3001 Rev.0 - Liquid Penetrant Testing Level 1 & 2 Combined - Note Book

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK
NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 QUALIFICATION, CERTIFICATION AND AUTHORIZATION .............................. 2
CHAPTER 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES .......................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 3 VISIBLE METHODS ....................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 4 FLUORESCENT METHODS ............................................................................ 28
CHAPTER 5 SPECIAL PURPOSE CHEMICALS.................................................................... 39
CHAPTER 6 INLINE SYSTEMS .......................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 7 CONTROL CHECKS........................................................................................ 43
CHAPTER 8 HEALTH AND SAFETY ................................................................................... 50
SUMMARY OF DISCONTINUITIES ...................................................................................... 56
INTERPRETATION VS. EVALUATION .................................................................................. 57
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CHAPTER 1 QUALIFICATION, CERTIFICATION AND AUTHORIZATION

SNT-TC-1A & ISO 9712
It is important that the technician be qualified and certified in the NDT method before the
technique is used and the test results evaluated.
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing recommends the use of their document
Recommended Practice No SNT-TC-1A.
The International Standards Organization requires the use of their Specification, namely
ISO 9712.
These documents provides the employer with the necessary guidelines to properly qualify and
certify the NDT technician in all methods.
To comply with these documents, the employer must establish a written practice which describes
in detail how the technician will be trained, examined and certified.
These documents specifies the initial number of hours of classroom instruction and months or
hours of experience necessary to be certified as an NDT testing technician. The main difference
between these documents are that:
SNT-TC-1A requires Company (Employer) Certification, and
ISO 9712 requires Certification by a Body such as PCN or CSWIP.
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LEVELS OF QUALIFICATION
Level 1
An individual certified to Level 1 has demonstrated competence to carry out NDT according to
written instructions and under the supervision of Level 2 or Level 3 personnel. Within the scope
of the competence defined on the certificate, Level 1 personnel may be authorized by the
employer to perform the following in accordance with NDT instructions:
set up NDT equipment;

perform the tests;
record and classify the results of the tests according to written criteria;
report the results.
Level 1 certified personnel shall neither be responsible for the choice of test method or
technique to be used, nor for the evaluation of test results.
Level 2
An individual certified to Level 2 has demonstrated competence to perform NDT according to
NDT procedures. Within the scope of the competence defined on the certificate, Level 2
personnel may be authorized by the employer to:
select the NDT technique for the testing method to be used;

define the limitations of application of the testing method;
translate NDT codes, standards, specifications, and procedures into NDT instructions
adapted to the actual working conditions;
set up and verify equipment settings;
per form and supervise tests;
interpret and evaluate results according to applicable standards, codes, specifications or
procedures;
carry out and supervise all tasks at or below Level 2;
provide guidance for personnel at or below Level 2;
report the results of NDT.
Level 3
An individual certified to Level 3 has demonstrated competence to perform and direct NDT
operations for which he is certified. Level 3 personnel have demonstrated:
the competence to evaluate and interpret results in terms of existing standards, codes,
and specifications;
sufficient practical knowledge of applicable materials, fabrication, process, and product
technology to select NDT methods, establish NDT techniques, and assist in establishing
acceptance criteria where none are otherwise available;
a general familiarity with other NDT methods.
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Within the scope of the competence defined on the certificate, Level 3 personnel may be
authorized to:
assume full responsibility for a test facility or examination centre and staff
establish, review for editorial and technical correctness, and validate NDT instructions
and procedures
interpret standards, codes, specifications, and procedures
designate the particular test methods, procedures, and NDT instructions to be used
carry out and supervise all tasks at all levels
provide guidance for NDT personnel at all levels.
EXAMINATION BREAKDOWN
The end of Course examination (SNT-TC-1A), at NASA will comprise of the following:
General examination:
Closed book.
40 Multi-choice questions.
1 Hour.
Specific examination:
20 Multi-choice questions.
5 Open Code Book Questions. (10 points)
1 Hour.
Practical examination:
Pre-Test Calibrations:
Complete a Calibration Procedure as allocated by examiner.
30 minutes.
Practical 1:
Visible, Solvent Removable Method with Non-Aqueous Wet Developer on a welded sample.
Complete a Written Instruction.
Fill out a Test Report.
3 Hours.
Practical 2:
Fluorescent, Water-washable Method with Non-Aqueous Wet Developer on a welded sample.
Complete a Technique sheet.
Fill out a Test Report.
2 Hours.
A minimum of 70% must be scored on each segment of the exam with an aggregate of 80% in
order to pass.
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CHAPTER 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES

INTRODUCTION
Liquid penetrant testing is a Non-destructive means of locating surface discontinuities in any
solid, non-porous material. The method is based on capillary action in which the liquid is elevated
or depressed where it is in contact with a solid. Effectiveness is mainly controlled by the
technicians ability and determination to follow the specifications set out in the procedure. The
test materials (penetrants, developers, cleaners) and procedures for Liquid Penetrant Testing are
designed to facilitate capillary action and make the results visible and interpretable.
The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including castings, forgings, and welds.
Many different industries use liquid penetrant inspection for determining a component's fitnessfor-use. Some examples of industries that use liquid penetrant inspection are the structural steel,
automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries.
PENETRANT PRINCIPLES
When a dye is added to a liquid with a certain combination of properties, the liquid is called
penetrant, penetrant dye or in some specifications just dye. The ability of a penetrant to cover
the surface and penetrate the openings depends on Viscosity, Cohesion, Adhesion, Surface
tension, Wetting Ability (wettability) and Capillary action.
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of a liquids resistance to a change in physical shape and is related to
internal friction. The viscosity of a liquid decreases as the temperature is raised and viscosity
increases as the temperature is lowered. Viscosity has no effect on Capillary action (penetrating
ability). Some highly viscous fluids, such as molasses, have very good penetrating ability, while
some low viscosity liquids, such as pure water, have very poor penetrating ability. However, from
an application viewpoint, viscosity affects the speed with which a penetrant enters a
discontinuity. Viscosity also determines how much penetrant will remain on a part surface during
the dwell period. High viscosity penetrants cling to the surface, requiring increased effort for
removal. Very thin penetrants (low viscosity) may drain from the part surface so quickly
insufficient penetrant remains to enter into discontinuities.
There are in existence, THIXOTROPIC penetrants which have a two-stage viscosity. These
penetrants are in a high viscosity (thick) state when stored and when worked (i.e. painted) on to
the test surface the penetrant is broken down into its second stage, a more fluid state, by the
shearing action of brushing. This is the same action as non-drip paint.
Points of interest:
Longer contact times are required.

They are ideal for overhead work.
They are often used on high temperature applications (up to 200C)
Note: above 50C fluorescent dyes start to degrade (lose fluorescence) due to heat fade and
hence high temperature work is nearly always colour contrast.
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COHESION AND ADHESION

These properties are easily explained with the example of a straw inserted in water.
The Capillary forces draws the liquid into the straw higher than the actual level of water around
the straw. When the straw is inserted, the molecules enter the straw and attract other nearby
molecules and pulling then up the straw by cohesion. Cohesion can therefore be said as the
liquids molecular attraction. This process continues to rise until the pull of surface tension is
equalized. Adhesion is the force that prevents the liquid to fall back down the straw. Adhesion
can be said to be the attraction between the material of the straw and the liquid.
SURFACE TENSION
It can be defined as the force required to expand (or pull apart) the surface of a liquid. The
surface of a liquid exhibits certain features resembling the properties of a stretched elastic
membrane. These features are due to the cohesive forces holding the surface molecules
together, hence the term surface tension. The very high surface tension of water allows certain
insects to stand on the surface of the water and the surface tension of water can even support
steel paper clips even though steel is much denser than water and is not supposed to float. The
forces drawing surface molecules together can be very strong. These forces, or surface tension,
cause a droplet of liquid to have a spherical shape.
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WETTING ABILITY
When a liquid comes into contact with a solid surface, the cohesive force responsible for surface
tension competes with or is countered by the adhesive force between the liquid molecules and
the solid surface. These forces determine the contact angle the liquid forms with the surface. The
contact angle is the measured angle a drop of liquid makes with a solid surface. If the contact
angle is zero the liquid will wet and spread. If the contact angle is 90-degrees or more the liquid
will not wet the surface and will remain as a rounded drop.
Capillary Action (Capillarity)

