Chapter 4 : TIME RESPONSE

CONTROL PRINCIPLES
BENE 2323
CHAPTER 4: TIME RESPONSE

Learning Outcomes
Students should be able to:

Find the time response from the transfer
function

Use poles and zeros to determine the
response of a control system

Describe quantitatively the transient
response of first-order and second order
systems

Topics
Introduction

Poles, Zeros and System Response

Poles of a transfer function

Zeros of a Transfer function
Poles and Zeros of a First-Order system

First-Order Systems
Time constant
Rise time
Settling time

Topics

Second-Order Systems

Overdamped Response
Underdamped Response
Undamped Response
Critically Damped Response

General Second Order Systems

Natural Frequency
Damping Ratio

Underdamped Second-order Systems

Peak Time
Overshoot
Settling Time
Rise Time

Response Characteristics And

System Configurations

Introduction
In Chapter 2, we learned how transfer functions can
represent linear, time-invariant systems.

In chapter 3 systems were represented directly in
time domain via the state and output equations.

After domain mathematical representation of
subsystem, subsystem is analyzed for transient and
steady state response to see if these characteristics
yield desired behavior.

Chapter 4 is devoted to the analysis of system
transient response.

PART 1
Poles, Zeros and System Response
- Poles of a Transfer Function
- Zeros of a Transfer Function
- Poles and Zeros of a First-order
System

Poles, Zeros and System

Response
The output response of a system is the sum of two
responses: the forced response and the natural
response.

Forced response is also called the steady state error
or particular solution.

Natural response is called the homogenous solution.

Poles of a Transfer Function

Value of Laplace transform variable, s that cause
the transfer function to be come infinite; or
2. Any roots of the denominator of transfer
function that are common to roots of
numerator.
1.

Zeros of a Transfer Function

Value of Laplace Transform variable, s that cause
to become zero; or
2. Any roots of numerator of the transfer function
that common to roots of denominator.
1.

Poles and Zeros of a FirstOrder System

Example:
Given a transfer function as shown in Figure 4.1 (a).

Figure 4.1 (a)

A pole exists at s = -5 and a zero exists at 2.

Poles and Zeros of a First-Order

System

Figure 4.1

Properties Of Poles And Zeros

Given a transfer function as shown in Figure 4.1 (a).

(s +2)
C(s) =
s(s +5)
(s +2) A B
= +
C(s) =
s(s +5) s s +5

Figure 4.1

Properties Of Poles And Zeros

(
s + 2)
A=
(s + 5 )

s0

2
=
5

s 5

3
=
5

(
s + 2)
B=
s

3
2
A B
C(s) = +
= 5+ 5
s s +5 s s +5

2 3 5 t
c(t ) = + e
5 5

Properties Of Poles And Zeros

Figure 4.1

Poles, Zeros and System

Response
From the development summarized in Figure
4.1(c), we draw the following conclusions:
1. A pole of the input function generates the form
of the forced response (i.e., the pole at the origin
generated a step function at the output).
2. A pole of the transfer function generates the
form of the natural response (i.e., the pole at 5
generated e-5t).

Poles, Zeros and System

Response
From the development summarized in Figure 4.1(c),
we draw the following conclusions:
3. A pole on the real axis generates a exponential
response of the form , where is the pole
location on the real axis. Thus, the farther to
the left a pole is on negative real axis, the faster
exponential transient response will decay to
zero (i.e., again the pole at 5, see Figure 4.2 for
the general case).
4. The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes
for both the forced and natural responses.

Poles, Zeros and System

Response

Technique of using poles to obtain the form of the

system response.
Each pole of the system transfer function that is on the
real axis generates an exponential response that is a
component of the natural response.
The input pole generates the forced response.

Figure 4.2

Example 1

Given the system of Figure 4.3, write the output, c(t), in

general terms. Specify the forced and natural parts of the
solution.

