue to the ready queue. Give the modified time
demand analysis function for w2 (t).
3. Given is the following set of independent periodic tasks, which shall be
scheduled rate-monotonically.
T1 = (4,1); T2 = (8,3); T3 = (10,2)

1 The 4-tuple ( , p , e , D ) gives the phase , period p , execution time e and relative deadi i i
i
i
i
i
line Di . In case of a 2-tuple (pi , ei ) i is 0 and Di is pi .

(a) Show with the graphical form of the time-demand analysis, if the
set of independent periodic tasks is schedulable using the ratemonotonic algorithm. Give the maximum possible response times
Wi for each task, in case it meets its deadline.
(b) Assume now that an additional task Tx = (7, 9, 1, 9)2 is introduced.
Do all tasks including Tx still meet their deadlines? Calculate the
response times by an iteration of the time demand analysis function, in case they still meet their deadlines.
4. Can you guarantee that a feasible schedule exists without a simulation
of the schedule or time demand analysis, if
(a) the set of tasks T = {(5, 2), (8, 3), (10, 1)} is scheduled by the ratemonotonic algorithm.
(b) the set of tasks T = {(3, 1), (6, 1), (18, 6), (36, 4)} is scheduled by the
least-slack-time-first algorithm.
(c) the set of tasks T = {(3, 1), (0, 6, 1, 4), (18, 6), (36, 4)} is scheduled
by the earliest-deadline-first algorithm.
(d) the set of tasks T = {(3, 1), (6, 1), (18, 6), (36, 4)} is scheduled by the
deadline-monotonic algorithm.
Please give a short motivation for each subtask.
5. The following set of independent periodic tasks T1 = (4,1), T2 = (6,2), T3
= (10,1) is scheduled using the rate-monotonic algorithm. In this task
practical factors shall be taken into account for a time demand analysis
in order to calculate the maximum possible response time of task T2 .
You have only to take into account the practical factors that affect the
response time for task T2 .
Give the time demand analysis function for w2 . Motivate modified and
additional terms that arise due to practical factors in one or two sentences.
(a) The task T3 shall have a non-preemptable section that lasts for 0.4
time units.
(b) Assume that the scheduler operates periodically. The period p0 of
clock interrupts is 1.0 and the scheduler takes 0.04 units of time to
complete, when there are no ready jobs to be moved to the ready
queue. The scheduler takes 0.03 time units of time to move a job
from the waiting queue to the ready queue.

Resource Access Control

1. A system contains three jobs. There are two resources X and Y. The following table shows the job parameters and their execution pattern. The
execution pattern describes how each job is executed. [R;t] is read as

2 The 4-tuple ( , p , e , D ) gives the phase , period p , execution time e and relative deadi i i
i
i
i
i
line Di . In case of a 2-tuple (pi , ei ) i is 0 and Di is pi .

follows: the job requires the resource R for t time units. Here, job J1
requires no resource for one time unit, the resource X for 1 time units,
and no resource for one time unit. The job J4 has a nested critical section, which comprises the following resource requests: the recourse X
is requested for two time units, the resource Y is requested for one time
unit, and finally the resource X is requested for one time unit.
Job
J1
J2
J3
J4
J5

ri
7
5
4
2
0

ei
3
3
2
6
6

Execution Pattern
[-;1][X;1][-;1]
[-;1][Y;1][-;1]

i
1
2
3
4
5

[-;1][[X;2][Y;1][X;1]][-;1]
[-;1][Y;4];[-1]

Use the basic priority-ceiling protocol to schedule the system of jobs.

Give the schedule and show also the current priority of the executing
job and the current priority ceiling at all time instants.
2. A system contains the following four periodic tasks: T1 = (1 ,4,1), T2 =
(2 ,5,1.5), T3 = (3 ,6,1) and T4 = (4 ,8,1). The resource requirements of
the tasks are given in the following figure.