It is one of the most important properties of the penetrant to consider. Capillarity is the ability of
a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, and in opposition to, external forces
like gravity. Capillary action is defined as the tendency for a liquid to penetrate or migrate into
small openings, such as cracks, pits, or fissures. The capillary action forces are very strong; in fact,
if a penetrant test were being performed on a specimen in an overhead position, the penetrant
would be drawn into the opening against the force of gravity. A good penetrants force is
stronger than gravity and the discontinuities will be detected even though they may be in an
overhead specimen.
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PENETRANT PROPERTIES
Other properties have to be considered with regards to quality and safety regulations, such as:
FLASH POINT
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which vapors of a substance ignite in air when exposed
to a flame. The flash point does not affect the performance of a penetrant. High flash points are
desirable to reduce the hazard of fire. Generally, it is recommended that penetrant materials
have a flashpoint no less than 93C.
VOLATILITY
The vapor pressure or boiling point of a liquid characterizes its volatility. It is associated with the
evaporation rate of liquids and is desirable for penetrant materials to have a low volatility, i.e., a
high boiling point. However, in the case of petroleum products, viscosity increases as the boiling
point goes up. In this group of materials, the lower viscosity is preferred because they require
less penetrating time. Still, for practical purposes, high volatility should be avoided before
viscosity becomes a problem. High volatility results in a loss of penetrant in open tanks and can
result in penetrant drying on a part during the penetrant dwell, leaving a film difficult to remove.
Entrapped, highly volatile penetrant would also have a tendency to dry or lose its liquid
properties, resulting in failure to bleed back out of a discontinuity and to produce an indication.
In general, low volatility provides four advantages:
Low economic loss due to low evaporation loss.
Low fire hazard because few flammable vapors form above the liquid.
Low toxicity because of low hazardous vapor concentrations in the test area.
Uniform removal and fluorescent properties because of minimal evaporation.

CHEMICAL INERTNESS
Penetrant materials may cause deterioration and damage to materials that react to
hydrocarbons. Penetrant materials shall not react with the materials to be inspected. It is
necessary for the penetrant, emulsifier, and developer material be chemically inert relative to the
parts being inspected. Most oil based materials meet this requirement; however, water
contamination of many oils may cause the mixture to become alkaline. This is one of the reasons
why water contamination must be avoided. While oily penetrant materials are generally inert to
most metals, there is no one material that can be formulated for all parts. Chemical reactivity of
penetrant materials must be considered whenever a new application is encountered. Some
rubber (natural and synthetic) and plastic (transparent and opaque) parts are susceptible to
attack by the solvents and oils in the penetrant materials. Some metals can be degraded at
elevated temperatures by the trace amounts of sulfur or chlorine in conventional penetrants.
TOXICITY
It is the measure of adverse effects on humans resulting from contact with the material. It applies
to any abnormal effects ranging from nausea and dermatitis through dysfunction of major
organs, such as the liver or kidneys. It is essential for penetrant materials to be nontoxic. In
qualifying penetrant materials for the QPL, the manufacturer must submit a certified statement
identifying each ingredient in the product by a recognizable chemical or trade name. The
USAF Occupational and Environmental Health Laboratory has to evaluate this information for
toxicity before the material is listed as a qualified product.
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SOLVENT ABILITY
The visibility of indications depends upon the fluorescent or visible dye dissolved in the penetrant
oils. The oils used in penetrants must have good solvent properties to dissolve and hold the dye
in solution. It must maintain the dye in solution under the wide range of temperatures
encountered during transit and storage of the penetrant. If even a small amount of separation
occurs, recombination may be very difficult or impossible, resulting in decreased penetrant
performance.
REMOVABILITY
This term describes two conflicting requirements for a penetrant:
the ability to be removed from a surface leaving little or no residual background
resistance to being removed from discontinuities

The removability would be subject to the viscosity of the material.
WATER TOLERANCE
When penetrants are used in open tanks some water contamination is inevitable.
Post-emulsifiable penetrants are inherently tolerant to water intrusion. Since they are oil based
materials, any extraneous water will settle to the bottom of the tank. Although their
performance is not degraded, corrosion of the tank can occur. However, water washable
penetrants contain emulsifiers and will combine with water. They can tolerate the addition of
small amounts of water without losing their properties. However, penetrant has to be checked
continually for water content not to exceed manufacturers specifications/ requirements.
DENSITY
Penetrant density is approximately 0.91 g/cm3, compared to water which is 1g/cm3. Therefore do
not use the bottom third of the tank due to contaminants sinking to the bottom of the tank.
Some application specifications require tanks to be drained and cleaned every 12 months. Note
due to proximity of washing stations the most common contaminant is water.
PENETRANT SENSITIVITY
The term sensitivity, when used to describe a penetrant performance characteristic, is the
ability to produce indications from very small, tight cracks. This characteristic involves the
combined properties of penetrating ability and brightness. The flaw opening in discontinuities is
usually restricted, and the void volume is such that only a very small amount of penetrant can be
entrapped. The penetrant must enter and exit the flaw with enough dye to produce a noticeable
indication.
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HISTORY
Liquid penetrant inspection is one of the oldest non-destructive inspection methods. It was first
used in the railroad maintenance shops in the late 1800s. Parts to be inspected were immersed in
used machine oil. After a suitable immersion time, the parts were withdrawn from the oil and the
excess surface oil wiped off with rags or wadding. The part surfaces would then be coated with
powdered chalk or a mixture of chalk suspended in alcohol (whiting). Oil trapped in cracks or
flaws would bleed-out causing a noticeable stain in the white chalk coating. This became known
as the oil-and-whiting method.
As can be expected, there were many problems with this early technique. There was a general
lack of consistency, since there were no established procedures or standards and the dwell and
development times were left up to the user. The oil-and-whiting method was more-over replaced
by magnetic particle inspection on steel and ferrous parts in 1930.
However, industries using non-ferromagnetic metals, especially aircraft manufacturers, needed a
more reliable and sophisticated tool than discoloured machine oil and chalk. In 1941, fluorescent
dye materials were added to highly penetrating oil by Robert Switzer to make a penetrant
material. Coloured dyes, primarily red, were introduced in the 1940s by Rebecca Smith (a.k.a.
Becky Starling), Lloyd Stockman and Elliot Brady. Since then, a large number of penetrant systems
or families have evolved. These include developments in various types and concentrations of dye
materials, types of penetrating oils and additives, materials and methods for removing the excess
surface penetrant, and various materials and forms of developing agents.
TEST PROCEDURES
Approved procedures for liquid penetrant testing are formulated from analysis of the test
specimen, review of its past history, experience and information available concerning
discontinuities in like or similar articles. It is the responsibility of personnel conducting or
checking tests to ensure that the test procedures are adequately performed, and that the test
objective is accomplished. Procedures found incorrect or inadequate must be brought to the
attention of responsible supervision for correction.
TEST OBJECTIVE
The objective of liquid penetrant testing is to ensure maximum reliability by providing a means
of:
Obtaining a visual image related to the discontinuity on the surface of the specimen under
test.
Disclosing the nature of the discontinuity without impairing the material.
Separating acceptable and unacceptable material in accordance with predetermined
standards.
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ADVANTAGES (7 listed):
The liquid penetrant method has a number of outstanding advantages within its field of
usefulness that is, on ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials. Some of these are the
following:
Since discontinuities open to the surface are almost always more detrimental to the
strength of parts than similar discontinuities not open to the surface, inspection is
concentrated at the most vulnerable area.
Tests are quick, easily applied, and penetrant materials and associated equipment
relatively inexpensive.
Liquid penetrants are very sensitive to fine surface cracks.
Liquid penetrants can be applied to the surface of the objects of complex shape.
Flaw indications will remain visible until wiped off, therefore, there is no need to rework
defective parts immediately. In fact, if salvage is practical, parts can often be reworked
with the location and extent of discontinuities still showing, thus simplifying accurate
repair. Parts should be re-inspected after repairing discontinuities.
Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low
cost.
Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
DISADVANTAGES (14 listed):