Figure 4.3

Solution : Example 1

By inspection, each system poles generates an

exponential as part of the natural response. The inputs
pole generates the forced response.Thus,

K1
K2
K3
K4
C (s) =
+
+
+
s
( s + 2) ( s + 4) ( s + 5)

Forced
Natural Response
Response

Solution : Example 1 (continue)

Taking inverse transform, we get

c(t ) =

K1

Forced
Response

+ K 2 e 2t + K 3e 4t + K 4 e 5t
Natural

Response

Example 2

A system has a transfer function,

10( s + 4)( s + 6)
G (s) =
( s + 1)( s + 7)( s + 8)( s + 10)
Write, by inspection, the output, c(t), in general terms if
the input is a unit step.

Solution : Example 2
A
C (s) =
+
s

Forced

B
C
D
E
+
+
+
( s + 1) ( s + 7) ( s + 8) ( s + 10)
Natural
Response

Response

c (t ) =

Forced
Response

+ Be t + Ce 7 t + De 8t + Ee 10t
Natural
Response

PART 2
First Order Systems
- Time Constant
- Rise Time
- Settling Time

First Order Systems

A first order system without zeros can be described by

the transfer function shown in Figure 4.4(a).

Figure 4.4
(a) First-order systems (b) Pole plot

First Order Systems

1
s

If the input is a unit step , where R( s ) =

The Laplace transform of the step response is C(s), where

a
C ( s) = G ( s) R( s) =
s( s + a)

Taking the inverse transform, the step response is given by,

c(t ) = c f (t ) + cn (t ) = 1 e at

Equ. 4.1

First Order Systems

where the input pole at the origin generated the force

response, cf (t) = 1 , and the system pole at a, as
shown in Fig.4.4(b), generated the natural response, cn
(t) = -e at .

First Order Systems

Equation 4.1 is then plotted as shown in Figure 4.5.

First Order Systems

Lets examine the significance of parameter a, the only

parameter needed to describe the transient response.
When t = 1
a

e
or

at

t =1 / a

= e = 0.37
1

c(t ) t =1 / a = 1 e = 1 0.37 = 0.63

Equ. 4.2

Equ. 4.3

Now we define three transient response performance

specifications.

Time Constant
1/a is the time constant of the response.

From Eq.(4.2), the time constant can be
described as the time for e-at to decay to 37% of
its initial value.

Alternately, from Eq.(4.3), the time constant is
the time it takes for the step response to rise to
63% of its final value (Fig.4.5).

The reciprocal of the time constant has the units
(1/seconds), or frequency.

Time Constant
We can call the parameter a the exponential
frequency.

Since, the derivative of e-at is a when t = 0, a is the
initial rate of change of the exponential at t = 0.

Thus, the time constant can be considered a
transient response specification for a first-order
system, since it is related to the speed at which the
system responds to a step input.

Time Constant
The time constant can also be evaluated from
the pole plot (Fig.4.4(b)).

Since, the pole of the transfer function is at a,
we can say the pole is located at the reciprocal of
the time constant, and the farther the pole from
the imaginary axis, the faster the transient
response.

Formula for time constant is,

1
=a
time constant

Rise Time, Tr
Rise time, Tr is defined as the time for the
waveform to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final
value.

Rise time is found by solving Eq.(4.2) for the
difference in time at

c1(t) = 0.9 and c2(t) = 0.1. Hence,

2.3 0.1 2.2

Tr =

=
a
a
a

Rise Time, Tr

where,

c1 (t ) = 1 e at = 0.9
1 e
e

at

at

= 0.9

= 1 0.9

at = ln(1 0.9) = 2.3

2.3
t =
a

and

c2 (t ) = 1 e at = 0.1
1 e at = 0.1
e at = 1 0.1
at = ln(1 0.1) = 0.1
0.1
t =
a

Settling Time, Ts

Settling time is defined as the time for the response to

reach, and stay within 2% of its final value.
Letting c(t) = 0.98 in Eq.(4.1) and solving for time, t , we
find the settling time to be:

ln(1 0.98) 3.91 4

Ts =

=
a
a
a

Formula for settling time is,

4
Ts =
a

First-Order Transfer Functions

via Testing
Since the transfer function is a representation of
the system from input to output, the systems
step response can lead to a representation even
though the inner construction is not known.

