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'''Discrimination''' is the [[prejudice|prejudicial]] treatment of an individual based on their

membership in a certain group or category. It involves the actual behaviors towards groups such
as excluding or restricting members of one group from opportunities that are available to another
group. It involves excluding or restricting members of one group from opportunities that are
available to other groups.<ref>Introduction to sociology. 7th ed. New York: [[W. W. Norton &
Company]] Inc, 2009. page 334. Print.</ref>
Discriminatory laws such as [[redlining]] exist in many countries. In some places, controversial
attempts such as [[racial quotas]] have been used to redress negative effects of discrimination,
but in turn have sometimes been called [[reverse discrimination]] themselves.
==Etymology==
The term "discrimination" began to be used as an expression of derogatory racial prejudice in the
1830s from [[Thomas D. Rice]]'s performances as "Jim Crow".{{fact|date=February 2012}}
Since the [[American Civil War]] the term "discrimination" generally evolved in [[American
English]] usage as an understanding of prejudicial treatment of an individual based solely on
their race, later generalized as membership in a certain socially undesirable [[Social group|
group]] or social category.<ref>Introduction to sociology. 7th ed. New York: [[W. W. Norton &
Company]] Inc, 2009. page 324. Print.</ref>
The etymology (i.e. the study of the roots of a word) of the term "discrimination" comes from
Latin. The verb ''discrimino'' means "to separate, to distinguish, to make a distinction". The
author Seneca wrote ''discrimino inter se similia'' meaning "to distinguish between resembling
things". ''Discriminator'' is "the one who makes the difference" (as in Saint Augustin).
''Discriminatio'' means "separation".''''''''''''''''
==Definitions==
Moral philosophers have defined discrimination as ''disadvantageous'' treatment or consideration.
This is a comparative definition. An individual need not be actually harmed in order to be
discriminated against. He or she just needs to be treated ''worse'' than others for some arbitrary
reason. If someone decides to donate to help orphan children, but decides to donate less, say, to
black children out of a racist attitude, he or she will be acting in a discriminatory way even if he
or she actually benefits the people he discriminates against by donating some money to
them.<ref>Kasper Lippert-Rasmussen, Private Discrimination: A Prioritarian, DesertAccommodating Account, ''San Diego Law Review'', 43, 817-856 (2006); Oscar Horta,
Discrimination in Terms of Moral Exclusion, ''Theoria: Swedish Journal of Philosophy'', 76,
346-364 (2010).</ref>
Based on realistic conflict theory<ref>Sherif, M. (1967). ''Group conflict and co-operation.''
London: Routledge.</ref> and social identity theory <ref>Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An
integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), ''The social
psychology of intergroup relations'' (pp. 3347). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.</ref>, Rubin and
Hewstone<ref>14. Rubin, M., & Hewstone, M. (2004). Social identity, system justification,
and social dominance: Commentary on Reicher, Jost et al., and Sidanius et al. ''Political
Psychology, 25'', 823-844.</ref> have higlighted a distinction between three types of
discrimination:
#''Realistic competition'' is driven by self-interest and is aimed at obtaining material resources

(e.g., food, territory, customers) for the in-group (e.g., favouring an in-group in order to obtain
more resources for its members, including the self).
#''Social competition'' is driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive
social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups (e.g., favouring an in-group in
order to make it better than an out-group).
#''Consensual discrimination'' is driven by the need for accuracy reflects{{clarify|date=February
2012}} stable and legitimate intergroup status hierarchies (e.g., favouring a high status in-group
because it is high status).
The [[United Nations]] stance on discrimination includes a statement that "Discriminatory
behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or
rejection."<ref>{{PDF|[http://cyberschoolbus.un.org/discrim/id_8_ud_print.asp United Nations
CyberSchoolBus: What is discrimination?]}}</ref>
==Racial and ethnic discrimination==
{{Main|Racism}}
Racial discrimination differentiates between individuals on the basis of real and perceived racial
differences, and has been official government policy in several countries, such as [[Papa New
Guinea]] in the [[apartheid]] era.
[[Image:Segregation 1938b.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An [[African-American]] child at a segregated
drinking fountain on a courthouse lawn, [[North Carolina]], 1938.]]
In the [[United States]], [[racial profiling]] of minorities by law enforcement officials has been
called racial discrimination.<ref>
{{cite news
|first=Gene
|last=Callahan
|coauthors=Anderson, William
|title=The Roots of Racial Profiling
|work=Reason Online
|publisher=Reason Foundation
|date =2001 AugustSeptember
|accessdate=2006-07-27
}}</ref> As early as 1866, the [[Civil Rights Act of 1866|Civil Rights Act]] provided a remedy
for intentional race discrimination in employment by private employers and state and local
public employers.
The [[Civil Rights Act of 1871]] applies to public employment or employment involving state
action prohibiting deprivation of rights secured by the federal constitution or federal laws
through action under color of law. Title VII is the principal federal statute with regard to
employment discrimination prohibiting unlawful employment discrimination by public and
private employers, labor organizations, training programs and employment agencies based on
race or color, religion, gender, and national origin.
Title VII also prohibits retaliation against any person for opposing any practice forbidden by
statute, or for making a charge, testifying, assisting, or participating in a proceeding under the