Although the method has many desirable and attractive advantages, it has, as does every
method, certain limitations. These, the operator must be aware of, and take into account by
observing the precautions which they dictate. Some of the disadvantages are the following:
The surface must be clean and dry before the penetrant is applied, otherwise surface
contamination may interfere with the tests.
Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed
prior to LPI.
The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
The penetrant should be used on objects that are near room temperature. Low
temperatures can cause the penetrant to become highly viscous and high temperatures
can cause the penetrant to evaporate.
Shallow or broad flaws are difficult to detect since the penetrant is easily removed from
them accidentally when the excess penetrant is being removed.
Certain materials may be permanently stained by the liquids used for inspection.
Some materials may be permanently damaged due to certain strong chemicals existing
in the penetrant materials and therefor prior to inspection, the requirements should be
determined for use of special liquids and materials.
It is often difficult to remove all the penetrant from the object at the conclusion of an
inspection. In some situations, removal of penetrant materials are crucial and this might
interfere with further use or processing.
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BASIC PENETRANT TESTING PROCESS

A basic sequence of operations for inspection of a specimen would be:
A thorough pre-cleaning to ensure all surface contaminants

are removed.
Apply penetrant by brushing, spraying, flooding, dipping, etc.
Allow penetrant to dwell in order for the penetrant to flow

into discontinuities.
Clean off excess penetrant from the surface.
Apply a thin, even layer of developer and allow a developer

dwell time for penetrant to bleed out from discontinuities.
Inspect for indications under correct light requirements.
Post cleaning should be done to ensure all penetrant materials

are removed from the surface.
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CLASSIFICATION OF PENETRANT MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

The various combinations of liquid penetrant materials that are commercially available and used
changes rapidly as new and better materials are formulated. The classification of method is
described by the materials used and cleaning processes.
Below is a table that shows all types and methods of liquid penetrant materials and how they are
classified.
TYPE
Type I
Fluorescent Dye Penetrant
Type II
Visible Dye Penetrant
Type III
Dual Mode
METHOD OF REMOVAL
Method A
Water Washable
Method B
Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic (oil based)
Method C
Solvent removable
Method D
Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic (water based)

SENSITIVITY
Level 1/2
Very Low
Level 1
Low
Level 2
Medium
Level 3
High
Level 4
Ultra high
DEVELOPER
Form a
Dry powder
Form b
Water Soluble
Form c
Water Suspendible
Form d
Non-aqueous wet for fluorescent dye Type I
Form e
Non-aqueous wet for visible dye Type II
Form f
Special Application
SOLVENT CLEANER / PENETRANT REMOVER
Class 1
Halogenated
Class 2
Non-halogenated
Class 3
Special Application
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TERMINOLOGY
Aqueous developer:
See Wet developer.
Background:
The surface on which an indication is viewed. It may be the

natural surface of the test object, or it may be the
developer coating on the surface. This background may
contain traces of unremoved penetrant (fluorescent or
visible), which if present, can interfere with the visibility of
indications.
Background fluorescence:
Fluorescent residue observed over the general surface of

the test object during a fluorescent penetrant test.
Bath:
Term used colloquially to designate the liquid penetrant

testing materials into which test objects are immersed
during the testing process.
Black light:
See Ultraviolet radiation.
Bleedout:
The action of the entrapped penetrant in spreading out

from surface discontinuities to form an indication.
Blotting:
The action of the developer in soaking up penetrant from a

surface discontinuity, so as to cause maximum bleed-out
of penetrant for increased contrast and sensitivity.
Capillary action:
The tendency of liquids to penetrate or migrate into small

openings, such as cracks, pits or fissures.
Clean:
Free of interfering solid or liquid contamination.
Colour contrast penetrant:
See Visible dye penetrant.
Comparative reference block:
An intentionally cracked metal block having two separate

but adjacent areas for the application of different
penetrants so that a direct comparison of their relative
effectiveness can be obtained. Can also be used to
evaluate penetrant test techniques and test conditions.
Contact emulsifier:
A fluid that begins emulsifying penetrant on simple contact

with the penetrant. Usually oil based (Lipophilic).
Contrast:
The difference in visibility (luminance or coloration)

between an indication and the surrounding surface.
Dark adaptation:
The adjustment of the eyes when one passes from a bright

to a darkened area.
Defect:
A discontinuity that interferes with the usefulness of an

object. A fault in a material or test object that is
detrimental to its serviceability.
Detergent remover:
A penetrant remover that is a solution of a detergent in

water. Also see Hydrophilic emulsifier.
Developer:
A material that is applied to the test object surface after

excess penetrant has been removed and that is designed
to enhance the penetrant bleed-out to form indications.
The developer may be a fine powder, a solution that dries
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to a fine powder or a suspension (in solvent, water alcohol,

etc.) that dries leaving an absorptive film on the test
surface.
Developing time:
The time between the application of the developer and the

examination of the test object for indications. The elapsed
time necessary for the applied developer to bring out
indications from penetrant entrapments. Also called
development time.
Discontinuity:
An interruption in the normal physical structure or

configuration of an object, such as cracks, forging laps,
seams, inclusions, porosity, etc. A discontinuity may or
may not affect the usefulness of the test object.
Drag-out:
The loss of penetrant materials from a tank as a result of

their adherence to the objects being processed.
Drain time:
That portion of the penetrant testing processes during

which the excess penetrant, emulsifier, detergent remover
or developer is allowed to drain from the test object.
Dry developer:
A fine dry powder developer that does not use a carrier

fluid.
Drying oven:
An oven used for drying rinse water from test objects.
Drying time:
The time allotted for a rinse test object to dry.
Dual sensitivity penetrant:
A penetrant that contains a combination of visible and

fluorescent dyes.
Dwell time:
The total time that the penetrant or emulsifier is in contact

with the test surface, including the time required for
application and the drain time. Also see Emulsification
time.
Electrostatic spraying:
A technique of spraying wherein the material being

sprayed is given high electrical charge, while the test
object is grounded.
Emulsification time:
The period of time that an emulsifier is permitted to

combine with the penetrant before removal. Also called
emulsifier dwell time.
Emulsifier:
A liquid that combines with an oily penetrant to make the

penetrant water washable. Also see Hydrophilic emulsifier
and lipophilic emulsifier.
Evaluation:
The process of determining the severity of the condition

after the indication has been interpreted. Evaluation leads
to determining whether the object is acceptable,
salvageable or rejectable.
False indication:
An indication caused by improper processing. Distinct from

non-relevant indication.
Flash point:
The lowest temperature at which a volatile flammable

liquid will give off enough vapor to make a combustible
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explosive mixture in the air space surrounding the liquid

surface.
Flaw:
See Discontinuity.
Fluorescence:
The emission of visible radiation by a substance as the

result of, and only during, the absorption of ultraviolet
radiation.
Fluorescent penetrant:
A testing penetrant that is characterized by its ability to

fluoresce when exited by ultraviolet radiation.
Hydrophilic emulsifier:
A water based agent that, when applied to an oily

penetrant, renders the penetrant water washable. Can be
used as a contact emulsifier, but more often the emulsifier
is added to the water rinse and accompanied by some
form of mechanical agitation or scrubbing to remove
excess penetrant. Sometimes called a hydrophilic remover.
Indication:
That which marks the presence of a discontinuity, as the

result of detectable bleed-out of penetrant from the
discontinuity.
Inspection:
The visual examination of a test object after completion of

the penetrant processing steps.
Interpretation:
The determination of the significance of indications from

the standpoint of whether they are relevant or
non-relevant.
Leak testing:
A technique of liquid penetrant testing in which the

penetrant is applied to one side of the surface, while the
other side is tested for indications that would indicate a
leak or void.
Lipophilic emulsifier:
An oil based agent that, when applied to an oily penetrant,

renders the penetrant water washable. Usually applied to
a contact emulsifier.
Non-aqueous wet developer:
A developer in which the developing powder is applied as

a suspension in a quick drying solvent. Also called solvent
developer.
Non-fluorescent penetrant:
See Visible dye penetrant.
Non-relevant indication:
An indication that is not or cannot be associated with a

