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Dianna T. Kenny
Chapter 20, (pp 375-396), Kenny, D. T., Carlson, J. G., McGuigan, F. J., & Sheppard, J. L. (Eds.) (2000). Stress and health: Research
and clinical applications (467 pages). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Gordon Breach/Harwood Academic Publishers. ISBN 90 5702
376 8.
INTRODUCTION
Whether burdened by an overwhelming urry of
daily commitments or stied by a sense of social
isolation (or, oddly both); whether mired for hours
in a sense of lifes pointlessness or beset for days
by unresolved anxiety; whether deprived by long
work weeks from quality time with ones offspring
or drowning in quality time with them whatever
the source of stress, we at times get the feeling that
modern life isnt what we were designed for (Wright,
1995, p.62).
(Cooper & Payne, 1992). There will always, therefore, be a need to cope with occupational stress on
both the macro (organisational, structural, political)
and micro (individual, dyadic, triadic) levels. This
paper contributes to the enhancement of managing
occupational stress at the micro level.
Firstly, a systemic model for understanding occupational stress is proposed. Some extant theories of
occupational stress will then be reviewed, and interventions arising from these theories are assessed.
Finally, an intervention for the rehabilitation of occupational stress based on the proposed model and
theoretical discussion is outlined.
THE MODEL
In a series of recent studies (Kenny, 1995a, 1995b,
1995c, 1995d, 1995e, 1995f, 1995g, 1996), Kenny
explored the causes of the failure of occupational
rehabilitation to effect a sustainable return to work
following workplace injury. She concluded that a
systemic framework provided both the most heuristic explanation for such failures and a workable
model on which to base subsequent rehabilitation
interventions. Accordingly, the model for both understanding occupational stress and to occupational
stress interventions, proposed in this chapter is informed by systemic theories, including cybernetics,
communication theory, family therapy as applied to
the systems (ie workplaces, organisations and workers compensation system) in which the worker is
located, and current theories of occupational stress
which embrace a systemic epistemology (Bowen,
1987; Cottone, 1991; Hart & Wearing, 1995; Karasek & Theorell, 1990; Kenny, 1995e).
A systemic theoretical model for tertiary rehabilitation of occupational stress (Cottone & Emener,
1990; Kenny, 1995g) is different to other models in
that the focus is on neither the individual, nor the
organisation, but on the system as a whole. In this
model, occupational stress is understood as the systems attempt to maintain equilibrium or to restore
homeostasis (Hart & Wearing, 1995; Hoffman,
Kenny D.T., 1999
mental conditions without reference to the character of the person@ (p 24). In similar vein, Roskies,
Louis-Guerin, & Fournier, (1993) concluded that
personality can cushion as well as aggravate the
impact of occupational stress (p. 616-7); with negative personality dispositions transforming stressors
into strains and strains into symptoms. Negative affectivity, for example, has been associated with interpersonal conict (Spector & OConnell (1994),
negative emotions (Chen & Spector (1991), psychological distress, physical symptoms (Watson, Pennebaker, & Folger, 1986), and job strain (Decker &
Borgen, 1993). The relationship between role stress
and role distress has been found to be moderated
by a range of personality characteristics including intolerance of ambiguity, dependency, strong
afliation needs, low risk propensity (Siegall &
Cummings (1995), and high self-focused attention
(Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1991). On the positive
side, humour and optimism can signicantly moderate the relationship between daily hassles, self-esteem maintenance, emotional exhaustion and physical illness (Fry, 1995).
Despite the enthusiasm for the view that personality characteristics are fundamental to an understanding of occupational stress, empirical support
for such moderating effects has been mixed (Frone
& McFarlin, 1989). Moreover, much of the research
has been atheoretical or exploratory, and it is difcult to formulate interventions based on ndings
that a small amount of variance in the experience
of occupational stress is accounted for by a particular personality characteristic. Researchers working
within this framework would, of course, recommend that interventions be aimed at increasing humour, optimism and tolerance of ambiguity and decreasing negative trait affectivity, neuroticism and
dependency. However, the literature is replete with
evidence that personality characteristics are notoriously difcult to modify (McRae & Costa, 1994).