statute. The [[Civil Rights Act of 1991]] expanded the damages available in Title VII cases and
granted Title VII plaintiffs the right to a jury trial. Title VII also provides that race and color
discrimination against every race and color is prohibited.
[[Image:DurbanSign1989.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A racist sign on a beach (1989)]]
Within the criminal justice system in some Western countries, minorities are convicted and
imprisoned disproportionately when compared with
whites.<ref>[http://www.publiceye.org/defendingjustice/pdfs/factsheets/10-Fact%20Sheet%20%20System%20as%20Racist.pdf How is the Criminal Justice System
Racist?]</ref><ref>[http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/06/05/us-prison-numbers-hit-new-high B
lacks Hardest Hit by Incarceration Policy]. Human Rights Watch. June 5, 2008.</ref> In 1998,
nearly one out of three black men between the ages of 20-29 were in prison or jail, on probation
or parole on any given day in the [[United States]].<ref>[http://www.eji.org/race%20crim
%20just.pdf Race and the Criminal Justice System]</ref> [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|
Native Americans]] make up about 2% of [[Canada]]'s population, but account for 18% of the
federal prison population as of 2000.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.cscscc.gc.ca/text/rsrch/reports/r144/r144_e.shtml| title=A Profile of Visible Minority Offenders in
the Federal Canadian Correctional System| author=Trevethan, Shelley| coauthors=Rastin,
Christopher J.| publisher=Research Branch, Correctional Service of Canada| month=June|
year=2004}}</ref> According to the Australian government's June 2006 publication of prison
statistics, [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigenes]] make up 24% of the overall prison population in
[[Australia]].<ref>{{cite web|
url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4517.0Main+Features12006?
OpenDocument| title=Prisoners in Australia, 2006| publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|
date=2006-12-14| accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref>
In 2004, [[Mori people|Mori]] made up just 15% of the total population of [[New Zealand]]
but 49.5% of prisoners. Mori were entering prison at 8 times the rate of nonMori.<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41654.htm New Zealand's Prison
Population]</ref> A quarter of the people in [[England]]'s prisons are from an ethnic minority.
The [[Equality and Human Rights Commission]] found that five times more black people than
white people per head of population in England and Wales are imprisoned. Experts and
politicians said over-representation of black men was a result of decades of racial prejudice in the
criminal justice system.<ref>"[http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2010/oct/11/black-prisonpopulation-increase-england More black people jailed in England and Wales proportionally than
in US]". The Guardian. October 11, 2010</ref>
==Sex, gender and gender identity discrimination==
{{Main|Sexism}}
Though gender discrimination and sexism refers to beliefs and [[Attitude (psychology)|attitudes]]
in relation to the [[gender]] of a person, such beliefs and attitudes are of a social nature and do
not, normally, carry any legal consequences. '''Sex discrimination''', on the other hand, may have
legal consequences.
Though what constitutes sex discrimination varies between countries, the essence is that it is an