discontinuity.
Penetrability:
The property of a penetrant that causes it to find its way

into very fine openings, such as cracks.
Penetrant:
A liquid capable of entering discontinuities open to the

surface, and which is adapted to the testing process by
being made highly visible in small traces. Fluorescent
penetrants fluoresce brightly under ultraviolet radiation,
while the visible penetrants are intensely coloured to be
noticeable under visible light.
Penetration time:
See Dwell time.
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Post-emulsification:
A penetrant removal technique using a separate

emulsifier.
Post-emulsifiable penetrant:
A penetrant that requires the application of a separate

emulsifier to render the surface penetrant water
washable. Can be removed by applying a solvent remover.
Pre-cleaning:
The removal of surface contaminants or smeared metal

from the test object so that they cannot interfere with the
penetrant testing process.
Quenching of fluorescence:
The extinction of fluorescence by causes other than

removal of ultraviolet radiation (the exciting radiation).
Rinse:
The process of removing liquid penetrant testing materials

from the surface of a test object by washing or flooding
with another liquid usually water. Also called wash.
Self emulsifiable:
See Water washable penetrant.
Sensitivity:
The ability of the penetrant process to detect surface

discontinuities.
Solvent developer:
See Non-aqueous wet developer.
Solvent removed:
A penetrant removal technique wherein the excess

penetrant is wiped from the test surface with a solvent
remover.
Solvent remover:
A volatile liquid used to remove excess surface penetrant

from the test object. Sometimes call penetrant remover.
Surface tension:
That property of liquids which, because of molecular

forces, tends to bring the contained volume into a form
having the least superficial area.
System:
With respect to liquid penetrant testing materials, a

combination of liquid penetrant and emulsifier that are
furnished by same manufacturer and are qualified
together. For water washable and solvent removable liquid
penetrants, a system consists of the liquid penetrant only.
Ultraviolet radiation
Light radiation in the near ultraviolet range (for liquid

penetrant testing):(UV-A) of wavelengths (320 to 400 nm),
just shorter than visible light.
Ultraviolet radiation filter:
A filter that transmits near ultraviolet radiation while

suppressing visible light and harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Visibility:
The characteristic of an indication that enables the

observer to see it against the conditions of background,
outside light, etc.
Viscosity:
The state or degree of being viscous. The resistance of a

fluid to the motion of its particles.
Visible dye penetrant:
A testing penetrant that is characterized by its intense

visible colour usually red. Also called colour contrast or
non-fluorescent penetrant.
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
Wash:
See Rinse.
Water soluble developer:
A developer in which the developer powder is dissolved in

a water carrier to form a solution. Not a suspension.
Water suspendable developer:
A developer in which the developer particles are mixed

with water to form a suspension.
Water wash:
A penetrant removal technique wherein excess penetrant

is washed or flushed from the test surface with water.
Water washable penetrant:
A type of penetrant that contains its own emulsifier,

making it water washable.
Water tolerance:
The amount of water that a penetrant, emulsifier can

absorb before its effectiveness is impaired.
Wet developer:
A developer in which the developer powder is applied as a

suspension or solution in a liquid usually water or
alcohol.
Wettability:
The ability of a liquid to spread out spontaneously and

adhere to solid surfaces.
CONVERSION TABLE
1m
1 000 mm
1 000 000 m
1 Bar
14.5 Psi
100 000 Pascal
3650
365 nm
10 W/m
1 000 w/cm
1 fc (foot-candle)
10,76 lx (lux)
1 C
(? F - 32) x 5/9
1 000 000 000 nm
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
CHAPTER 3 VISIBLE METHODS

Visible penetrant testing materials were specially designed to be easier and more portable for
doing remote testing with less requirements for lighting and viewing conditions. However, each
step in the process has to be specifically selected for each component, its location, practicality
and type of discontinuities sought. Flow charts of the visible processes are shown later with
descriptions and possibilities of each step to follow.
PRE-REQUISITES FOR INSPECTION

Selection of the suitable penetrant type and process for a particular test depends on the
sensitivity required, number of parts to be tested, surface condition of the parts, geometry of
parts to be tested, availability of resources (electricity, water, compressed air) and area of test.
The advantages and disadvantages are set apart as follows for each type of visible process.
VISIBLE WATER WASHABLE PROCESS:
Advantages
Easily washed with water

Good for quantities of small specimens
Good for use on rough surfaces
Good for use on keyways and threads
Fast, single step process
Relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
Not reliable for fine, shallow or broad discontinuities

Easily over washed
Penetrant easily contaminated with water
Non
Aqueous
wet
developer
Visible
Water
Washable
Penetrant
Wash off
with water
Water
suspendible
Developer
Water
soluble
developer
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
VISIBLE SOLVENT REMOVABLE PROCESS:

Advantages
Portability
No water required
Good on anodized specimens
Good for spot checking
Disadvantages
Flammable materials
Removal of excess surface penetrant is time consuming
Materials not recommended to be used in open tanks
Difficult to use on rough surfaces such as cast components
Health hazard in enclosed spaces
Wipe with
solvent
dampened
cloth
Visible
Solvent
Removable
Penetrant
Non
Aqueous
wet
developer
Non
Aqueous
wet
developer
Lipophilic
(oil based)
Post
emulsifier
Wash with
water
Hydrophilic
(water
based)
VISIBLE POST EMULSIFICATION PROCESS
Water
suspendible
Developer
Water
soluble
developer
Advantages
High sensitivity for very thin discontinuities such as tight cracks

Easily washed with water after emulsification
Good on wide shallow discontinuities
Short penetration time
Cannot be easily over-washed
Disadvantages
Two step process

Equipment required for emulsifier application
Difficult to remove penetrant from threads, keyways, blind holes, rough surfaces, etc.
More expensive
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
PRE-CLEANING
Choosing the correct pre-cleaning material is an essential step in the penetrant process. No single
cleaning method is appropriate for all metals or contaminants. The pre-cleaning method must be
capable of removing dirt and oils without causing harm to the article under inspection. Certain
elements such as sulfur and chlorine have detrimental effects on certain materials such as Nickel
alloys, certain Stainless Steels and Titanium which could structurally damage the material. The
surface and all openings of discontinuities must be thoroughly cleaned to ensure that all
contaminants (oil, water, oxides, paint, dirt, grease, lint, mould material, weld spatter, flux, etc.)
that may prohibit or restrict the penetrant from entering the discontinuities, are completely
removed. All cleaning materials used should be compatible with other penetrant materials to be
used. Since the compatibility is not always a sure thing, general practice recommends the part to
be flushed with an approved solvent from the same family of penetrant materials to be used and
wiped with a clean dry cloth/ paper towel (lint-free) prior to testing. Typical cleaners would
include:
SOLVENT CLEANING
Solvent cleaning may use tanks for immersion, or the solvent material may be sprayed, brushed
or wiped on and wiped off. Solvent cleaning is the process most commonly used for spot
inspections. However environmental, health and safety concerns are making detergent cleaning
and steam cleaning more attractive options. A solvent cleaner must evaporate readily and
completely from the surface and from the surface connected to the discontinuities. Solvent
cleaners should only be used to remove organic contaminants such as oil, grease, dirt, lint, etc.
DETERGENT CLEANING
Immersion tanks or and detergent solutions are common means of accomplishing the cleaning
required by liquid penetrant tests. The detergents wet, penetrate, emulsify and saponify (change
to soap) various soils. The only special equipment requirement imposed by penetrant test
cleaning is the need for suitable rinsing and drying facilities. When thoroughly rinsed and dried,
detergent cleaning leaves a test surface that is physically and chemically clean. Detergent
cleaners should have a combination of detergency (cleaning} dispersion, emulsifying, foaming,
solubilizing and wetting properties.
VAPOR DEGREASING
In a vapour degreaser, solvent is boiled at the bottom of a deep tank. The parts are lowered into
the vapors but not into the boiling liquids. Vapor degreasing is probably the most effective in the
removal of oil, grease and similar organic contamination. However, there are restrictions as to its
use before and after liquid penetrant testing. Safety and environmental concerns have virtually
eliminated vapor degreasing. Degreasing must be limited to those material that have been
approved for this method of cleaning. Unlike water based cleaners, vapour degreasing does not
require a rinse step or a drying (oven) step.
STEAM CLEANING
Steam cleaning equipment is particularly adaptable to the cleaning of large, unwieldy test objects
not easily cleaned by immersion. Special equipment is required for steam cleaning of test objects
destined for liquid penetrant testing. Steam with alkaline detergent emulsifies, softens or
dissolves the organic contaminant, and the steam gives the mechanical action to remove alkaline
detergent/contaminant from the test object.
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
ULTRASONIC CLEANING
Ultrasonic agitation is often combined with solvent, detergent or alkaline cleaning to improve
efficiency and reduce cleaning time. Ultrasonic cleaning equipment is useful in the cleaning of
large quantities of small test objects. In many cases, special approvals must be granted to use
ultrasonic agitation.
CHEMICAL CLEANING
Ensure that chemicals are compatible with materials under test and that manufacturers
recommendations are followed at all times. Be aware that acids are not allowed to dwell on the
parts too long so an enormous loss of material is present. Paint strippers may be used to remove
all coatings from the material. Rust and surface scale removers are used to remove an excess of
contaminants when physical removal is prohibited. Test objects that had metal smearing
operations often require etching to prepare them for liquid penetrant testing. This process uses
an acid or alkaline solution to open and remove smeared metal from surface discontinuities. All
acid or alkaline residues must be neutralized and removed before liquid penetrant testing. The
etching and neutralizing processes use either tanks for immersion or manual equipment and
materials.
PRECLEANING PROCESSES TO BE AVOIDED
Blast (shot, sand, grits or pressure), liquid honing, emery cloth, grinders, power wire brushes and
metal scrapers should not be used on the test object before liquid penetrant testing. These
processes tend to close discontinuities by smearing metal, peening or cold working the surface. A
hand wire brush may be helpful in removing rust, surface scale or paint. Relatively fine bristle
brushes should be used and light pressure exerted to prevent smearing of softer metals.
DRYING PRIOR TO PENETRANT APPLICATION