0.5

T1

0.3
T2

0.2
Y

T3

0.6
0.4

T4
The tasks are scheduled by the rate-monotonic algorithm and the basic priority-ceiling protocol. Calculate the maximum response time for
each task. Are the tasks schedulable for any combination of 1 , 2 , 3
and 4 ?
3. A system contains four jobs. There are two resources X and Y. The following table shows the job parameters and their execution pattern. The
execution pattern describes how each job is executed. [R;t] is read as
follows: the job requires the resource R for t time units. Here, job J3
requires no resource for one time unit, the resource Y for two time units
and no resource for one further time unit.
Job
J1
J2
J3
J4

ri
6
4
2
0

ei
3
3
4
6

i
1
2
3
4
6

Execution Pattern
[-;1][X;1][-;1]
[-;1][Y;1][-;1]
[-;1][Y;2][-;1]
[-;1][X;4][-;1]

(a) Use the basic priority-inheritance protocol to schedule the system

of jobs. Give the schedule and show also the current priority of the
executing job at all time instants.
(b) Use the basic priority-ceiling protocol to schedule the system of
jobs. Give the schedule and show also the current priority ceiling
and the current priority of the executing job at all time instants.
4. A system contains the following six periodic tasks: T1 = (5,1), T2 = (6,1),
T3 = (8,1), T4 = (10,1), T5 = (40,1) and T6 = (50,1) and four resources W ,
X, Y , and Z. The resource requirements of the tasks are given in the
following figure.

W
0.2

T1

0.7
X

T3

T5

0.5

T2

0.9
0.6

0.4

T6

T4
The tasks are scheduled by the rate-monotonic algorithm.
(a) Give the maximum blocking times for all tasks, if the nonpreemptive critical section protocol is used.
(b) Give the maximum blocking times for all tasks, if the basic priorityceiling protocol is used.

Scheduling Aperiodic and Sporadic Jobs in

Priority-Driven Systems
1. A system consists of three independent periodic tasks, T1 = (4,1), T2 =
(6,1), T3 = (11,2). The system is scheduled rate-monotonically. In addition to these tasks a simple sporadic server with an execution budget of
es = 1 shall be integrated into the system.
(a) What is the minimal period ps , where ps is an integer number, that
can be chosen for the sporadic server, so that all periodic tasks are
still schedulable.
(b) For this task use a sporadic server with the parameters (ps , es ) =
(8,1). What are the response times of the following aperiodic jobs:
A1 arrives at 1 and has an execution time of 1.5, A2 arrives at 9
and has an execution time of 3, and A3 arrives at 23.5 and has an
execution time of 0.5. Give the schedule for all tasks and the budget
of the sporadic server at all time instances.
7

(c) Assume that the system uses a deferrable server with the same values of ps and es instead of the sporadic server. How can you find
out, if the periodic tasks are still schedulable? Motivate your answer (a new calculation is not necessary)!
2. A system consists of two independent periodic tasks T1 = (10,1), T2 =
(16,4). The system is scheduled rate-monotonically. In addition to these
tasks a periodic server with a period ps and an execution budget of es
shall be integrated into the system.
(a) Assume that the periodic server is a simple sporadic server with an
execution budget of es = 2.What is the minimal period ps , where ps
is an integer number, that can be chosen for the sporadic server, so
that all periodic tasks are still schedulable.
(b) Assume that the periodic server is a deferrable server with (ps , es )
= (6,2). Give the maximum response time of the task T1 .
(c) Assume now that the periodic server is a polling server with (ps , es )
= (6,2), which is used to schedule sporadic jobs. Which of the following sporadic jobs Si = (ri , di , ei ) can be accepted given the following order? Assume that the accepted sporadic jobs are scheduled according to the earliest-deadline-first paradigm.
i. S1 = (1, 10, 3)
ii. S2 = (5, 36, 5)
iii. S3 = (17, 32, 6)
Give the completion times for the accepted sporadic tasks!