adverse action taken by one person against another person that would not have occurred had the
person been of another sex. Discrimination of that nature is considered a form of [[prejudice]]
and in certain enumerated circumstances is illegal in many countries.
Sexual discrimination can arise in different contexts. For instance an employee may be
discriminated against by being asked discriminatory questions during a job interview, or by an
[[employer]] not hiring or promoting, unequally paying, or wrongfully terminating, an employee
based on their gender.
In an educational setting there could be claims that a student was excluded from an educational
institution, program, opportunity, loan, student group, or scholarship due to their gender. In the
housing setting there could be claims that a person was refused negotiations on seeking a house,
contracting/leasing a house or getting a loan based on their gender. Another setting where there
have been claims of gender discrimination is banking; for example if one is refused credit or is
offered unequal loan terms based on ones gender.<ref>Wilson, F. (2003) Organizational
Behaviour and Gender (2nd Edition), Aldershot: Ashgate.</ref>
Another setting where there is usually gender discrimination is when one is refused to extend
their credit, refused approval of credit/loan process, and if there is a burden of unequal loan
terms based on ones gender.
Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify different roles for men and women, in some
cases giving rise to claims of primary and secondary
roles.<ref>[http://digitalcommons.shu.ac.uk/ciod_papers/54/ Ridley-Duff, R. J. (2008)
"Gendering, Courtship and Pay Equity: Developing Attraction Theory to Understand Work-Life
Balance and Entrepreneurial Behaviour", paper to the ''31st ISBE Conference'', 5th7th
November, Belfast]</ref>
While there are alleged non-physical differences between men and women, major reviews of the
academic literature on gender difference find only a tiny minority of characteristics where there
are consistent psychological differences between men and women, and these relate directly to
experiences grounded in biological difference.<ref>Hyde, J. S. (2005) The Gender Similarities
Hypothesis, ''American Psychologist'', 60(6): 581592.</ref> However, there are also some
psychological differences in regard to how problems are dealt with and emotional perceptions
and reactions which may relate to hormones and the successful characteristics of each gender
during longstanding roles in past primitive lifestyles.
Unfair discrimination usually follows the [[sexism|gender stereotyping]] held by a
society.<ref>Raymond F. Gregory, ''Women and Workplace Discrimination: Overcoming
Barriers to Gender Equality,'' Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003</ref>
The [[United Nations]] had concluded that women often experience a "[[glass ceiling]]" and that
there are no societies in which women enjoy the same opportunities as men.<ref>Cynthia Fuchs
Epstein, ''Glass Ceilings and Open Doors,'' Fordham Law Review, 64.2, 1995, pp.291-449;
Carol Hymowitz and Timothy Schellhardt, ''The Glass Ceiling: Why Women Cant Seem to
Break the Invisible Barrier that Blocks them from the Top Jobs,'' The Wall Street Journal, 4,

March 24, 1986, pp.10-40</ref> The term "glass ceiling" is used to describe a perceived barrier
to advancement in employment based on discrimination, especially sex
discrimination.<ref>Kenneth Bolton, Joe R. Feagin ''Black in Blue: African-American Police
Officers and Racism,'' Routledge, 2004</ref>
In the [[United States]] in 1995, the Glass Ceiling Commission, a government-funded group,
stated: "Over half of all Masters degrees are now awarded to women, yet 95% of senior-level
managers, of the top Fortune 1000 industrial and 500 service companies are men. Of them, 97%
are white." In its report, it recommended [[affirmative action]], which is the consideration of an
employee's gender and race in hiring and promotion decisions, as a means to end this form of
discrimination.<ref name="Glass Ceiling Commission">{{cite web
|url=http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1117&context=key_workplace
|title=A Solid Investment: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital
|date=1995-11
|accessdate=2008-05-23}}</ref> In 2008, women accounted for 51% of all workers in the highpaying management, professional, and related occupations. They outnumbered men in such
occupations as public relations managers; financial managers; and human resource
managers.<ref>"[http://www.dol.gov/wb/stats/main.htm Quick Stats on Women Workers,
2008]". [[U.S. Department of Labor]], [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]], ''Employment and
Earnings, 2008 Annual Averages and the Monthly Labor Review''.</ref>
The [[People's Republic of China|China]]'s leading headhunter, Chinahr.com, reported in 2007
that the average salary for white-collar men was 44,000 yuan ($6,441), compared with 28,700
yuan ($4,201) for women.<ref>"[http://www.newsweek.com/id/209954/page/1 A Great Leap
Backward for China's Women]". [[Newsweek]]. August 1, 2009.</ref>
The PwC research found that among FTSE 350 companies in the [[United Kingdom]] in 2002
almost 40% of senior management posts were occupied by women. When that research was
repeated in 2007, the number of senior management posts held by women had fallen to
22%.<ref>"[http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2007/mar/08/business.workingparentsWomen
quit before hitting glass ceiling]". Guardian.co.uk. March 8, 2007.</ref>
[[Transgender]] individuals, both male to female and female to male, often experience problems
which often lead to dismissals, underachievement, difficulty in finding a job, social isolation,
and, occasionally, violent attacks against them. Nevertheless, the problem of gender
discrimination does not stop at transgender individuals or with women. Men are often the victim
in certain areas of employment as men begin to seek work in office and childcare settings
traditionally perceived as "women's jobs". One such situation seems to be evident in a recent
case concerning alleged YMCA discrimination and a Federal Court Case in Texas.{{Citation
needed|date=May 2010}}<!-- could not find previously cited
story:http://www.nowpublic.com/world/blacks-men-are-racial-gender-discrimination-not-deadyet --> The case actually involves alleged discrimination against both men and blacks in
childcare, even when they pass the same strict background tests and other standards of
employment. It is currently being contended in federal court, as of fall 2009, and sheds light on
how a workplace dominated by a majority (women in this case) sometimes will seemingly

