ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
LESSON 3
DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF NOISE
Objective
We will discuss the concept of noise present in the communica-
tion system. Noise is an unwanted signal, which affect or
deteriorates the performance of the signal present in the
communication system. After studying this chapter, you
should be familiar with the types and sources of noise and will
be able to define the word noise as it applies to this material.
Lesson
Noise In Communication Systems
Noise is probably the only topic in electronics and telecommu-
nications with which every-one must be familiar, no matter
what his or her specialization. Electrical disturbances interfere
with signals, producing ‘noise. It is ever present and limits the
performance of most systems. Measuring it is very conten-
tious almost everybody has a different method of quantifying
noise and its effects.
Noise may be defined, in electrical terms, as any unwanted
introduction of energy tending to interfere with the proper
reception and reproduction of transmitted signals. Many
disturbances of an electrical nature produce noise in receivers,
modifying the signal in an unwanted manner. In radio
receivers, noise may produce hiss in the loudspeaker output. In
television receivers “snow”, or “confetti” (colored snow) be-
comes superimposed on the picture. In pulse communications
systems, noise may produce unwanted pulses or perhaps cancel
out the wanted ones. It may cause serious mathematical errors.
Noise can limit the range of systems, for a given transmitted
power. It affects the sensitivity of receivers, by placing a limit on
the weakest signals that can be amplified. It may sometimes
even force a reduction in the bandwidth of a system.
Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that
degrades the quality of signals and data. Noise occurs in digital
and analog systems, and can affect files and communications of
all types, including text, programs, images, audio, and telemetry.
In a hard-wired circuit such as a telephone-line-based Internet
hookup, external noise is picked up from appliances in the
vicinity, from electrical transformers, from the atmosphere, and
even from outer space. Normally this noise is of little or no
consequence. However, during severe thunderstorms, or in
locations were many electrical appliances are in use, external
noise can affect communications. In an Internet hookup it
slows down the data transfer rate, because the system must
adjust its speed to match conditions on the line. In a voice
telephone conversation, noise rarely sounds like anything other
than a faint hissing or rushing.
Noise is a more significant problem in wireless systems than in
hard-wired systems. In general, noise originating from outside
the system is inversely proportional to the frequency, and
directly proportional to the wavelength. At a low frequency such
as 300 kHz, atmospheric and electrical noise are much more
© Copy Right: Rai University
8 3.272 / 3A.272 / 3B.272
severe than at a high frequency like 300 MHz. Noise generated
inside wireless receivers, known as internal noise, is less
dependent on frequency. Engineers are more concerned about
internal noise at high frequencies than at low frequencies,
because the less external noise there is, the more significant the
internal noise becomes.
Communications engineers are constantly striving to develop
better ways to deal with noise. The traditional method has been
to minimize the signal bandwidth to the greatest possible
extent. The less spectrum space a signal occupies, the less noise
is passed through the receiving circuitry. However, reducing the
bandwidth limits the maximum speed of the data that can be
delivered. Another, more recently developed scheme for
minimizing the effects of noise is called digital signal processing
(DSP). Using fiber optics, a technology far less susceptible to
noise, is another approach.
There are numerous ways of classifying noise. It may be
subdivided according to type, source, effect, or relation to the
receiver, depending on circumstances. It is most convenient here
to divide noise into two broad groups: noise whose sources are
external to the receiver and noise created within the receiver
itself. External noise is difficult to treat quantitatively, and there
is often little that can be done-about it, short of moving the
system to another location. Note how radiotelescopes are always
located away from industry, whose processes create so much
electrical noise. International satellite earth stations are also
located in noise-free valleys, where possible. Internal noise is
both more quantifiable and capable of being reduced by
appropriate receiver design.
Because noise has such a limiting effect, and also because it is
often possible to reduce its effects through intelligent circuit use
and design, it is most important for all those connected with
communications to be well informed about noise and its effects
Sources of Noise
As with all geophysical methods, a variety of noises can
contaminate our seismic observations. Because we control the
source of the seismic energy, we can control some types of
noise. For example, if the noise is random in occurrence, such
as some of the types of noise described below, we may be able
to minimize its affect on our seismic observations by recording
repeated sources all at the same location and averaging the
result. We’ve already seen the power of averaging in reducing
noise in the other geophysical techniques we have looked at.
Beware, however, that averaging only works if the noise is
random. If it is systematic in some fashion, no amount of
averaging will remove it.