It is very important to ensure all surfaces and all potential discontinuities are completely dry prior
to the application and dwell of penetrant. If any liquid pre-cleaner remains in discontinuities, the
penetrant may be unable to enter discontinuities and an inadequate exam will be performed.
This is critical because the technician may not be aware that penetrant did not enter the
discontinuities. Drying of the part or surface should be determined by the area where work is
performed, ambient temperature and air ventilation. Some specifications require the use of oven
dryers that help with the evaporation of the pre-cleaners from the part.
PENETRANT APPLICATION
The application of penetrant is performed after the test surface is completely clean and has been
properly dried. Almost any method is allowed for penetrant application including spraying,
brushing, pouring or dipping. Penetrant should never be allowed to dry completely on the test
surface. The test object must be turned or moved to prevent pooling of penetrant during the
dwell time. It is important that all test surfaces are completely wetted with a thin coat of
penetrant for the entire specified dwell time.
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
PENETRANT DWELL TIME

The penetrant dwell time is the length of time that the penetrant is allowed to wet the surface
and soak into discontinuities. Some specifications and company procedures require different
penetrant dwell times for different types of materials or discontinuities. These times will be
specifically required for the particular test object or procedure referenced. Dwell times vary
between 5 and 60 minutes depending upon the manufacturers recommendations, temperature,
material, size and type of the discontinuity sought, which is the primary factor.
REMOVAL OF EXCESS PENETRANT

SOLVENT WIPE METHOD
After the required penetrant dwell time, the test object is first wiped with a clean, dry, lint free
cloth or paper towel. The towel should be white, or a colour that contrasts with the penetrant.
The removal of the bulk excess penetrant works best if clean sections of cloth are used for each
wipe. After the bulk of the excess penetrant is removed with dry cloths, the remaining penetrant
is removed with solvent dampened cloths. In no case should the cloths be saturated with cleaner.
If any cleaner drips or can be squeezed from the cloth, it is too wet and may remove the
penetrant from shallow discontinuities completely. When the surface of the test object is visually
free from penetrant and the wipe cloth is relatively clean after each wipe, the manual wiping
process is complete.
POST EMULSIFICATION HYDROPHILIC (WATER BASED)
The test object is ready for emulsification after the proper oil base penetrant is applied and the
dwell time has elapsed. The hydrophilic emulsifier and water can be used to remove the oil based
penetrant. Hydrophilic emulsifier is water based and is supplied in a concentrated form that is
diluted in water concentrations of 10 to 30% for dip applications, and 0.05 to 5% for spray
applications. A water pre-rinse is required to help remove some of the bulk penetrant before
dipping in the emulsifier. This helps prevent some of the penetrant contamination in the
emulsifier tank. Hydrophilic emulsifier acts on the penetrant from the surface by detergent
action. The spray or agitation in the tank provides a scrubbing action. The emulsification time for
dip tank applications is determined by experimentation and is normally 120 s maximum. The
manufacturer will specify the proper concentration of emulsifier in water, which should be
checked periodically with a refractometer. Tanks of emulsifier will mix with a small amount of
penetrant during the dipping process over a period of time. This is one reason for periodic checks
to monitor the system materials and performance.
POST EMULSIFICATION LIPOPHILIC (OIL BASED)
After the proper oil based penetrant is applied and the dwell time has elapsed, the test object is
ready for emulsification. The Lipophilic emulsifier is typically located in a dip tank, and is a
contrasting colour from the penetrant so that it forms a visible coat over the penetrant to ensure
complete coverage. Application is typically by dipping, but flowing may be used. No agitation of
the test object is allowed. The Lipophilic emulsifier acts by diffusing into the oil base penetrant
and scraping the penetrant from the surface, making it water washable. The emulsification time
is determined by experimentation and depends on the features of the test object, the uniform
dipping and draining of the test object and the viscosity of the emulsifier. This makes uniform
dipping, draining and emulsification time very important, so this method is typically monitored in
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
seconds. The maximum time allowed is 180 s for fluorescent systems and 30 s for visible systems,
and will be shorter for smoother test objects. After the proper emulsification, the water rinse is
identical to the water wash method.
WATER WASH METHOD
After the required penetrant dwell time and proper emulsification (if applicable), the water rinse
should be coarse droplets normally applied in an oblique angle (45 to 70) from a distance of
about 30 cm. The standard nozzles available from approved non-destructive testing suppliers
have been qualified for standard industry techniques. The water pressure should be controlled
and not exceeding the requirements set out in the referenced code section according to your
procedure/ application. The rinse is typically accomplished at a rinse station with adequate light
conditions. The light should shine on the test object so that the technician can evaluate when the
excess penetrant is removed. The technician should also ensure there is no over washing. When
the excess surface penetrant is removed, the surface water is drained or removed from the
cavities, holes or pockets. If allowed by the procedure, blotting or even filtered air spray may be
used, but care should be used not to smear any indications that may begin to bleed out.
DRYING AFTER EXCESS PENETRANT REMOVAL

The drying of a part after excess penetrant has been removed depend upon the type of
developer used. This is preferably carried out in a thermostatically controlled air circulating oven,
but, drying by normal evaporation is permitted if the procedure is authorized. Some
specifications may stipulate a low drying temperature in order to further control the penetrant
evaporation. The period of drying should be the minimum required to achieve the purpose and
should be established for each particular job, taking into consideration its size, shape and also the
nature of suspected discontinuities. Excessive drying may cause a reduction in the colour
brilliance of the penetrant bleed-out. Drying of the part is crucial before the application of
Solvent based developer, especially when penetrant was cleaned off with the water wash
method and post-emulsification method. If it is intended to use water suspendible or water
soluble developers, the developer is applied immediately after the excess penetrant has been
removed, whilst the surface is still wet and before surface drying is carried out. Drying then
assists in securing a uniform developer coating.
DEVELOPER APPLICATION
All developers must be applied so that a thin uniform coating covers the entire test surface.
Application of an excessive thickness can obscure, cover or extinguish indications. The developer
assists in the detection of penetrant retained in the discontinuities by aiding in the bleed-out
process by acting as a blotting agent.
DRY POWDER DEVELOPER
Not allowed for use with the visible methods.
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
WATER SOLUBLE DEVELOPER

