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Lecture outline
In these lectures you will learn the following:
How to determine stability of a system represented as a transfer function
How to determine stability of a system represented in state-space form
How to design system parameters to yield stability
How to find the steady-state error for a unity feedback system
How to specify a systems steady-state error performance
How to find the steady-state error for nonunity feedback systems
How to find the steady-state error for systems represented in state-space form
How to design system parameters to meet steady-state error performance
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There is a method to test for stability without having to solve for the roots of the characteristic
polynomial: The Routh-Hurwitz criterion for stability.
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Routh-Hurwitz criterion for stability states that the number of roots of the characteristic polynomial
that are in the right half-plane is equal to the number of sign changes in the first column.
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Solution: We first form the Routh table as shown below. Note that, a row can be multiplied by a
positive constant without altering the stability conclusion. The system has two sign changes in the
first column. Thus, the system is unstable since two poles exist in the right half-plane. The
remaining third pole is in the left-half plane.
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1
2s5 + 3s4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 1
A zero appears in the first column at the s3 row. We simply replace the zero with a small quantity
(supposed to be positive) and continue the table. There are two sign changes in the first column and
the system is unstable with two poles exist in the right half-plane. The remaining 3 poles are in the
left half-plane.
Prof. K. Melhem (Qassim University)
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128
s8 + 3s7 + 10s6 + 24s5 + 48s4 + 96s3 + 128s2 + 192s + 128
Using the characteristic polynomial at the denominator, we form the Routh table as shown next.
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Solution First we find the closed-loop transfer function as T (s) = K/(s3 + 18s2 + 77s + K). Next we
form the Routh table, as shown below
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10
0
3
1
x
+
x =
8
1
0 u
2
0
10 5 2
y
[1 0 0]x
find out how many poles are in the LHP, in the RHP, and on the j-axis.
Solution The system poles are the eigenvalues of the system matrix A, which are
polynomial det(sI A). First, we form (sI A):
s 0 0
0
3
1
s
3
1
sI A =
8
1
1
= 2 s 8
0 s 0 2
0 0 s
10 5 2
10
5
s+2
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Solution First the closed-loop transfer function is T (s) = 200/(s4 + 6s3 + 11s2 + 6s + 200). We then form
the Routh table,
There are two sign changes in the first column. Thus, the system is unstable, since it has two RHP
poles, and two LHP poles. The system cannot have j-axis poles since a row of zeros did not appear
in the Routh table.
Prof. K. Melhem (Qassim University)
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20
s8 + s7 + 12s6 + 22s5 + 39s4 + 59s3 + 48s2 + 38s + 20
tell how many poles are in the right half-plane, in the left half-plane, on the j-axis.
Solution We use the denominator of the transfer function to form the Routh table as shown below.
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Step inputs represent constant-position inputs to a position control system. These waveforms
can be used to test the systems ability to track a constant position target such as an antenna
tracking a satellite in geostationary orbit.
Ramp inputs represent constant-velocity inputs to a position control system by their linearly
increasing amplitude. These waveforms can be used to test the systems ability to track a
constant velocity target such as an antenna that tracks a satellite moving in the sky at a
constant angular velocity.
Parabolas, whose second derivatives are constant, represent constant-acceleration inputs to
position control systems and can be used to represent accelerating targets, such as the missile
in figure above, to determine the steady-state error performance.
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In a number of important control applications, the reference input will not be one of the test
inputs but can be approximated by one of them for time span long enough for the system to
reach steady state. For example, when an antenna is tracking the elevation angle to a satellite ,
the time history as the satellite approaches overhead is the S-shaped curve shown in figure
above. This signal may be approximated by a ramp function for a large portion of the signal
and a step function for the remaining of the signal.
The general method to deal with reference input, which is not one of the test inputs is to
approximate the input as a polynomial in time and then consider the steady-state tracking
errors that result for polynomial of different degrees.
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Here, E(s) = L[e(t)] is the difference between the input R(s) = L[r(t)] and the output C(s) = L[c(t)].
Steady-state error is the error e(t) as time approaches infinity, that is
e() = lim e(t).
t
In the case of negative unity feedback system, E(s) giving the steady-state error is also the so-called
the actuating signal. Because determination of system type is easiest, this configuration is used to
specify steady-state error characteristics of control systems. A system which is not in such a
configuration can always be transformed into it, provided that output and input have the same unit.