The noises that plague seismic observations can be lumped into
three categories depending on their source.
• Uncontrolled Ground Motion - This is the most obvious
type of noise. Anything that causes the ground to move,
 other than your source, will generate noise. As you would
expect, there could be a wide variety of sources for this type
of noise. These would include traffic traveling down a road,
running engines and equipment, and people walking. Other
sources that you might not consider include wind, aircraft,
and thunder. Wind produces noise in a couple of ways but
of concern here is its affect on vegetation. If you are
surveying near trees, wind causes the branches of the trees
to move, and this movement is transmitted through the
trees and into the ground via the trees’ roots. Aircraft and
thunder produce noise by the coupling of ground motion
to the sound that we hear produced by each.
• Electronic Noise - As you’ve already seen, geophones
convert the ground motion they detect to electrical signals.
These signals are then transmitted down the cable,
amplified by the recording system, and recorded. Thus,
anything that can cause changes in the electrical signal in the
cable or the recording system causes noise in our recorded
data. Electrical noise can come from a variety of sources. For
example, dirty or loose connections between the geophones
and the cable or the cable and the recording system can
produce noise. Wet connections anywhere in the system can
cause electrical noise. Wind can also cause electrical noise.
This occurs if, for example, the cable is suspended in
bushes. As the wind blows the bushes, this moves the
cable. The cable is nothing more than a long electrical
conductor. As it moves in the Earth’s magnetic field, an
electrical current is produced in the cable.
• Geologic Noise - Finally, we can consider any type of
subsurface geologic structure that we can not easily interpret
to be a source of noise. In seismic refraction surveying, we
will assume that the subsurface structure varies laterally only
along the line connecting the source to the geophones. If
the Earth actually varies significantly away from our line, it is
possible for us to misinterpret the seismic waves we record
as structure below the geophones instead of structure to
the side of the geophones. Like our resistivity observations,
we will interpret our seismic observations as if they had
been generated from relatively simple earth models.
Although these models can be more complex than those
used to interpret resistivity observations (we can have
dipping layers and topography on the layers), in interpreting
refraction seismic observations we must assume that
variations occur along the line in which data is collected only.
With predicate calculus, correct conclusions can be formed from
correct premises with realistic applications such as intelligent
agents these premises cannot be assumed to be 100 percent
correct.
Using a knowledge base such as used for the reasoning of some
agents, conclusions are drawn from poorly formed and
uncertain evidence. For example an indication of the style of an
article can only be ascertained in an approximate manner by the
use heuristics rather than precise rules.
Usually, in deductive reasoning there follows a conclusion that
must derive from a set of premises. This is because deductive
reasoning uses mathematics to prove or disprove conclusions.
However where the information is uncertain, it is impossible to
© Copy Right: Rai University
3.272 / 3A.272 / 3B.272
predict with classical mathematical logic that the conclusion is
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
true. Modern extensions to mathematical logic or monotonic
logic have been made to deal with this uncertainty.
Formal logic requires the manipulation of symbols (p or p),
and represents a condition such as it is raining or it is not
raining. It does not matter what p represents, it would always
be true.
Model theory is used to specify the semantics or meaning
behind the logic. For a machine to be built that can reason, legal
methods of reasoning would need to be incorporated by
providing syntactic manipulations on sentences in the logical
language.
Non-monotonic logic and reasoning with beliefs use a quantita-
tive measure of modeling where inference is based on beliefs
and assumptions.
A non-monotonic system addresses the problem of changing
beliefs. Uncertainty is handled by making reasonable assump-
tions when there is uncertain information. It reasons as if these
assumptions are true. Later a belief may change. When this
happens conclusions derived conclusions determined from the
previous set of beliefs will have to be re-examined and changed.
For example when it rains the streets are wet, so by inference if
the streets are wet it is possible to infer that it has been raining.
However there could be other reasons why the streets are wet,
for example fire hydrant has burst. If another piece of informa-
tion was added that stated that the sky was clear then the
conclusion that it had been raining would have to be reassessed
To reduce the complexity of revising conclusions when beliefs
are changed, truth maintenance systems are used which store
justifications for each inference.