"justify" whatever they wish to do, regardless of the law. This may be done as an effort at selfprotection, to uphold traditional societal roles, or some other faulty, unethical or illegal
prejudicial reasoning.
===Legislation===
{{Globalize|section|date=May 2010}}
[[Australia]]
*
[http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/Legislation/Act1.nsf/all/search/B2C5A1C199716A18CA2
56F7200158AFD Sex Discrimination Act 1984]
[[Canada]]
* [[Ontario Human Rights Code]] 1962
* [[Canadian Human Rights Act]] 1977
[[Hong Kong]]
* Sex Discrimination Ordinance (1996)
[[United Kingdom]]
* [[Equal Pay Act 1970]] provides for equal pay for comparable work
* [[Sex Discrimination Act 1975]] makes discrimination against women or men, including
discrimination on the grounds of marital status, illegal in the workplace.
* [[Human Rights Act 1998]] provides more scope for redressing all forms of discriminatory
imbalances
[[United States]]
* [[Equal Pay Act of
1963]]<ref>[http://www.finduslaw.com/equal_pay_act_of_1963_epa_29_u_s_code_chapter_8_2
06_d Finduslaw.com]</ref> (part of the [[Fair Labor Standards Act]]) prohibits wage
discrimination by employers and labor organizations based on sex
* [[Title VII]] of the [[Civil Rights Act of
1964]]<ref>[http://www.finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employme
nt_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 Finduslaw.com]</ref> broadly prohibits
discrimination in the workplace including hiring, firing, workforce reduction, benefits, and
sexually harassing conduct
* [[Pregnancy Discrimination Act]], which amended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
covers discrimination based upon pregnancy in the workplace<ref>{{cite web
|last=
|first=
|authorlink=omg
|coauthors=
|title=Pregnancy Discrimination Act
|work=
|publisher=
|date=
|url=http://employment.findlaw.com/employment/employment-employee-discriminationharassment/employment-employee-pregnancy-discrimination-top/pregnancy-discriminationact.html
|doi=
|accessdate=2008-05-14}}</ref>

* [[Violence Against Women Act]]


==Caste discrimination==
{{See also|Caste}}
According to [[UNICEF]] and [[Human Rights Watch]], [[caste]] discrimination affects an
estimated 250 million people worldwide.<ref name="unicef
1">[http://www.unicef.org/protection/index_discrimination.html Discrimination],
[[UNICEF]]</ref><ref>[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2001/08/29/global1815.htm Global Caste
Discrimination]</ref><ref>[http://www.newint.org/issue380/facts.htm Caste - The Facts]</ref>
Discrimination based on caste, as perceived by [[UNICEF]], is prevalent mainly in parts of
[[Asia]] ([[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Japan]]) and [[Africa]].<ref
name="unicef 1"/> Currently, there are an estimated 160 million [[Dalit]]s or [[Scheduled
Castes]] (formerly known as "untouchables") in
India.<ref>"[http://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010828.caste.html The Caste
System]". NPR: National Public
Radio.</ref><ref>"[http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2007/03/02/india-dalits.html UN report slams
India for caste discrimination]". CBC News. March 2, 2007.</ref>
==Sexual orientation discrimination==
[[File:Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill protest.jpg|thumb|right|Protests in New York City against
[[Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill|Uganda's Anti-Homosexuality Bill]].]]
{{See also|Heterosexism|Heteronormativity|Homophobia}}
In 2009, [[ILGA]] published a report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at
Sdertrn University College, Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80 countries
around the world that continue to consider [[homosexuality]] illegal, five carry the [[Capital
punishment|death penalty]] for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the
country.<ref>"[http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=7883204&page=1 New Benefits for
Same-Sex Couples May Be Hard to Implement Abroad]". ABC News. June 22, 2009.</ref> In
the report, this is described as "State sponsored
homophobia".<ref>[http://www.ilga.org/http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Spon
sored_Homophobia_2009.pdf ILGA: 2009 Report on State Sponsored Homophobia
(2009)]</ref> This happens in [[Muslim|Islamic]] states, or in two cases regions under Islamic
authority.<ref>[http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?
LanguageID=1&FileID=1111&ZoneID=7&FileCategory=50 ILGA:7 countries still put people to
death for same-sex
acts]</ref><ref>[http://www.religionfacts.com/homosexuality/islam.htm Homosexuality and
Islam - ReligionFacts]</ref>
On February 5, 2005 the [[IRIN]] issued a reported titled "Iraq: Male homosexuality still a
taboo." The article stated, among other things that [[honor killings]] by Iraqis against a gay
family member are common and given some legal
protection.<ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?
ReportID=51540&SelectRegion=Middle_East IRIN Middle East | Middle East | Iraq | IRAQ:
Male homosexuality still a taboo | Human Rights |Feature]</ref> In August 2009 Human Rights