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We have,
E(s) = R(s) C(s)
But,
C(s) = R(s)T (s)
Then,
E(s) = R(s)[1 T (s)]
Applying the final value theorem to the relationship above, we get the steady-state error as
e() = lim e(t) = lim sE(s) = lim sR(s)[1 T (s)]
t
s0
s0
Here, the final-value theorem is valid only if (1) E(s) has poles only in the left half-plane and at the
origin, and (2) the system is stable.
Prof. K. Melhem (Qassim University)
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sk+1
If k = 0, the input is a step function of unit amplitude; if k = 1, the input is a ramp function with a
unit slope; if k = 2, the input is a parabola with a unit second derivative, and so on.
With the polynomial reference input, the steady-state error is
e() = lim sR(s)[1 T (s)] = lim s
s0
s0
1 T (s)
s0
sk
[1 T (s)] = lim
k+1
Before continuing evaluation of the steady-state error, let us define the system type. For this,
assume the closed-loop transfer function given as
bm sm + bm1 sm1 + . . . + b2 s2 + b1 s + b0
T (s) =
,
sn + an1 sn1 + . . . + a2 s2 + a1 s + a0
mn
where denominator parameters ai s are to be all nonzero and of the same sign. Those are necessary
conditions for the system to be stable.
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We have,
E(s) = R(s) C(s)
But,
C(s) = E(s)G(s)
Then,
E(s) =
R(s)
1 + G(s)
Applying the final value theorem to the relationship above, we get the steady-state error as
sR(s)
s0 1 + G(s)
e() = lim
Now, let us use test signals to establish specifications for a control systems steady-state error
characteristics.
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e() = lim
Step input: Using R(s) = 1/s, we find that
e() = estep () =
1
1 + lims0 G(s)
1
1 + Kp
1
lims0 sG(s)
1
Kv
1
1
=
lims0 s2 G(s)
Ka
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K(s + z1 )(s + z2 )
where n = 0, 1, 2,
sn (s + p1 )(s + p2 )
n is the number of pure integrations in G(s). Similarly, the value of n determines the so-called system
type. For example, a system with n = 0 is Type 0 system, with n = 1 is Type 1 system, and so on.
Step input:
estep () =
1
1 + lims0 G(s)
1
1 + Kp
In order to have zero steady-state error for the step input, K p = lims0 G(s) = . Thus, G(s) should
have at least one pure integration (i.e., n 1 or at least Type 1 system).
Ramp input:
1
1
lims0 sG(s)
Kv
In order to have zero steady-state error for the ramp input, Kv = lims0 sG(s) = . Thus, G(s) should
have at least two pure integrations (i.e., n 2 or at least Type 2 system).
eramp () =
Parabolic input:
e parabola () =
1
1
=
lims0 s2 G(s)
Ka
In order to have zero steady-state error for the parabola input, Ka = lims0 s2 G(s) = . Thus, G(s)
should have at least three pure integrations (i.e., n 3 or at least Type 3 system).
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As the type number is increased, accuracy is improved; however, increasing the type number
(by adding integrators to the feedforward path) aggravates the relative stability problem. A
compromise between steady-state accuracy and relative stability is always necessary.
Prof. K. Melhem (Qassim University)
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Solution Since the system is Type 1, the error stated in the problem must apply to a ramp input;
only a ramp yields a finite nonzero error in a Type 1 system. Thus,
e() =
1
= 0.1
Kv
Therefore,
Kv = 10 = lim sG(s) =
s0
which yields
K 5
678
K = 672
Applying the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, we see that the system is stable at this gain.
Prof. K. Melhem (Qassim University)
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A general feedback system is typically as shown in the figure above, in which G1 (s) is the input
transducer, G2 (s) is the controller with the plant, and H1 (s) is the feedback. It can be converted into
a unity feedback system either by an analytic method or geometrically by moving some of the
system blocks past the summing junction and pickoff points.
Prof. K. Melhem (Qassim University)
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G(s)
1 + G(s)H(s) G(s)
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Solution First we convert to unity feedback system. The equivalent forward transfer function is
Ge (s) =
100(s + 5)
G(s)
= 3
1 + G(s)H(s) G(s)
s + 15s2 50s 400
Since the system is Type 0, the appropriate static error constant is K p whose value is given as
K p = lim s 0Ge (s) =
The steady-state error e() is then
e() =
5
100 5
=
400
4
1
1
=
= 4
1 + Kp
1 5/4
The negative value for steady-state error implies that the output step is larger than the input step.