Real-Time Operating Systems

1. How can the CPU utilization be measured in a priority-driven preemptive real-time operating system with fixed priorities such as MicroC/OSII?
2. Given are the following two periodic tasks: T1 = (300, 100), T2 =
(400, 200). The task T1 executes periodically a single function f1 , which
has an execution time that is always less than 100 time units. The task T2
executes a single function f2 , which has an execution time that is always
less than 200 time units.
Explain, how you can implement these periodic tasks using a hardware
timer, and a preemptive real-time operating systems that provides soft
timers and semaphores.
Illustrate your solution with a diagram containing hardware timer, soft
timer(s), semaphores and tasks, and give pseudocode for both tasks T1
and T2 .

Interprocess Communication
1. The following algorithm using a weak binary semaphore S that was initialized with S = {1, } solves the critical section problem for two processes.
P1
P2
loop forever
loop forever
non-critical section
non-critical section
wait(S)
wait(S)
critical section
critical section
signal(S)
signal(S)
(a) Show why it solves the problem for two processes.
(b) Does it also solve the critical section problem for three or more processes?
2. A set of n concurrent processes accesses a shared variable Shared of type
integer. In order to provide consistency, mutual exclusive access to the
variable is to be ensured during a read operation ReadVariable and a
write operation WriteVariable.
(a) Give the pseudo-code for a protected object with the operations ReadVariable() and WriteVariable(X: Integer) that ensures mutually-exclusive access to the variable Shared.
(b) What property is required for the protected object, so that starvation does not occur?
3. Describe the principle operation of a watch-dog timer. Illustrate it with
a block diagram.

Embedded System Design

1. One morning Peters boss comes to his office and tells him a splendid
idea. I have read a lot about these systems-on-chip. Now we can put a
huge amount of processors and memory on a single chip, which gives
an extreme performance! Now, lets think of the whole PC-program
market. Why not simply use a system-on-chip platform inside the PC,
write an intelligent compiler and earn a lot of dollars, euro, or kronor! I
think this is the way to go!
Come on Peter, since you are our expert engineer, I want you within a
few days to come up with the following:
some strategy for a compiler that implements a sequential Cprogram efficiently on some system-on-a-chip;
an idea of possible hardware platforms. But not only one, there are
plenty of customers out in the world, and you know the customer
is KING!

So, come on, start working, well be rich very soon!

While Peters enthusiastic boss leaves the office, Peter starts to think
about the implementation of the great idea of his boss. . .
Within a year you can be at Peters place. Please help him to answer the
following questions.
(a) What are the key problems and challenges, which have to be
solved? Motivate!
(b) Can all expectations of Peters boss be met or should Peter convince
him to modify his plans? What should be modified and why?
(c) Are there some general principles that are important for the development of the compiler? Explain and motivate these principles!
(d) Give an overview of the parts of the compiler. What are the tasks
that have to be done in order to get a running application,which exploits the advanced SOC architectures, from a sequential program.
This task has not an exact answer, but shall show your understanding of
the system-on-chip design process! Thus it is very important that you
motivate your answers. Without motivations no points will be awarded.
Focus on the most central points and try to keep your answers within
one or two pages.

10

Solution to selected exercises

1-1
(a) Acquire Lock (Wait/P(S)) and Release Lock (Signal/V(S))
P(S) - Wait
pk

V(S) - Signal
S

pk

tWait

tSignal

pk+1

pk+1

(b) Protection of a Shared Resource

T1

T2

p1

p4

t1

t3
Critical Section

Semaphore
p2

ps

p5

t2

t4

p3

p6

1-2
Esterel Implementation of Watchdog

TICK

Watchdog
Timer

ALARM

ALIVE
System

...
loop
do
await 60 TICK;
emit ALARM
watching ALIVE

%
%
%
%

ALARM is emitted
if 60 TICKs are received
before a single occurence
of ALIVE!
11

end
||
loop
...
emit ALIVE
...
end
...