The analysis of communication systems thus far in the text has
not considered the effects of interfering noise. With large
transmission power levels and/or close range transmission, the
effects of noise may be negligible, and the system may be
considered as noise-free for most practical purposes. However,
noise is always present, and when the power level is low and/or
the transmission distance is great, noise effects must be
considered. As we will see later, different modulation processes
vary widely in their behavior with respect to noise.
Some of the different types of electrical noise will be surveyed
early in this chapter. The techniques for analyzing noise effects
will be developed through the use of thermal noise models.
The concepts of effective noise temperature and noise figure
will be introduced as a means of characterizing the overall noise
present at the output of a receiver.
Noise Classifications
On the broadest scale, noise can be classified as either external
or internal. Each category consists of several different types.
External Noise
External noise represents all the different types that arise
outside of the communication system components. It includes
atmospheric noise, galactic noise, man-made noise, and
interference from other communication sources.
9
 Internal Noise
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Internal noise represents all the different types that arise inside
of the communication system components.
It includes thermal noise, shot noise, and flicker noise. Al-
though the components of both the transmitter and receiver
are included in the definition, the region of primary concern is
from the receiving antenna through the first several stages of
the receiver. It is in this region of small signal amplitudes that
internal noise is most troublesome.
Some of the most common types of external and internal
noise will be described in the remainder of this section. Now
we will study both internal and external noises in detail
External Noise
The various forms of noise created outside the receiver come
under the heading of external noise and include atmospheric
and extraterrestrial noise and industrial noise.
Atmospheric Noise
Atmospheric noise is produced mostly by lightning discharges
in thunderstorms. It is usually the dominating external noise
source in quite locations at frequencies below about 20 MHz or
so. However, the power spectrum of atmospheric noise
decreases rapidly as the frequency increases and the effect
becomes relatively insignificant at frequencies well above this
value. The level of atmospheric noise also decreases with
increasing latitude on the surface of the globe, and it is particu-
larly severe during the rainy season in regions near the equator.
Perhaps the best way to become acquainted with atmospheric
noise is to listen to shortwaves on a receiver, which is not well
equipped to receive them. An astonishing variety of strange
sounds will be heard, all tending to interfere with the program.
Most of these sounds are the result of spurious radio waves,
which induce voltages in the antenna. The majority of these
radio waves come from natural sources of disturbance. They
represent atmospheric noise, generally called static.
Static is caused by lightning discharges in thunderstorms and
other natural electric disturbances occurring in the atmosphere.
It originates in the form of ampli-tude-modulated impulses,
and because such processes are random in nature, it is spread
over most of the RF spectrum normally used for broadcasting.
Atmospheric noise consists of spurious radio signals with
components distributed over a wide range of frequencies. It is
propagated over the earth in the same way as ordinary radio
waves of the same frequencies, so that at any point on the
ground, static will be received from all thunderstorms, local and
distant. The static is likely to be more severe but less frequent if
the storm is local. Field strength is inversely proportional to
frequency, so that this noise will interfere more with the
reception of radio than that of television. Such noise consists
of impulses, and (as shown in Chapter I) these nonsinusoidal
waves have harmonics whose amplitude falls off with increase
in the harmonic. Static from distant Sources will vary in intensity
according to the variations in propagating conditions. The usual
increase in its level takes place at night, at both Dfoadcast and
shortwave frequencies.
© Copy Right: Rai University
10
Atmospheric noise becomes less severe at frequencies above
about 30 MHz because of two separate factors. First, the higher
frequencies are limited to line-of--sight propagation, i.e., less
than 80 kilometers or so. Second, the nature of the mechanism
generating this noise is such that very little of it is created in the
VHF range and above.
Extraterrestrial Noise
It is safe to say that there are almost as many types of space
noise as there are sources. For convenience, a division into two
subgroups will suffice.
Solar noise The sun radiates so many things our way that we
should not be too surprised to find that noise is noticeable
among them, again there are two types. Under normal “quiet”
conditions, there is a constant noise radiation from the sun,
simply because it is a large body at a very high temperature (over
6OOO°C on the surface). It therefore radiates over a very broad
frequency spectrum, which includes the frequencies we use for
communications. However, the sun is a constantly changing
star, which undergoes cycles of peak activity from which electrical
disturbances erupt, such as corona flares and sunspots. Even
though the additional noise produced comes from a limited
portion of the sun’s surface, it may still be orders of magnitude
greater than that received during periods of quiet sun.