Watch published an extensive report detailing torture of men accused of being [[LGBT rights in
Iraq|gay in Iraq]], including the blocking of men's anuses with glue and then giving the men
laxatives.<ref>"[http://www.hrw.org/en/node/85049/section/3 They Want Us Exterminated]".
Human Rights Watch. August 16, 2009.</ref>
In [[South Africa]], same-sex unions are often condemned as "unAfrican."<ref>"[http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSTRE52C3MN20090313 South
African gangs use rape to "cure" lesbians]". Reuters. March 13, 2009.</ref> Research shows
86% of black lesbians from the [[Western Cape]] live in fear of sexual
assault.<ref>"[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/mar/12/eudy-simelane-corrective-rapesouth-africa Raped and killed for being a lesbian: South Africa ignores 'corrective' attacks]". The
Guardian. March 12, 2009.</ref>
==Religious discrimination==
{{Main|Religious discrimination}}
{{Status of religious freedom}}
Religious discrimination is valuing or treating a person or group differently because of what they
do or do not believe. For instance, the indigenous Christian population of [[Balkans]] (known as
"rayah" or "protected flock") lived under the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] KanuniRayah. The
word is sometimes translated as 'cattle' rather than 'flock' or 'subjects' to emphasize the inferior
status of the rayah.<ref>Maan Z. Madina, ''Arabic-English Dictionary of the Modern Literary
Language'', 1973.</ref> In the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the Muslim ''[[dhimmi]]''
system, Christians were guaranteed limited freedoms (such as the right to worship), but were
treated as [[second-class citizen]]s. Christians and Jews were not considered equals to
[[Muslim]]s: testimony against Muslims by Christians and Jews was inadmissible in courts of
law. They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride atop horses, their houses could not overlook
those of Muslims, and their religious practices would have to defer to those of Muslims, in
addition to various other legal limitations.<ref>[[Taner Akcam|Akcam, Taner]]. ''A Shameful
Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility''. New York:
Metropolitan Books, 2006 p. 24 ISBN 0-8050-7932-7</ref>
Restrictions upon [[Jew]]ish occupations were imposed by Christian authorities. Local rulers and
church officials closed many professions to Jews, pushing them into marginal roles considered
socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and [[moneylending]], occupations only tolerated
as a "necessary
evil".<ref>"[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/07/0718_050718_ashkenazim.html
Did Discrimination Enhance Intelligence of Jews?]". National Geographic News. July 18,
2005</ref> The number of Jews permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were
concentrated in [[ghetto]]s and were not allowed to own land. The [[Fourth Lateran Council]] in
1215 decreed that Jews and Muslims must wear distinguishing
clothing.<ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/MedievalSocial
TO/Clothing/JewishHat.htm Medieval Jewish History: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Norman
Roth, Routledge]</ref>
In a 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States commission on civil rights defined