With a step input, we can measure the time
constant and steady-state value, from which the
transfer function can be calculated.

First-Order Transfer Functions via

Testing

Consider a simple first-order system, G ( s ) = K /( s + a)

whose step response is,

K
K /a K /a
C ( s) =
=

s( s + a)
s
( s + a)

If we can identify K and a from laboratory testing, we

can obtain the transfer function of the system.

First-Order Transfer Functions

via Testing
For example:

Assume the unit step response given in Figure 4.6.

It has the first-order characteristics no overshoot and
nonzero initial slope.

Figure 4.6

First-Order Transfer Functions via

Testing

From the response we measure the time constant, that

is, the time for the amplitude to reach 63% of its final
value.
Since the final value is about 0.72, the time constant is
evaluated where the curve reach 0.63 0.72 = 0.45, or
about 0.13 second.
1
Hence, time constant = 0.13 =
a
therefore,

1
a=
= 7.7
0.13

First Order Systems

To find K, we realize that the forced response
reaches a steady-state value of K / a = 0.72

Substituting the value of a = 7.7, we find
K = a 0.72 = 7.7 0.72 = 5.54

Thus, the transfer function for the system is

5.54
G( s) =
s( s + 7.7)
*Note :Actually, the response of Figure 4.6 was generated
using the transfer function of G ( s) = 5
s ( s + 7)

Exercise 1

A system has a transfer function,

50
G ( s) =
s ( s + 50)

Find the time constant, Tc ; settling time, Ts ; and rise time,

Tr.

PART 3
Second Order Systems
- Introduction
- Overdamped Response
- Underdamped Response
- Undamped Response
- Critically Damped Response

Introduction
A second-order system exhibits a wide range of
responses that must be analyzed and described.

Varying a first-order systems parameter simply
changes the speed of the response; changes in
the parameters of a second-order system can
change the form of the response.

Introduction
Example, a second-order system can display
characteristics much like a first-order system or,
depending on component values, display damped
or pure oscillations for its transient response.

Numerical examples of the second-order system
responses are shown in Figure 4.7. All examples
are derived from Fig. 4.7(a), the general case,
which has two finite poles and no zeros.

Figure 4.7
second order
systems, pole
plots and step
responses

Introduction

The term in the numerator is simply a scale or inputmultiplying factor that can take on any value without
affecting the form of derived results.
By assigning appropriate values to parameters a and b, we
can show all possible second-order transient responses.
The unit step response then can be found using C(s) =
R(s) G(s) ,
where, R( s ) = 1 followed by a partial-fraction expansion
s
and the inverse Laplace transform.

Overdamped Response

For this response, Figure 4.7(b)

9
9
C ( s) =
=
2
s ( s + 9s + 9) s( s + 7.854)( s + 1.146)

Overdamped Response
This function has a pole at the origin that comes
from the unit step input and two real poles that
come from the system.

The input pole at the origin generates the
constant forced response; each of the two
system poles on the real axis generates an
exponential natural response whose exponential
frequency is equal to the pole location.

Overdamped Response

The output initially could have been written as ;

c(t ) = K1 + K 2e 7.854t + K 3e 1.146t

This response is called overdamped (Figure

4.7(b).

It seems that the poles could tell the form of the
response without the tedious calculation on the
inverse L-transform.

Underdamped Response

For this response, Figure 4.7(c)

9
C ( s) =
s ( s 2 + 2s + 9)

This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the
unit step input and two complex poles that come from
the system.
Compare the response of the second-order system to
the poles that generated it.