Prof. K. Melhem (Qassim University)
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Ax + Br
Cx
We know that E(s) = R(s) Y (s) = R(s)[1 T (s)], where T (s) is the closed-loop transfer function.
Using the relationship between T (s) and the elements of the state-space form, we have
E(s) = R(s)[1 C(sI A)1 B]
Applying the final value theorem, we have
e() = lim sE(s) = lim sR(s)[1 C(sI A)1 B]
s0
s0
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0
5
1
0
;
B
=
A=
2 1
0 ; C = [1 1 0]
0
1
20 10 1
Solution The steady-state error is given as
e()
=
=
lim sR(s) 1
s+4
s0
s3 + 6s2 + 13s + 20
3
s + 6s2 + 12s + 16
lim sR(s) 3
s0
s + 6s2 + 13s + 20
For a unit step, R(s) = 1/s, and e() = 4/5. For a unit ramp, R(s) = 1/s2 , and e() = . Notice that
the system behaves like a Type 0 system.
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1000(s + 8)
(s + 7)(s + 9)
G(s)
1000(s + 8)
1000(s + 8)
=
= 2
1 + G(s)
(s + 9)(s + 7) + 1000(s + 8) s + 1016s + 8063
b.
1000 8
= 127, Kv = lim sG(s) = 0, Ka = lim s2 G(s) = 0
s0
s0
79
estep ()
eramp ()
eparabola ()
1
= 7.8e 03
1 + 127
1 + lims0 G(s)
1
1
= =
lims0 sG(s)
0
1
1
=
=
lims0 s2 G(s)
0
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ea () = lim
where G(s) = 100/(s(s + 10)) and H(s) = 1/(s + 5).
For a unit step input, R(s) = 1/s and the corresponding steady-state actuating signal is
ea () = lim
s0
s( 1s )
100
1
1 + ( s(s+10)
)( s+5
)
=0
Note that steady-state actuating signal is used rather than the steady-state error in case when input
and output units are not the same.
Prof. K. Melhem (Qassim University)
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K(s + )
s(s + )
is to be designed to meet the following requirements: The steady-state error for a unit ramp input
equals 1/10; the closed-loop poles will be located at 1 j1. Find K, , and in order to meet the
specifications.
Solution The closed-loop transfer function is
T (s) =
K(s + )
G(s)
= 2
1 + G(s)
s + (K + )s + K
Hence, K + = 2, K = 2n = (12 + 12 ) = 2.
Also,
e() =
= 0.1
=
Kv
K
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K
sn (s + a)
find the value of n, K, and a in order to meet specifications of 10% overshoot and Kv = 100.
Solution Kv is constant means that system type is n = 1. The closed-loop transfer function is
T (s) =
K
G(s)
= 2
1 + G(s)
s + as + K
2n
= K. Hence, a = 1.2 K.
But a = K/100. Solving simultaneously gives K = 1.44 104 and a = 1.44 102 .
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Solution
System 1: Forming a unity feedback system, the equivalent forward transfer function is
Prof. K. Melhem (Qassim University)
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10(s+10)
s(s+2)
10(s+10)(s+3)
s(s+2)
1+
10(s + 10)
11s2 + 132s + 300
a. Type 0 system; b. K p = lims0 Ge (s) = 1/3; c. step input; d. e() = 1/(1 + K p ) = 3/4. e.
s( 1s )
sR(s)
=0
eastep () = lim
= lim
s0 1 + G(s)H(s)
s0 1 + 10(s+10)(s+4)
s(s+2)
System 2: Forming a unity feedback system, the equivalent forward transfer function is
Ge (s) =
10(s+10)
s(s+2)
1 + 10(s+10)s
s(s+2)
10(s + 10)
s(11s + 102)
a. Type 1 system; b. Kv = lims0 sGe (s) = 0.98; c. ramp input; d. e() = 1/Kv = 1.02. e.
s( s12 )
sR(s)
1
= lim
=
eastep () = lim
s0 1 + G(s)H(s)
s0 1 + 10(s+10)(s+1)
50
s(s+2)
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Suggested problems
Students are suggested to solve the following problems of the textbook:
E 4.3, E 4.4, E 4.12, P 4.10, E 6.1, E 6.6, E 6.15, E 6.17, E 6.22, E 6.24,
P 6.10, P 6.11
Students are encouraged to solve the assigned problems in hand before seeking help
from classmates or the teacher. Subsequently, the accompanying solutions can be
checked for confirmation.
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