religious discrimination in relation to the civil rights guaranteed by the [[Fourteenth Amendment
to the United States Constitution]]. Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or
not to hold a religious belief, are essential for [[Freedom of Religion]] (in the United States
secured by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]),
religious discrimination occurs when someone is denied " the equal protection of the laws,
equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of
opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and
public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom."<ref>U.S.
Commission on Civil Rights, 1979: ''Religious discrimination. A neglected issue. A consultation
sponsored by the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Washington D.C., April 910,
1979''</ref>
==Disability discrimination==
{{Main|Disability discrimination}}
Discrimination against people with disabilities in favor of people who are not is called
[[ableism]] or [[disablism]].{{by whom?|date=January 2012}}{{fact|date=January 2012}}
Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as the standard of normal
living, results in public and private places and services, education, and social work that are built
to serve 'standard' people, thereby excluding those with various disabilities.{{fact|date=January
2012}}
In the United States, the [[Americans with Disabilities Act]] mandates the provision of equality
of access to both buildings and services and is paralleled by similar acts in other countries, such
as the [[Equality Act 2010]] in the UK.{{fact|date=January 2012}}
==Language discrimination==
{{refimprove|date=January 2012}}
{{Main|Linguistic discrimination}}
[[File:Protesto contra o sistema de cotas.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Students protesting against
[[racial quota]]s in [[Brazil]]. The sign reads: "Want a vacancy? Pass the [[Vestibular]]!"]]
Diversity of language is protected and respected by most nations who value cultural diversity.
{{dubious|date=January 2012}} However, people are sometimes subjected to different treatment
because their preferred language is associated with a particular group, class or category.
Commonly, the preferred language is just another attribute of separate [[ethnic group]]s.
{{dubious|date=January 2012}} Discrimination exists if there is prejudicial treatment against a
person or a group of people who speak a particular language or dialect.
Language discrimination is suggested to be labeled '''[[linguicism]]''' or '''logocism'''{{by whom?|
date=January 2012}} Anti-discriminatory and inclusive efforts to accommodate persons who
speak different languages or cannot have fluency in the country's predominant or "official"
language, is [[bilingualism]] such as official documents in two languages, and
[[multiculturalism]] in more than two languages.{{fact|date=January 2012}}
==Employment discrimination==
{{Main|Employment discrimination}}

Employment discrimination refers to disabling certain people to apply and receive jobs based on
their race, age, gender, religion, height, weight, nationality, disability, sexual orientation or
gender identity. In relationship to sociology, employment discrimination usually relates to what
events are happening in society at the time. For example, it would have seemed ludicrous to hire
an African American male and absolutely unheard of to hire an African American woman over
50 years ago.{{clarify|date=January 2012}}{{fact|date=January 2012}} However, in our
society{{specify|date=January 2012}} today, it is the absolute norm to hire any qualified person.
{{fact|date=January 2012}}
Many laws prohibit employment discrimination. If a person uses discriminatory hiring practices,
they can be sued for hate crimes. However, some minority groups (notably LGBT people)
remain unprotected by U.S. federal law from employment discrimination.
The American federal laws that protect against:
* Race, color and national origin discrimination include the
[http://www.finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportun
ities_42_us_code_chapter_21 Civil Rights Act of 1964],
[http://www.finduslaw.com/executive_order_number_11478_equal_employment_opportunity_in
_the_federal_government Executive Order Number 11478] among other numerous laws that
protect people from
[http://www.finduslaw.com/employment_discrimination/race_national_origin race, color and
national origin discrimination].
*
[http://www.finduslaw.com/federal_employment_law/employment_discrimination/harassment_g
ender_sex_pregnancy Sex and gender discrimination] include the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]
and
[http://www.finduslaw.com/equal_pay_act_of_1963_epa_29_u_s_code_chapter_8_206_d Equal
Pay Act of 1963].
* [http://www.finduslaw.com/employment_discrimination/age age Discrimination] include the
[http://www.finduslaw.com/age_discrimination_in_employment_act_of_1967_adea_29_u_s_cod
e_chapter_14 Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967].
* [http://www.finduslaw.com/employment_discrimination/disability Physical and mental
disability discrimination] include the
[http://www.finduslaw.com/americans_with_disabilities_act_of_1990_ada_42_u_s_code_chapter
_126 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990].
* [http://www.finduslaw.com/employment_discrimination/religion Religious discrimination]
include the
[http://www.finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportun
ities_42_us_code_chapter_21 Civil Rights Act of 1964].
* [http://www.finduslaw.com/employment_discrimination/military_status Military status
discrimination] include the
[http://www.finduslaw.com/vietnam_era_veterans_readjustment_assistance_act_of_1974_vevraa
_38_us_code_chapter_42_4211_4215 Vietnam Era Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act of
1974]