Underdamped Response

First compare the pole location to the time function, and

the compare the pole location to the plot. From
Fig.4.7(c), the poles that generate the natural response
are s = -1 j .
Comparing these values to c(t) in the same figure, the
real part of the pole matches the exponential decay
frequency of the sinusoids amplitude, while the imaginary
part of the pole matches the frequency of the sinusoidal
oscillation.

Underdamped Response

Lets compare the pole location to the plot.

Underdamped Response

Figure 4.8 shows a general, underdamped response for a

second-order system.

Underdamped Response
The transient response consists of
an
exponentially decaying amplitude generated by
the real part of the system pole times a
sinusoidal waveform generated by the imaginary
part of the system pole.

The time constant of the exponential decay is
equal to the reciprocal of the real part of the
system pole.

The value of the imaginary part is the actual
frequency of the sinusoid, depicted in (Fig.4.8).

Underdamped Response
This sinusoidal frequency is called damped
frequency of oscillation, d.

Finally, the steady-state response (unit step) was
generated by the input pole located at the origin.

The type of response shown in Figure 4.8 is called
an underdamped response, one which
approaches a steady-state value via a transient
response that is a damped oscillation.

Example 3
To demonstrate how a knowledge of the
relationship between the pole location and the
transient response can lead rapidly to the
response form without calculating the inverse
Laplace transform.

Example 3 - Form of underdamped

response using poles

By inspection, write the form of the step response of the

system in Figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9

Solution : Example 3
First, we determine that the form of the forced
response is a step.

Next, find the form of the natural response.

Factoring the denominator of the transfer
function in Figure 4.9, we find the poles to be s
= -5 j13.23.

Solution : Example 3 (continue)

The real part, -5, is the exponential frequency for the

damping. It is also the reciprocal of the time constant of
the decay of the oscillations.
The imaginary part, 13.23, is the radian frequency for
the sinusoidal oscillations.
Using previous discussion and Figure 4.7(c) as a guide,
we obtain:
c(t) = K1 + e-5t ( K2 cos 13.23t +
K3 sin 13.23t )
= K1 + K4 e-5t (cos 13.23t - )

Solution : Example 3 (continue)

where,
= tan-1 K3 / K2 , K4 = K 22 + K32
and c(t) is a constant plus an exponentially damped
sinusoid.

Undamped Response

For this response, Figure 4.7(d)

C (s) =

9
s( s 2 + 9)

This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the
unit step input and two imaginary poles that come from
the system.

Undamped Response

The input pole at the origin generates the

constant forced response, and the two system poles
on the imaginary axis at j3 generate a sinusoidal
natural response whose frequency is equal to the
location of the imaginary poles.

Undamped Response

Hence, the output can be estimated as c(t) = K1 + K4 cos

( 3t - ).
The response type shown in Figure 4.7(d) is called
undamped.
Note that the absence of a real part in the pole pair
corresponds to an exponential that does not decay.
Mathematically the exponential is e-0t =1 .

Critically Damped Response

For this response, Figure 4.7(e)

9
C (s) =
s(s 2 + 6 s + 9)

Critically Damped Response

This function has a pole at the origin that comes from

the unit step input and two multiple real poles that
come from the system.
The input pole at the origin generates the constant
forced response, and the two poles on the real axis at -3
generate a natural response consisting of an exponential
and an exponential multiplied by time, where the
exponential frequency is equal to the location of the real
poles.

Critically Damped Response

Hence, the output can be estimated as c(t) = K1 + K2 e-3t

+ K3 t e-3t .
This type of response, shown in Figure 4.7(e), is called
critically damped.
Critical damped responses are the fastest possible
without the overshoot that is characteristic of the
underdamped response.