Water soluble powder crystals are mixed with water and dissolve in the solution, following the
manufacturers recommendations. The developer solution mixture concentration is verified by
checking the specific gravity of the liquid with a hydrometer after mixing. Water soluble
developer concentration will change over time due to evaporation losses. Therefore, the
developer concentration should be checked on a weekly basis. The application occurs
immediately following excess penetrant removal and/or emulsification from the test object and
after draining or shaking off excess water, but before drying time. Wet developer is applied by
dipping (immersion), flow or spray techniques. Immersion in a prepared tank of developer is the
most common application method. With immersion testing, the test object is immersed only long
enough to coat all surfaces. It should then be removed immediately, and all excess from recesses
or trapped areas should be drained to prevent pooling of developer, which can obscure
indications. Wet developer is applied to form a smooth, even coating. Particular care should be
taken to avoid concentrations of developer in dished or hollowed areas of the test object. Such
concentrations of developer may mask penetrant indications and are to be avoided. This
developer is not normally used for critical applications or on complex geometry test objects.
WATER SUSPENDIBLE DEVELOPER
Water suspendable developer is a suspension of white powder mixed with water, following the
manufacturers recommendations. Water suspendable developers require constant mild
agitation (or thorough agitation before and during use) to keep the powder particles in
suspension. The water suspendable mixture concentration is verified by checking the specific
gravity with a hydrometer after mixing. Water suspendable developer concentration will change
over time due to evaporation losses. Therefore, the developer concentration should be checked
on a weekly basis. The application immediately follows excess penetrant removal from the test
object and after draining or shaking off excess water, but before drying time. The wet developer
is applied by dipping (immersion), flow or spray techniques. Immersion in a prepared tank of
developer is the most common application method. The test object should be immersed only
long enough to coat all surfaces. It should then be removed immediately, and all excess from
recesses or trapped areas should be drained to prevent pooling of developer, which can obscure
indications. Wet developer is applied to form a smooth, even coating. The fact that constant
agitation is required to maintain the proper mixture concentration is a disadvantage of water
suspendable developers. Care should be taken not to generate foam during agitations because
foam will cause uneven surface coating. This developer is not normally used for critical
applications or on complex geometry test objects.
NON AQUEOUS WET DEVELOPER
Non-aqueous wet developer is a powder suspended in a volatile liquid solvent. The volatile liquid
gives the advantage of decreasing the viscosity and increasing the liquid bulk in the cavity. This
action forces the penetrant to surface where it assist the dispersion of the penetrant away from
the discontinuity. The evaporation of the solvent tends to pull penetrant into the developer.
Non-aqueous wet developer is the most sensitive developer. The application is by spraying, and
the volatile liquid evaporates rapidly so that no delayed drying operation is required. The spray or
aerosol container must be thoroughly agitated just before spraying, and spraying should be done
sparingly so that a thin coating covers the entire test area. The sheen of the metal should barely
be covered. Several light coats are usually preferable, rather than attempting to cover the test
area with one spray. A light check spray should be performed away from the test surface to
ensure the spray nozzle is clean and free of obstructions.
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
DEVELOPER DWELL TIME

This is the time allowed between the application of developer and the actual final viewing of
indications. It is very important in the interpretation of indications because if too little time is
allowed, indications may not have had time to develop. Too much time will cause the indications
to become blurred or distorted. Developer dwell times vary with specification, company
procedures or techniques, type of materials, type of discontinuity to be detected, and type of
developer to be used. These dwell times typically range between 5 min and 4 hrs.
VIEWING CONDITIONS
Whether or not an indication will be seen involves the relative amount of light reflected which in
turn, should provide a clear difference between an indication and its background. The intensity of
light should be measured at the surface of the inspected part and in some cases even the
ambient light should be tested. In visible methods we have to ensure that enough visible light
(white light) is available. Visible light intensities are measured in units of lux or foot-candles.
These intensity values are specified by the referencing code in the procedure to be used.
INTERPRETATION
To interpret an indication is to decide what condition caused it. The technician should first
determine if the indication is false, non-relevant or relevant. One method of determining if an
indication is relevant is to dampen a cotton swab with solvent and gently wipe the indication off.
If the indication reappears, it is a relevant indication. This technique is known as the bleed back
method. If the indication is found to be non-relevant, the technician must determine the source
of the invalid indication and correct the problem. Test objects with false indications must be recleaned and reprocessed.
FALSE INDICATIONS
The most common sources of false indications is poor cleaning of test objects, poor removal of
excess penetrant, penetrant on the hands of the technician, contamination of developer (does
not apply to aerosol cans), penetrant rubbing off from one object to another and penetrant spots
on testing table. These indications cannot be ignored as they may mask relevant indications.
Therefore, re-processing shall be done.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS
Non-relevant indications are caused by features in the test object that are there by design, but
are in no way a relevant discontinuity. Non-relevant indications include those that appear on test
objects that are press fitted, riveted or spot welded together, and those caused by surface
roughness. Any non-relevant indication that interferes or could mask a relevant indication must
be further evaluated and sometimes retested. If a test object is too rough to perform a proper
liquid penetrant test, or has a condition like weld undercut that has been accepted visually, the
test object or weld may have to be returned for further preparation for liquid penetrant testing.
PAGE 26 OF 57

NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
RELEVANT INDICATIONS
Relevant indications are those caused by a material discontinuity. The interpretation of an
indication as relevant is a matter of observing the indication, eliminating the possibility of it being
a false indication and then further determining that it is not a non-relevant indication. Any
relevant indication immediately becomes subject to evaluation of its cause (type of
discontinuity). Some procedures allow measuring the visible discontinuity size after wiping out
the developer, other procedures require evaluation to be done considering the entire size of the
indication bleed-out. When the technician determines that the indication is relevant, it must then
be evaluated to the acceptance criteria.
POST CLEANING
Penetrant inspection residues can have several adverse effects on subsequent processing and
service. Developer and penetrant residues left on the test part, have detrimental effects on the
application of surface finishes such a painting, plating, and anodizing. Penetrant residues left in
the discontinuities can seriously affect the weld quality if not removed prior to repair welding.
Developer residues can interfere with the functioning of the part if they involve a moving or wear
surface. In addition, developer materials can absorb and retain moisture resulting in corrosion of
the part. Except for liquid oxygen, food compatibility and the chlorine/ sulfur free requirements
in the pre-cleaning and post-cleaning of nickel alloys, certain stainless steels and titanium, no
special materials are required for post cleaning unless required by specification of company
procedures.
REPORTING
A detailed report should be made in accordance with the clients requirements, procedure for the
inspection and referencing code specifications. These reports must be easily understandable and
clear. Each report has its own number and must be signed off by an approved level II or level III
technician for it to be valid. A report would generally consist of information on the method of
test, part specifications/ identification, penetrant material identifications, penetrant methods
and techniques. The report is normally accompanied by photos and/ or drawings on the findings
with results of the interpretation and evaluation made by technician.
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CHAPTER 4 FLUORESCENT METHODS

Fluorescent penetrant testing materials were specially designed to be more sensitive to fine
discontinuities and indications to be more visible and easier to detect. However, each step in the
process has to be specifically selected for each component, its location, practicality and type of
discontinuities sought. The fluorescent methods require special purpose light sources and
viewing conditions that might be found more expensive and is found to be less portable than the
visible methods. Contamination of the materials is a higher risk and high temperatures could
quench the fluorescence of the penetrants. Fluorescent testing can never be performed on a
surface after visible penetrant tests since the fluorescent brilliance of the penetrant may be
diminished by the residual visible penetrants in the discontinuities. Technicians may need to take
breaks from viewing to regain the concentration as special viewing conditions and ambient
lighting could restrain the eyesight. Flow charts of the fluorescent processes are shown later with
descriptions and possibilities of each step to follow.
PRE-REQUISITES FOR INSPECTION

Selection of the suitable penetrant type and process for a particular test depends on the
sensitivity required, number of parts to be tested, surface condition of the parts, geometry of
parts to be tested, availability of resources (electricity, water, compressed air) and area of test.
The advantages and disadvantages are set apart as follows for each type of visible process.
FLUORESCENT SOLVENT REMOVABLE PROCESS:

Advantages
Very high sensitivity
No water required
Good on anodized specimens
Good for spot checking
Disadvantages
Flammable materials
Removal of excess surface penetrant is time consuming
Materials not recommended to be used in open tanks
Difficult to use on rough surfaces such as cast components
Health hazard in enclosed spaces
Overly sensitive if cleaning is not properly done
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
Dry
developer
Wipe with
solvent
dampened
cloth
Non
Aqueous
wet
developer
Dry
developer
Fluorescent
Solvent
Removable
Penetrant
Lipophilic
(oil based)
Wash with
water
Post
emulsifier
Hydrophilic
(water
based)
FLUORESCENT POST EMULSIFICATION PROCESS

Advantages
High sensitivity for very thin discontinuities such as tight cracks
Easily washed with water after emulsification
Good on wide shallow discontinuities
Short penetration time
Cannot be easily over-washed
Non
Aqueous
wet
developer
Water
suspendible
Developer
Water
soluble
developer
Disadvantages
Penetrant may be contaminated with water and fluorescence reduced

Two step process
Equipment required for emulsifier application
More expensive
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
FLUORESCENT WATER WASHABLE PROCESS:

Advantages
Easily washed with water

Good for quantities of small specimens
Good for use on rough surfaces
Good for use on keyways and threads
Fast, single step process
Relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
Not reliable for fine, shallow or broad discontinuities

Easily over washed
Penetrant easily contaminated with water
Fluorescent
Water
Washable
Penetrant
Wash off
with water
Dry
developer
Non
Aqueous
wet
developer
Water
suspendible
Developer
Water
soluble
developer
PRE-CLEANING
Choosing the correct pre-cleaning material is an essential step in the penetrant process. No single
cleaning method is appropriate for all metals or contaminants. The pre-cleaning method must be
capable of removing dirt and oils without causing harm to the article under inspection. Certain
elements such as sulfur and chlorine have detrimental effects on certain materials such as Nickel
alloys, certain Stainless Steels and Titanium which could structurally damage the material. The
surface and all openings of discontinuities must be thoroughly cleaned to ensure that all
contaminants (oil, water, oxides, paint, dirt, grease, lint, mould material, weld spatter, flux, etc.)
that may prohibit or restrict the penetrant from entering the discontinuities, are completely
removed. All cleaning materials used should be compatible with other penetrant materials to be
used. Since the compatibility is not always a sure thing, general practice recommends the part to
be flushed with an approved solvent from the same family of penetrant materials to be used and
wiped with a clean dry cloth/ paper towel (lint-free) prior to testing. Typical cleaners would
include:
PAGE 30 OF 57

NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
SOLVENT CLEANING
Solvent cleaning may use tanks for immersion, or the solvent material may be sprayed, brushed
or wiped on and wiped off. Solvent cleaning is the process most commonly used for spot
inspections. However environmental, health and safety concerns are making detergent cleaning
and steam cleaning more attractive options. A solvent cleaner must evaporate readily and
completely from the surface and from the surface connected to the discontinuities. Solvent
cleaners should only be used to remove organic contaminants such as oil, grease, dirt, lint, etc.
DETERGENT CLEANING
Immersion tanks or and detergent solutions are common means of accomplishing the cleaning
required by liquid penetrant tests. The detergents wet, penetrate, emulsify and saponify (change
to soap) various soils. The only special equipment requirement imposed by penetrant test
cleaning is the need for suitable rinsing and drying facilities. When thoroughly rinsed and dried,
detergent cleaning leaves a test surface that is physically and chemically clean. Detergent
cleaners should have a combination of detergency (cleaning} dispersion, emulsifying, foaming,
solubilizing and wetting properties.
VAPOR DEGREASING
In a vapour degreaser, solvent is boiled at the bottom of a deep tank. The parts are lowered into
the vapors but not into the boiling liquids. Vapor degreasing is probably the most effective in the
removal of oil, grease and similar organic contamination. However, there are restrictions as to its
use before and after liquid penetrant testing. Safety and environmental concerns have virtually
eliminated vapor degreasing. Degreasing must be limited to those material that have been
approved for this method of cleaning. Unlike water based cleaners, vapour degreasing does not
require a rinse step or a drying (oven) step.
STEAM CLEANING
Steam cleaning equipment is particularly adaptable to the cleaning of large, unwieldy test objects
not easily cleaned by immersion. Special equipment is required for steam cleaning of test objects
destined for liquid penetrant testing. Steam with alkaline detergent emulsifies, softens or
dissolves the organic contaminant, and the steam gives the mechanical action to remove alkaline
detergent/contaminant from the test object.
ULTRASONIC CLEANING
Ultrasonic agitation is often combined with solvent, detergent or alkaline cleaning to improve
efficiency and reduce cleaning time. Ultrasonic cleaning equipment is useful in the cleaning of
large quantities of small test objects. In many cases, special approvals must be granted to use
ultrasonic agitation.
CHEMICAL CLEANING
Ensure that chemicals are compatible with materials under test and that manufacturers
recommendations are followed at all times. Be aware that acids are not allowed to dwell on the
parts too long so an enormous loss of material is present. Paint strippers may be used to remove
all coatings from the material. Rust and surface scale removers are used to remove an excess of
contaminants when physical removal is prohibited. Test objects that had metal smearing
operations often require etching to prepare them for liquid penetrant testing. This process uses
an acid or alkaline solution to open and remove smeared metal from surface discontinuities. All
acid or alkaline residues must be neutralized and removed before liquid penetrant testing. The
PAGE 31 OF 57

NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
etching and neutralizing processes use either tanks for immersion or manual equipment and
materials.
PRECLEANING PROCESSES TO BE AVOIDED
Blast (shot, sand, grits or pressure), liquid honing, emery cloth, grinders, power wire brushes and
metal scrapers should not be used on the test object before liquid penetrant testing. These
processes tend to close discontinuities by smearing metal, peening or cold working the surface. A
hand wire brush may be helpful in removing rust, surface scale or paint. Relatively fine bristle
brushes should be used and light pressure exerted to prevent smearing of softer metals.
CLEANLINESS CHECK
It is crucial to fluorescent testing that the surface to be inspected is checked under an Ultra violet
light after cleaning to ensure that the pre-cleaning was done sufficiently and that no
contaminants that fluoresces can be seen on the material.
DRYING PRIOR TO PENETRANT APPLICATION

It is very important to ensure all surfaces and all potential discontinuities are completely dry prior
to the application and dwell of penetrant. If any liquid pre-cleaner remains in discontinuities, the
penetrant may be unable to enter discontinuities and an inadequate exam will be performed.
This is critical because the technician may not be aware that penetrant did not enter the
discontinuities. Drying of the part or surface should be determined by the area where work is
performed, ambient temperature and air ventilation. Some specifications require the use of oven
dryers that help with the evaporation of the pre-cleaners from the part.
PENETRANT APPLICATION
The application of penetrant is performed after the test surface is completely clean, has been
properly dried and checked under the UV light. Almost any method is allowed for penetrant
application including spraying, brushing, pouring or dipping. Penetrant should never be allowed
to dry completely on the test surface. The test object must be turned or moved to prevent
pooling of penetrant during the dwell time. It is important that all test surfaces are completely
wetted with a thin coat of penetrant for the entire specified dwell time. In fluorescent testing, a
UV-light may be used to ensure that the penetrant was applied to the entire area of interest.
PENETRANT DWELL TIME

The penetrant dwell time is the length of time that the penetrant is allowed to wet the surface
and soak into discontinuities. Some specifications and company procedures require different
penetrant dwell times for different types of materials or discontinuities. These times will be
specifically required for the particular test object or procedure referenced. Dwell times vary
between 5 and 60 minutes depending upon the manufacturers recommendations, temperature,
material, size and type of the discontinuity sought, which is the primary factor.
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REMOVAL OF EXCESS PENETRANT