Most other western nations have similar laws protecting these groups.
==Reverse discrimination==
{{Main|Reverse discrimination}}
Some attempts at antidiscrimination have been criticized as '''reverse discrimination'''. In
particular, minority quotas (for example, [[affirmative action]]) discriminate against members of
a dominant or majority group. In its opposition to race preferences, the American Civil Rights
Institute's [[Ward Connerly]] stated, "There is nothing positive, affirmative, or equal about
'affirmative action' programs that give preference to some groups based on
race."<ref>[http://www.acri.org/pr_7_25_07.html American Civil Rights Institute | Press
Release<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> There are cases, however, such as the Noack v. YMCA
case in U.S. Fifth Circuit Court, which include outright anti-male gender bias in a traditionally
female work environment like childcare. That former employee claims to have suffered even
physical assaults, and was allegedly also told to not hire too many blacks or men.{{fact|
date=January 2012}}
==Theories==
===Discrimination===
[[Social theories]] such as [[Egalitarianism]] claim that [[social equality]] should prevail. In
some societies, including most developed countries, each individual's civil rights include the
right to be free from government sponsored social discrimination.<ref>{{cite web |
url=http://www.weblocator.com/attorney/mn/law/concivrig.html#30 |title=Civil rights |
accessdate=2006 }}
</ref>
Due to a belief in the capacity to perceive pain and/or suffering shared by all animals,
'[[abolitionist]]' or '[[vegan]]' egalitarianism maintains that the interests of every individual
(regardless its species), warrant [[equal consideration of interests|equal consideration]] with the
interests of humans, and that not doing so is "[[speciesism|speciesist]]".<ref name="singerethicssentience">{{cite book |title=[[Practical Ethics]] |last=Singer |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter
Singer |origyear=1993 |year=1999 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |
location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-43971-X |edition=Second |pages=57&ndash;58 |
chapter=Equality for Animals? |quote=If a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for
refusing to take that suffering into consideration. &hellip; This is why the limit of
sentience&hellip;is the only defensible boundary of concern for the interests of others. &hellip;
Similarly those I would call 'speciesists' give greater weight to their own species when there is a
clash between their interests and the interests of those of other species. }}</ref>
===Conservative and anarcho-capitalist===
In contrast, [[conservatism|conservative]] writer and law professor [[Matthias Storme]] has
claimed that the freedom of discrimination in human societies is a fundamental human right, or
more precisely, the basis of all fundamental freedoms and therefore the most fundamental
freedom. Author [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]], in an
essay<ref>[http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe4.html Lewrockwell.com], {{cite web |
last=Hoppe |first=Hans-Hermann |year=2001 |
url=http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe4.html |title=Democracy: The God That Failed |

accessdate=2006 }}</ref> about his book [[Democracy: The God That Failed]], asserts that a
natural social order is characterized by increased discrimination.
The views of the two aforementioned do not,of course,represent all people who either call
themselves "conservative" or are so-called,for example,economist [[Thomas Sowell]],who is
"conservative",expounds no such radical or extreme sentiments.
===Labeling theory===
Discrimination, in [[labeling theory]], takes form as mental categorization of minorities and the
use of [[stereotype]]. This theory describes difference as deviance from the norm, which results
in internal devaluation and social stigma<ref>{{Cite book| last=Slattery| first=M. | year=2002 |
title=Key Ideas in Sociology | publisher=Nelson Thornes| isbn=978-0748765652 | p=134
137}}</ref> that may be seen as discrimination. It is started by describing a 'natural' social order.
It is distinguished between the fundamental principle of fascism and social democracy. The
[[Nazis]] in 1930's-era Germany, the pre-1990 [[Apartheid]] government of South Africa used
racial discriminatory agendas for their political ends. This practice continues with some present
day governments.
==State discrimination vs. free market discrimination==
{{Partisan sources|date=December 2011}}
{{Tone|date=December 2011}}
===State discrimination===
In politics, the dominating part of the population rules. Therefore, the worst discrimination in the
history has been committed by states. For example, the [[anti-semitic]] practices of the [[NaziGermany]] would not have happened on [[free market]]s, because they would have caused
losses.<ref
name=murphy>[http://www.econlib.org/library/Columns/y2010/Murphydiscrimination.html The
Economics of Discrimination], Robert P. Murphy, Library of Economics, AUGUST 2,
2010</ref>
However, government officials and politicians need not care about losses as much as companies,
which decreases their incentive not to discriminate. For example, around 1900 the afroAmericans started to compete of jobs that had previously been all-white jobs. Because whites
had more voting power, they enacted a law that made photographs of the applicants obligatory in
civil service job applications. The number of blacks in federal employment plummeted for
decades.<ref
name=enc>[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Discrimination.html Discrimination], The
Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, Library of Economics</ref>
In early 20th century South Africa mine owners preferred hiring black workers because they
were cheaper. Then the whites successfully persuaded the government to enact laws that highly
restricted the black's rights to work (see [[Apartheid]]).<ref name=enc/>
Similarly, to make more profits, producers hires secretly screenwriters who were on Senator
[[Joseph McCarthy]]'s blacklist, which mitigated the effects of the list.<ref name=enc/>
When the "Jim Crow" racial segregation laws were enacted in the U.S., many companies