% System

1-4
Both transitions t1 and t2 are enabled, but only one can fire!
Firing is nondeterministic. Either t1 or t2 fires, but not both.
1. If t1 fires, the tokens in p1 and p2 are consumed and a token in
p4 is generated. At this stage no transition is enabled and the
Petri-net reaches a final state.
2. If t2 fires, the tokens in p2 and p3 are consumed and a token in
p5 is generated. At this stage no transition is enabled and the
Petri-net reaches a final state.
Thus the following final states can be reached: {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 } =
{0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0} or {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 } = {1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0}.
1-5
(a)

1
= 0
y
3
= 0
y

2 0
3 2
0
x
0 4
3 2
0 x

(1)

Since rank() needs to be s1 as necessary requirement for a PASS,

x = 4 and y = 3.
The number of firings can be calculated by finding a solution to

1 2 0
q1
0
0
3 2 q2 = 0
(2)
3 0
4
q3
0
A possible solution is

4
Q = 2
3

(3)

A simple solution would use the following schedule with z = 12 is

{a, a, a, a, b, b, c, c, c}.

12

Firing Node Arc (c a) Arc 2 (a b) Arc 3 (b c)

Initial
12
0
0
a
9
1
0
a
6
2
0
a
3
3
0
a
0
4
0
b
0
2
3
b
0
0
6
c
4
0
4
c
8
0
2
c
12
0
0
Max Buffer
12
4
6
However, there is a better solution that takes into account that a
firing of node c generates tokens for node a. Here z = 8 and the
schedule is {a, a, b, c, a, a, b, c, c}.
Firing Node Arc (c a) Arc 2 (a b) Arc 3 (b c)
Initial
8
0
0
a
5
1
0
a
2
2
0
b
2
0
3
c
6
0
1
a
3
1
1
a
0
2
1
b
0
0
4
c
4
0
2
c
8
0
0
Max Buffer
8
2
4
(b) The required buffer sizes are b = [bca , bab , bbc ] = [8, 2, 4]
(c) Since the schedule is static and periodic, we repetitively calls the
functions (nodes). Each time a function is executed it reads data
from the input buffer and writes it into an output buffer. A realtime operating system is not needed.
2-1
(a)

S1 (23, 1): Acceptance test at time 5. Sufficient slack in frames

2, 3 and 4 (1.5 time units) Accepted!
S2 (16, 0.8): Acceptance test at time 10. Acceptance depends on
usage of slack-stealing.
(a) Slack-stealing is not used: S2 is not accepted. There is not
sufficient slack (0.5 time units in frame 3).
(b) Slack-stealing is used: S2 is accepted. There is sufficient
slack in the beginning of frame 3 and 4. There is still
enough slack for S1 (in the beginning of frame 5).
S3 (20, 0.5): Acceptance test at time 10. Acceptance depends on
usage of slack-stealing.

13

(a) Slack-stealing is not used (only S1 has been accepted): S3 is

accepted. There is sufficient slack (0.5 time units in frame
4).
(b) Slack-stealing is used (S1 and S2 has been accepted). There
is not sufficient slack S3 (only 0.2 in the beginning of frame
4).
The diagrams are shown below:
(a) No Slack-Stealing (Figure includes aperiodic job):

10

10

15

20

20

25

30

10

10

15

20

20

25

30

(b) Slack-Stealing:

(b) As can be seen in the upper figure, the aperiodic job finishes at time
30.
3-1
(a) Precedence Graph

14

(b) Three processors - non-preemptable jobs (Priority: 1 > 2 >

> 9 )
Deadline

10

12

14

16

All jobs meet their deadline!

(c) Three processors - preemptable jobs (Priority: 1 > 2 > > 9 )
Deadline

10

12

14

16

Job J9 does not meet its deadline!