Even if it were possible to change personality in the
desired direction, it is not certain that workplace
difculties would improve without simultaneously
attending to extrinsic organisational factors that
may be operating. Moreover, personality traits may
be xed to some extent, but their place in the system as antecedents or consequences will depend
on the nature of the interaction between individual
and environmental systems, and to any changes that
may occur within that system. Personality may also
be dened as a function of coping style (Eysenck,
1988); consistent with a systemic framework, coping behaviours will also be inuenced by the sources
of occupational stress (O=Driscoll & Cooper, 1994)
Occupational Stress 18
control, control of outcomes, skill discretion, supervision, decision authority and ideological control
(Muntaner & Schoenbach, 1994; Soderfeldt, Soderfeldt, Munstnaer, OCampo, Warg & Ohlson, 1996).
Based on the dimensions of demand and control,
jobs have been classied into four categories. These
are high strain jobs (high demand/low control); low
strain jobs (low demands/high control); active jobs
(high demands/high control); and passive jobs (low
demands/low control) (Landsbergis, Schnall, Dietz,
Friedman, & Pickering, 1992). In general, psychological distress is predicted by high demand/low
control combinations (Karasek, 1990). Conversely,
an increase in control is positively correlated with
job satisfaction (Murphy 1988). Control has also
been implicated in occupational stress arising from
organisational change processes, where control is
conceptualised as a stress antidote (Sutton & Kahn,
1986). The perception of control can also be linked
to personality factors, such as locus of control and
private self-consciousness (Frone & McFarlin,
1989; Kivimaki & Lindstrom, 1995).
Johnson and Hall (1988) have expanded the model to include a support component incorporating
coworker and supervisor social support. Social support has positive effects on well-being and buffers
the impact of occupational stressors on psychological distress (Karasek, Triantis, & Chaudry, 1982).
Low social support has been associated with greater
symptomatology, and a signicant interaction with
demand and control has been observed for job dissatisfaction (Landsbergis, Schnall, Dietz, Friedman,
& Pickering, 1992).
Communication theory
Karasek and Theorell (1990) view occupational stress as a strategic communication of distress.
Toohey, (1993, 1995) has expanded this concept into
a model of functional communication. In this model,
dissatisfaction at the workplace may be expressed
through illness behaviour (ie occupational stress),
which is assessed as a safe and acceptable manner
in which to communicate distress (Toohey, 1995,
p 57). It is certainly debatable as to how expressing
ones distress in this way is either safe or acceptable
in a workplace context, especially given the social
stigma attached to both mental illness, and to workers compensation claims generally. However, these
methods are obviously more acceptable than outbursts of anger, physical violence or criminal acts
such as theft or destruction of property. This model
is just a step away from the systemic analysis of the
function of the symptom in the system in which it
occurs (Hoffman, 1981; Palazzoli et al., 1986), to
Kenny D.T., 1999
Fig.1 A model of the proximal and distal stakeholders in the post-injury period and communication pathways
WCA
RP
Legend
RC
ID
InI
IW
TD
SG
S
2)
Identify sub-systems. Sub-systems are
identied by the commonality of their purpose and
rules. Different stakeholders may belong to more
than one sub-system, and through a process of identifying sub-system membership, conicts of interest
and alliances and coalitions may be claried (ie Bowens triangulation processes). The client is inevitably a member of a large number of sub-systems
simultaneously (ie workplace, medical and rehabilitation systems, family systems and social systems).
It is important to determine the relative strength and
inuence of each of these systems. The more intensive, committed, and socially integrated a setting,
the greater is its potential impact on the outcome
Chapter 20, Stress and Health
WCA
RP
Rehabilitation Provider
Employer
Insurer
IW
Injured Worker
TD
Treating Doctor
ID
Insurance Doctor
InI
Insurance Investigator
SG
Support Groups
Solicitor
RC
Rehabilitation Coordinator
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