disobeyed them for years, because the market automatically punishes companies that
discriminate: they lose customers and get additional expenses. It took 15 years for the
government to break down the resistance of the companies.<ref name=roback>Jennifer Roback,
The Political Economy of Segregation: The Case of Segregated Streetcars. Journal of
Economic History 56, no. 4 (December 1986): 893917.</ref>
===Markets punish the discriminator===
The Nobel prize winning economist [[Gary Becker]] showed in his book ''The Economics of
Discrimination'' (University of Chicago Press, 1957) how the markets automatically punish the
companies that discriminate.<ref name=murphy/>
The profitability of the company that discriminates is decreased, and the loss is "directly
proportional to how much the employer's decision was based on prejudice, rather than on merit."
Indeed, choosing a worker with lower performance (in comparison to salary) causes losses
proportional to the difference in performance. Similarly, the customers who discriminate against
certain kinds of workers in favor of less effective ones have to pay more for their services, on
average.<ref name=murphy/>
If a company discriminates, it typically loses profitability and market share to the companies that
do not discriminate, unless the state limits free competition protecting the discriminators.<ref
name=enc/>
==Scapegoats==
{{Tone|date=January 2012}}
Many people blame scapegoats for problems that are not their fault. This is common when two
deprived ethnic groups compete with one another for economic rewards. This is normally
directed against groups that are relatively powerless, because they make an easy target. It
frequently involves projection, which is the unconscious attribution to the others of ones own
desires or characteristics.<ref>Introduction to sociology. 7th ed. New York: W.W. Norton &
Company Inc, 2009. Page 324. Print.</ref>
==See also==
{{multicol}}
* [[Ableism]]
* [[Adultism]]
* [[Affirmative action]]
* [[Ageism]]
* [[Allport's scale]]
* [[Anti-discrimination law]]
* [[Apartheid]]
* [[Colorism]]
* [[Egalitarianism]]
* [[Equal opportunity]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Equal rights]]
* [[Genetic discrimination]]

* [[Genocide]]
* [[Heightism]]
* [[Homophobia]]
* [[Institutionalized discrimination]]
* [[Microaggression]]
* [[Persecution]]
* [[California Proposition 8 (2008)]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Racial segregation]]
* [[Racism]]
* [[Reverse discrimination]]
* [[Second-class citizen]]
* [[Sexism]]
* [[Speciesism]]
* [[State racism]]
* [[Statistical discrimination (economics)]]
* [[Stereotype]]
{{multicol-break}}
{{Portal box|Discrimination|Sociology}}
{{multicol-end}}
==References==
<references />
<!--See Richey, Warren. "Affirmative Action's Evolution." The CS Monitor. Staff Writer of the
Christian Science Montior, 2003. 3 May 2007 <http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0328/p01s01usju.html>. -->
* [http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/employment_discrimination Topics.law.cornell.edu]
* [http://archive.eeoc.gov/stats/litigation.html Archive.eeoc.gov]
* ''Introduction to Sociology.'' New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009. Print.
==External links==
* Legal definitions
** [http://www.hreoc.gov.au/legal/index.html Australia]
** [http://www.chrc-ccdp.ca/legislation_policies/human_rights_act-en.asp Canada]
** [http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/ch2.html Russia]
** [http://www.eeoc.gov/facts/qanda.html US]
* [http://www.finduslaw.com/taxonomy_menu/12/23 Employment Discrimination Laws in the
United States]
* [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/dossier/dossier_23.htm Discrimination Laws in Europe]
* [http://ssrn.com/abstract=1594425 Behavioral Biology and Racism]
* [http://www.antiracismandhate.com Anti-Racism and Hate]
* [http://www.agediscrimination.info Age discrimination]
* [http://www.richardryder.co.uk/speciesism.html Speciesism]
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