(d) Four processors - non-preemptable jobs (Priority: 1 > 2 > >
9 )
Deadline

10

12

14

16

J9 misses its deadline! Observe that all jobs meet their deadline with only three processors. Such a phenomenon is called a
scheduling anomaly.
(c) Three processors - reduced execution time (Priority: 1 > 2 >
> 9 )
Deadline

10

12

14

16

Job J9 does not meet its deadline! Another scheduling anomaly.

(Schedule is identical for preemptable and non-preemptable jobs)
15

 3-3
The set of tasks {(6, 1), (18, 9), (54, 18)} is simply periodic. The utilization of this set is U{(6,1),(18,9),(54,18)} = 1. Thus this set of tasks can be
scheduled on a single processor.
The other tasks have a total utilization of U{(4,1),(8,2),(20,4),(100,2)} =
1
0.72 < URM (4) = 4(2 4 1) = 0.757. They can be scheduled on a single
processor.
Two processors are required!
4-3
(a) Time Demand:

Time Demand
w3 (t)

11
10
9
8
7
6

w2 (t)

5
4
3
2

w1 (t)

Time

0
0

10

The maximum response times are derived from the diagram that
W1 = 1, W2 = 4 and W3 = 7.
(b) The response times for T1 and T2 do not change, since the priority
of Tx is lower than T1 and T2 , but higher than T3 .
Thus we calculate the response time for Tx . The time demand for
Tx is

i1 
X
t
wx (t) = ex +
ek
(4)
pk
k=1

Here
wx (t) = 1 +

 
 
t
t
1+
3
4
8

(5)

We start the iteration at time t(0) = W2 + ex = 5, and continue until

t(l) = t(l+1) (success) or t(l) > p2 (failure). In case of success, the
deadline is t(l) .
16

t(1)
t(2)

=
=
=
=

 
 
1 + 54 1 + 58 3
6  
 
1 + 64 1 + 68 3
6

(6)

Since t(1) = t(2) , Wx = 6.

The time demand for w3 is
 
 
 
t
t
t
1+
3+
1
w3 (t) = 2 +
4
8
9

(7)

We start our iteration with t(0) = Wx + e3 = 8.

t(1)

= 2+
= 8

8
4

1+

8
8

3+

8
9

(8)

Since t(0) = t(1) , W3 = 8. Thus all tasks meet their deadlines.

4-4
1
(a) Since the utilization U = 25 + 38 + 10
= 0.875 > URM (3), there is no
guarantee that there is a feasible schedule.

(b) Since the utilization U = 0.944 ULST = 1, there exists a feasible

schedule.
(c) Since the relative deadline of the task (0, 6, 1, 4)} is smaller than the
P4
period, we have to calculate the density = i=1 min(peii ,Di ) of the
set of tasks, which is = 1.027 > 1. Thus there is no guarantee
that there is a feasible schedule.
(d) Since this is a set of simply periodic tasks and U = 0.944 1, there
exists a feasible schedule.
4-5
1. The process T2 can be blocked by process T3 for 0.4 time units. This
is reflected by an additional term b2 = 2 = 0.4 in the time demand
analysis function.
2. The effects of tick scheduling are modelled by
an additional scheduler task T0 = (p0 , e0 ) = (1.0, 0.04)
an extended execution time CS 0 = 0.03 for all higher-priority
tasks (including T2 ), which reflects the time to move a released
job to the ready queue.
an additional task T00 = (p3 , CS 0 ) = (10, 0.03), which reflects
the time it takes to move a released job of task T3 to the ready
queue. Since the task is run by the scheduler, it gets a higher
priority than T1 and T2 .