Summary of Second-Order
Systems
Overdamped responses :

Poles : Two real at -1 , -2

Natural response :
1t + K e-
2t

cn(t) = K1 e -
2

Two exponentials with time constants equal to the
reciprocal of the pole locations, or

cn(t) = K1 e -1t + K2 e-2t

Summary of Second-Order
Systems
Underdamped responses :

Poles :Two complex at -d jd

Natural response : Damped sinusoid with an
exponential envelope whose time constant is equal
to the reciprocal of the poles real part. The radian
frequency of the sinusoid, the damped frequency of
oscillation, is equal to the imaginary part of the
poles, or

cn(t) = A e -dt cos d t -

Summary of Second-Order
Systems
Undamped responses :

Poles :Two imaginary at j1

cn(t) = A cos (1 t - )

Natural response : Undamped sinusoid with radian
frequency equal to the imaginary part of the poles,
or

cn(t) = A cos (1 t - )

Summary of Second-Order
Systems
Critically damped responses :

Poles :Two real at -1
1t + K te-
1t

cn(t) = K1 e-
2

Natural response : One term is an exponential whose
time constant is equal to the reciprocal of the pole
location.Another term is the product of time, t , and
an exponential with time constant equal to the
reciprocal of the pole location, or

cn(t) = K1 e-1t + K2 te-1t

Summary of Second-Order
Systems

The step responses for the four cases of damping

discussed in this section are superimposed in Figure 4.10.
Notice that the critically damped case is the division
between the overdamped cases and the underdamped
cases and is the fastest response without overshoot.

Figure 4.10

PART 4
General Second Order System
- Natural Frequency
- Damping Ratio

The General Second Order

System

In this section we define two physically meaningful

specifications for second-order system.

Natural Frequency, wn

the frequency of oscillation of the system without
damping.

The General Second Order

System

Damping Ratio,

we define the damping ratio, , to be:
exponentia l decay frequency
natural frequency (rad/secon d)
1
natural period
=
2 exponentia l time constant

The General Second Order

System
Damping Ratio,

Consider the general system
b
G (s) = 2
s + as + b

Without damping, the poles would be on the jw axis, and

the response would be an undamped sinusoid. For the
poles to be purely imaginary, a=0. Hence, by definition,
the natural frequency, wn, is the frequency of oscillation of
this system. Since the poles of this system are on the jw
axis at j b , w n = b

The General Second Order

System
Damping Ratio,
2
b
=
w

Hence,
n

Assuming an underdamped system, the complex poles
have a real part, equal to a/2. The magnitude of this
value is then the exponential decay frequency described
in section 4.4. Hence,
a

Exponentia l decay frequency

=
=
= 2
Natural frequency ( rad / sec)
wn
wn

a = 2 w n

The General Second Order

System
Damping Ratio,

Our general second-order transfer function finally looks
like this:

n 2
G ( s) = 2
s + 2n + n 2

Solving the poles of the transfer function, G(s) yields:

s1, 2 = wn wn 2 1

The various cases of second-order response are a

function of and are summarized in Figure 4.11.

Example 4

Given the transfer function as shown below, find

and wn.

36
G (s) = 2
s + 4 .2 s + 36

Solution : Example 4

Compare with the general second-order transfer

function,

36
G (s) = 2
s + 4 .2 s + 36
2

wn
G (s) = 2
2
s + 2 w n + w n

Solution : Example 4 (continue)

Therefore

wn = 36
2

wn = 6
2 wn = 4 .2

4 .2
=
= 0 .35
26

Exercise 2

For each of the systems shown in Figure 4.12,

finds the value of and give the kind of response
expected.

PART 5
Underdamped Second Order
System
- Peak Time
- Overshoot
- Settling Time
- Rise Time

UNDERDAMPED SECOND
ORDER SYSTEMS

A common model for physical problem.

A plot of this response appears in Figure 4.13 for various
values of , plotted along a time axis normalized to the
natural frequency.

Underdamped Second Order

Systems

We have defined two parameters associated with second-order

systems, and wn. Others parameters associated with the undamped
response are percentage overshoot (%OS), peak time (Tp), settling
time (Ts) and rise time (Tr). These specifications are defined as follow
(refer Figure 4.14):

Underdamped Second Order

Systems
1.
2.

3.

4.