Galactic Noise
Galactic noise is caused by disturbances originating outside the
earth’s atmosphere. The primary sources of galactic noise are the
sun, background radiation along the galactic plane, and the
many cosmic sources distributed along the galactic plane. The
primary frequency range in which galactic noise is significant is
from about 15 MHz to perhaps 500 MHz, and its power
spectrum decreases with increasing frequency.
The solar cycle disturbances repeat themselves approximately
every 11 years. In addition, if a line is drawn to join these II-year
peaks, it is seen that a supercyc1e is in operation, with the peaks
reaching an even higher maximum every 100 years or so. Finally,
these l00-year peaks appear to be increasing in intensity. Since
there is a correlation between peaks in solar disturbance and
growth rings in trees, it has been possible to trace them back to
the beginning of the eighteenth century. Evidence shows that
the year 1957 was not only a peak but also the highest such peak
on record.
Cosmic noise Since distant stars are also suns and have high
temperatures, they radiate RF noise, in the same manner as our
sun, and what they lack in nearness they nearly make up in
numbers which in combination can become significant. The
noise received is called thermal (or blackbody) noise and is
distributed fairly uniformly over the entire sky. We also receive
noise from the center of our own galaxy (the Milky ~ Way),
from other galaxies, and from other virtual point sources such
as “quasars” and “pulsars.” This galactic noise is very intense,
but it comes from sources, which are only points in the sky.
Two of the strongest sources, which were also two of the
earliest discovered, are Cassiopeia A and Cygnus A. Note that it
is inadvisable to refer to the previous statements as “noise”
sources when talking with radio astronomers!
3.272 / 3A.272 / 3B.272
Man-Made Noise signals that is been send from the transmitter to the receiver of

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Man-made noise is somewhat obvious from its title and the communication system. I then explained you the types of
consists of any source of electrical noise resulting from a man- noise present in the communication system like internal noise
made device or system. Among the chief offenders in this and external noise. So after reading this lesson, I think you can
category are electric motors, automobile ignition systems, neon easily explain me the noise present in communication system
signs, and power lines. As one would likely suspect, the average which affects its performance.
level of man-made noise is significantly higher in urban areas
Notes
than in rural areas. This fact has led to the selection of certain
remote rural areas for the locations of many of the satellite
tracking stations and radio astronomy observatories. The power
spectrum of man-made noise decreases as the frequency
increases, but the exact frequency range at which it becomes
negligible is a function of its relative level. For example, in quite
remote locations, the noise level from man-made sources will
usually be below galactic noise in the frequency range from
about 10 MHz or so.
Industrial Noise
Between the frequencies of 1 to 600 MHz (in urban, suburban
and other industrial areas) the intensity of noise made by
humans easily outstrips that created by any other source,
internal or external to the receiver. Under this heading, sources
such as auto- mobile and aircraft ignition, electric motors and
switching equipment, leakage from high-voltage lines and a
multitude of other heavy electric machines are all included.
Fluorescent lights are another powerful source of such noise
and therefore should not be used where sensitive receiver
reception or testing is being conducted. The noise is produced
by the arc discharge present in all these operations, and under
these circum-stances it is not surprising that this noise should
be most intense in industrial and densely populated areas.
(Under certain conditions, industrial noise due to spark dis-
charge may even span oceans, as demonstrated by Marconi in
1901 at St. John’s, Newfoundland. )
The nature of industrial noise is so variable that it is difficult to
analyze it on any basis other than the statistical. It does,
however, obey the general principle that received noise increases
as the receiver bandwidth is increased
Interference
One can debate as to whether or not interference from other
communication sources should be classified as “noise.”
However, it produces many of the same interfering effects and
can thus be classified as noise as far as the desired signal is
concerned.
Summary Space noise is observable at frequencies in the range
from about 8 MHz to somewhat above 1.43 gigahertz (1.43
GHz), the latter frequency corresponding to the 21-cm hydro-
gen “line.” Apart from man-made noise it is the strongest
component over the range of about 20 to 120 MHz. Not very
much of it below 20 MHz penetrates down through the
ionosphere, while its eventual disappearance at frequencies in
excess of 1.5 GHz is probably governed by the mechanisms
generating it, and its absorption by hydrogen in interstellar
space.
Conclusion
We have studied the concepts of noise in this lesson. After that
we discussed various factors which effect the communication

© Copy Right: Rai University

3.272 / 3A.272 / 3B.272 11