17

 modify the blocking time b2 due to the non-preemptibility of

T3 and tick scheduling to
 
2
b02 = (
+ 1)p0 = 2
(9)
p0
Thus the time demand analysis function that includes the practical factors for task T2 is
l m
l m
l m
w2 (t) = b02 + (e2 + CS 0 ) + pt0 (e0 ) + pt1 (e1 + CS 0 ) + pt3 CS 0
 
 
t
= 2 + 2.03 + 1t 0.04 + 4t (1.03) + 10
(0.03)
(10)
5-3
(a) Priority-Inheritance Protocol
1

1 1
X

J1
2

2 2
Y

J2
3 3
Y

J3

2
Y

4 4
X

J4
0

1 1 1
X X X

10

12

14

16

(b) Priority-Ceiling Protocol

1

1 1
X

J1
2

2 2
Y

J2
3

3 3 3
Y Y

J3
4 4
X

J4
0

3
X

2
X

1
X

10

12

14

16

10

12

14

16

(t)
1
2
3
4

5-4
(a) Nonpreemptive critical section protocol: b1 = b2 = b3 = 0.9, b4 =
0.7, b5 = 0.4, b6 = 0
(b) Priority-ceiling protocol: b1 = b2 = 0.5, b3 = b4 = b5 = 0.4, b6 = 0

18

 6-1
(a) The total utilization of the three tasks is T1 , T2 and T3 is 0.598. The
schedulable utilization for four tasks for RMS is URM (4) = 0.756.
Since the sporadic server can be treated as a periodic task, the remaining size of the server is uS = 0.158. Thus the minimal period
1
e = 7.
for the sporadic server is ps = d 0.158
(b) Priority-Order: (T1 ) > (T2 ) > (TS ) > (T3 )

A1

A1 A2 A2

A2

12

16

20

A3

A2

24

28

Budget
1

C1

C1

C1

C1

12

16

20

3
A2

1.5
A1
1

24

C1
C2

28

0.5
A3
23.5

tf
2.0

BEGIN
0.0

END
2.0

tr
0.0

te
0.0

te + p s
8.0

9.0

8.0

9.0

8.0

8.0

16.0

11.0

8.0

9.0

11.0

11.0

19.0

19.0

18.0

19.0

18.0

18.0

26.0

22.0

20.0

21.0

22.0

22.0

30.0

19

C1
C2

Rule
R2, but also R3b. System is idle
at t = 7 and becomes busy
again at tb = 8. Next replenishment time is at t+
r = 8 (both rule
R2 and R3 give the same next replenishment time t+
r = 8.0.
R2, but also R3b. System is idle
at t = 10 and becomes busy
again at tb = 11. Next replenishment time is moved to t+
r = 11.
R2, but also R3b. System is idle
at t = 17 and becomes busy
again at tb = 18. Next replenishment time is moved to t+
r = 18.
R2, but also R3b. System is idle
at t = 21 and becomes busy
again at tb = 22. Next replenishment time is moved to t+
r = 22.
R2, but also R3b. System is idle
at t = 26.5 and becomes busy
again at tb = 28. Next replenishment time is moved to t+
r = 28.

The response times are W (A1 ) = 8.5, W (A2 ) = 13.5, and W (A3 ) =
6.
(c) A deferrable server does not behave as a periodic task. It can execute for 2es in an interval of length 2es . In order to determine
whether the system is still schedulable, time demand analysis can
be used, where
i1

wi (t) = ei + es + d

X t
t es
ees +
d eek
ps
pk

(11)

k=1

for the tasks, which have a lower priority than the deferrable server.
6-2
1. Simple sporadic server behaves like a periodic task. The utilization
of the rest of the system is U{T1 ,T2 } = 0.35. The system is schedula1
ble, if U{T1 ,T2 } + pess URM (3) = 3(2 3 1) = 0.78.
l
m
2
It follows that ps = URM (3)U
= 5.
{T1 ,T2 }
m
l
s
es . For an
2. The time demand for task T1 is w1 (t) = e1 + es + te
ps
iterative solution, we start with t(0) = e1 + es = 3.