Peak time, Tp : The time required to reach the first,

or maximum peak.
Percent overshoot, %OS : The amount that the
waveform overshoots the steady state, or final value
at the peak time.
Settling time, Ts : The time required for the
transients damped oscillations to reach and stay
within +2% of the steady state value.
Rise time, Tr : The time required for the waveform to
go from 0.1 of the final value to 0.9 of the final value.

Underdamped Second Order

Systems

Evaluation of Tp
Tp =

wn 1 2

Evaluation of %OS

% OS =

C max C final
C final

100 = e

where

C max = 1 + e

1 2 )

100

Underdamped Second Order

Systems

and for the unit step used;

C final = 1

The inverse of this equation allows to solve for by:

ln(% OS / 100 )

2 + ln 2 (% OS / 100 )

Underdamped Second Order

Systems

Evaluation of Ts
For criteria between +2%

4
Ts =
wn

For criteria between +5%

3
Ts =
wn

Underdamped Second Order

Systems
Evaluation of Tr

A precise analytical relationship between rise time and damping ratio,

cannot be found. However, we can find the rise time using computer.
Figure 4.15 illustrates the resulting curve obtained relating the
variation of wntr and the damping ratio, .

*Note:
Fig. 4.16 can be approximated
by the following polynomials

Underdamped Second Order

Systems
If a simple expression is desired for
approximations, we can obtain the values of tr over
the desirable range of damping factors, from 0.4 to
0.7, and determine an average value over this
range.

The value of wntr for a damping of 0.4 is 1.463; the
value of wntr for a damping of 0.7 is 2.126.
Therefore, an average value rise time over this
damping factor range is given by, tr = 1.80/wn.

Underdamped Second Order

Systems

Figure 4.17 Pole plot for an underdamped second-order system

wd is the imaginary part of the pole and called the damped frequency of
oscillation, and
d is the magnitude of the real part of the pole and called as exponential
damping frequency.

Example 5 - Finding Tp, %OS

and Ts from transfer function
Given the transfer function

100
G (s) = 2
s + 15 s + 100
Find

, wn, Tp, %OS, Ts and Tr.

Solution : Example 5
Natural frequency,

Damping ratio,

wn = 100

2 wn = 15

wn = 10

15
=
10 2

= 0 .75

Solution : Example 5 (continue)

Peak Time,
Tp =

Tp =

Overshoot,

wn 1

10 1 0.75 2

T p = 0.475

% OS = e

% OS = e

( 0.75

1 2 )

100

1 0.75 2 )

% OS = 2.838

100

Solution : Example 5 (continue)

Settling time,

4
Ts =
wn
4
Ts =
0.75 10
Ts = 0.5333
#From Fig. 4.15, we get Tr=2.3,
Tr = 2.3/wn
Tr = 2.3/10
Tr = 0.23 s

Exercise 3

Find , wn, Tp, %OS, Ts and Tr.

a)

16
T (s) = 2
s + 3 s + 16

0 .04
b) T ( s ) = 2
s + 0 .02 s + 0 .04

Example 6 - Finding Tp, %OS

and Ts from pole location
Given the pole plot shown in Figure 4.17, find , wn, Tp,
%OS and Ts.

Solution : Example 6
= cos
1 7
= cos(tan
)

3
= cos(1.166 )
= 0.394

wn =

7 2 + 32

wn = 7 .616

Solution : Example 6 (continue)

Tp =

Tp =

wn 1

wd

T p = 0.449 sec

Solution : Example 6 (continue)

Percent Overshoot,

% OS = e

% OS = e

1 2 )

( 0.394

% OS = 26 %

100

1 0.394 2 )

100

Solution : Example 7 (continue)

Settling time

4
Ts =
wn
4

4
Ts =
=
d 3

Ts = 1.333 sec

Exercise 4
Given %OS = 12% and Ts = 0.2s. Find :
a) Location of poles
b) Transfer function of the system

Exercise 5
Given the system shown below, find J and D
to yield 20% overshoot and a settling time of
2s for a step input of Torque(t).

Thank you for

your attention.