2
= 3 + 32
6
= 5 

= 3 + 52
2
6
= 5

t(1)
t(2)

(12)

Since t(1) = t(2) the maximum response time is W1 = 5.

3. The schedule below assumes that the polling server is always backlogged.
S1 = (1, 10, 3)

S2 = (5, 36, 5)

S3 = (17, 32, 6)

TS
T1
T2
0

10

15

20

25

30

The sporadic jobs S1 is not accepted, since the server has no

budget at time 1. Thus the job can not be earlier executed than
in cycle 6. Not sufficient slack.
The sporadic job S2 is accepted.
The sporadic jobs S3 is not accepted, since the server has not
sufficient slack for both S2 and S3 .
The completion time for S2 is 19.

20

 7-1
An extra task with lower priority than the working task set can be used
to indirectly measure the CPU untilization. The extra task is running a
counter.
The measurement works as follows:
In the initialisation phase, only the counter task is run for a defined
time period tm (for example 100 OS ticks). This value maxCounter
corresponds to 0% CPU utilization.
Then the other tasks are also started. Whenever the system is idle,
the counter task is run. In order to determine the utilization, the
counter is reset to 0 every time period tm . At the end of the period, the current counter value curCounter is determined. Then the
utilization can be calculated by
U =1

curCounter
maxCounter

(13)

7-2
Hardware
Timer
Interrupt every Time Unit
Soft
Timer
Post every 300 time units
Sem1

Soft
Timer
Post every 400 time units

Wait
Task 1

Sem2

Wait
Task 2

void task2(...) {
while(1) {
OSSemPend(Sem2);
f2();
}
}

void task1(...) {
while(1) {
OSSemPend(Sem1);
f1();
}
}
8-1
(a) All possible states of the program:

21

Since there is no state with no outgoing edges, the algorithm is

deadlock-free for two tasks.
Since there is no path on which a task has issued a wait on the
semaphore S, but does never acquire it, the algorithm does not
starve any of the two tasks. Or with other words: On all paths,
where the semaphore S is requested by a task, the access is
eventually granted to that task.
(b)
(0)
(1)

Process P1
NCS
wait(S)
CS

Process P2
NCS

(3)

(5)
(6)

S
{1, }
{0, }

wait(S)
blocked

(2)

(4)

Process P3
NCS

signal(S)
NCS
wait(S)
blocked

{0, {P2 }}
wait(S)
blocked

{0, {P2 , P3 }}

CS

{0, {P2 }}
{0, {P1 , P2 }}

signal(S)
NCS
wait(S)
blocked

CS

(7)

{0, {P2 }}
{0, {P2 , P3 }}

State (3) and (7) are identical and the schedule can repeat infinitely.
Thus an implementation with a weak semaphore can lead to starvation in the sense that a process (like P2 ) that has issued a request,
may never be served.
8-2
protected object SharedVariable
Shared : Integer 0
operation ReadVariable()
return Shared
operation WriteVariable(X: Integer)
Shared X
Tasks that are blocked, while they execute an operation to access the
protected object, need to be queued, so that they will eventually be
served.
8-3

CPU

Load Timer Watchdog

Timer
Reset

22

A watchdog timer watches the operation of the CPU. Initially it is loaded

with a value and counts downwards. In case it reaches zero, it shall
reset the system into a safe state. In a working system the watchdog
timer shall never reach zero! Thus the CPU needs to reload the watchdog timer before it reaches zero. Thus the system is configured in such
a way that the CPU reloads the timer perodically. In case the CPU is
not able to reload the timer, something unexpected has happened, and
then the watchdog timer will put the system into a safe state.

References
[Gra69] R. L. Graham. Bounds on multiprocessing timing anaomalies. SIAM
Journal of Applied Mathematics, 17(2), March 1969.
[Liu00] Jane W. S. Liu. Real-Time Systems. Prentice Hall, 2000.

23