SOLVENT WIPE METHOD
After the required penetrant dwell time, the test object is first wiped with a clean, dry, lint free
cloth or paper towel. The towel should be white, or a colour that contrasts with the penetrant.
The removal of the bulk excess penetrant works best if clean sections of cloth are used for each
wipe. After the bulk of the excess penetrant is removed with dry cloths, the remaining penetrant
is removed with solvent dampened cloths. In no case should the cloths be saturated with cleaner.
If any cleaner drips or can be squeezed from the cloth, it is too wet and may remove the
penetrant from shallow discontinuities completely. When the surface of the test object is visually
free from penetrant and the wipe cloth is relatively clean after each wipe, the manual wiping
process is complete.
POST EMULSIFICATION HYDROPHILIC (WATER BASED)
The test object is ready for emulsification after the proper oil base penetrant is applied and the
dwell time has elapsed. The hydrophilic emulsifier and water can be used to remove the oil based
penetrant. Hydrophilic emulsifier is water based and is supplied in a concentrated form that is
diluted in water concentrations of 10 to 30% for dip applications, and 0.05 to 5% for spray
applications. A water pre-rinse is required to help remove some of the bulk penetrant before
dipping in the emulsifier. This helps prevent some of the penetrant contamination in the
emulsifier tank. Hydrophilic emulsifier acts on the penetrant from the surface by detergent
action. The spray or agitation in the tank provides a scrubbing action. The emulsification time for
dip tank applications is determined by experimentation and is normally 120 s maximum. The
manufacturer will specify the proper concentration of emulsifier in water, which should be
checked periodically with a refractometer. Tanks of emulsifier will mix with a small amount of
penetrant during the dipping process over a period of time. This is one reason for periodic checks
to monitor the system materials and performance.
POST EMULSIFICATION LIPOPHILIC (OIL BASED)
After the proper oil based penetrant is applied and the dwell time has elapsed, the test object is
ready for emulsification. The Lipophilic emulsifier is typically located in a dip tank, and is a
contrasting colour from the penetrant so that it forms a visible coat over the penetrant to ensure
complete coverage. Application is typically by dipping, but flowing may be used. No agitation of
the test object is allowed. The Lipophilic emulsifier acts by diffusing into the oil base penetrant
and scraping the penetrant from the surface, making it water washable. The emulsification time
is determined by experimentation and depends on the features of the test object, the uniform
dipping and draining of the test object and the viscosity of the emulsifier. This makes uniform
dipping, draining and emulsification time very important, so this method is typically monitored in
seconds. The maximum time allowed is 180 s for fluorescent systems and 30 s for visible systems,
and will be shorter for smoother test objects. After the proper emulsification, the water rinse is
identical to the water wash method.
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WATER WASH METHOD

After the required penetrant dwell time and proper emulsification (if applicable), the water rinse
should be coarse droplets normally applied in an oblique angle (45 to 70) from a distance of
about 30 cm. The standard nozzles available from approved non-destructive testing suppliers
have been qualified for standard industry techniques. The water pressure should be controlled
and not exceeding the requirements set out in the referenced code section according to your
procedure/ application. The rinse is typically accomplished at a rinse station with adequate light
conditions. The light should shine on the test object so that the technician can evaluate when the
excess penetrant is removed. The technician should also ensure there is no over washing. When
the excess surface penetrant is removed, the surface water is drained or removed from the
cavities, holes or pockets. If allowed by the procedure, blotting or even filtered air spray may be
used, but care should be used not to smear any indications that may begin to bleed out.
CLEANLINESS CHECK
After the removal of the excess penetrant from the surface, it is required that the part be
inspected under a UV-light to ensure that all penetrant residues have been removed from the
surface. Some specifications require that the cleaning/ washing area is equipped with a
permanent UV-light source to check the effectiveness of the cleaning/ wash cycle.
DRYING AFTER EXCESS PENETRANT REMOVAL

The drying of a part after excess penetrant has been removed depend upon the type of
developer used. This is preferably carried out in a thermostatically controlled air circulating oven,
but, drying by normal evaporation is permitted if the procedure is authorized. Some
specifications may stipulate a low drying temperature in order to further control the penetrant
evaporation. The period of drying should be the minimum required to achieve the purpose and
should be established for each particular job, taking into consideration its size, shape and also the
nature of suspected discontinuities. Excessive drying may cause a reduction in the colour
brilliance of the penetrant bleed-out. Drying of the part is crucial before the application of
Solvent based developer, especially when penetrant was cleaned off with the water wash
method and post-emulsification method. If it is intended to use water suspendible or water
soluble developers, the developer is applied immediately after the excess penetrant has been
removed, whilst the surface is still wet and before surface drying is carried out. Drying then
assists in securing a uniform developer coating.
DEVELOPER APPLICATION
All developers must be applied so that a thin uniform coating covers the entire test surface.
Application of an excessive thickness can obscure, cover or extinguish indications. The developer
assists in the detection of penetrant retained in the discontinuities by aiding in the bleed-out
process by acting as a blotting agent.
DRY POWDER DEVELOPER
Dry developer is loose, fluffy powder used with fluorescent penetrants. After removal of excess
penetrant and/or emulsification and drying, dry powder developer is applied to the test surface
for the purpose of absorbing penetrant from discontinuities and enhancing the resultant
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penetrant indication. Dry developer may be applied in a dust cloud chamber activated by an air
blast. The developer can be applied with an electrostatic sprayer, or the technician can dip the
test object into the dry powder. Excess powder is shaken of the test object. Of the different
developers available, dry developer is the most adaptable to rough surfaces and automatic
processing. It is also the easiest to handle, apply and remove. Dry powder is not corrosive, gives
of no vapors and leaves no residue or film to affect the next processing step. Dry developer
should not be used with visible dye penetrant because of the poor contrast provided by the thin
coating of very fine powder.
WATER SOLUBLE DEVELOPER
Water soluble powder crystals are mixed with water and dissolve in the solution, following the
manufacturers recommendations. The developer solution mixture concentration is verified by
checking the specific gravity of the liquid with a hydrometer after mixing. Water soluble
developer concentration will change over time due to evaporation losses. Therefore, the
developer concentration should be checked on a weekly basis. The application occurs
immediately following excess penetrant removal and/or emulsification from the test object and
after draining or shaking off excess water, but before drying time. Wet developer is applied by
dipping (immersion), flow or spray techniques. Immersion in a prepared tank of developer is the
most common application method. With immersion testing, the test object is immersed only long
enough to coat all surfaces. It should then be removed immediately, and all excess from recesses
or trapped areas should be drained to prevent pooling of developer, which can obscure
concentrations of developer may mask penetrant indications and are to be avoided. This
developer is not normally used for critical applications or on complex geometry test objects.
WATER SUSPENDIBLE DEVELOPER
Water suspendable application is a suspension of white powder mixed with water, following the
manufacturers recommendations. Water suspendable developers require constant mild
agitation (or thorough agitation before and during use) to keep the powder particles in
suspension. The water suspendable mixture concentration is verified by checking the specific
gravity with a hydrometer after mixing. Water suspendable developer concentration will change
over time due to evaporation losses. Therefore, the developer concentration should be checked
on a weekly basis. The application immediately follows excess penetrant removal from the test
object and after draining or shaking off excess water, but before drying time. The wet developer
is applied by dipping (immersion), flow or spray techniques. Immersion in a prepared tank of
developer is the most common application method. The test object should be immersed only
long enough to coat all surfaces. It should then be removed immediately, and all excess from
recesses or trapped areas should be drained to prevent pooling of developer, which can obscure
concentrations of developer may mask penetrant indications and should be avoided. The fact
that constant agitation is required to maintain the proper mixture concentration is a
disadvantage of water suspendable developers. Care should be taken not to generate foam
during agitations because foam will cause uneven surface coating. This developer is not normally
used for critical applications or on complex geometry test objects.
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NON AQUEOUS WET DEVELOPER

Non-aqueous wet developer is a powder suspended in a volatile liquid solvent. The volatile liquid
gives the advantage of decreasing the viscosity and increasing the liquid bulk in the cavity. This
action forces the penetrant to surface where it assist the dispersion of the penetrant away from
the discontinuity. The evaporation of the solvent tends to pull penetrant into the developer.
Non-aqueous wet developer is the most sensitive developer. The application is by spraying, and
the volatile liquid evaporates rapidly so that no delayed drying operation is required. The spray or
aerosol container must be thoroughly agitated just before spraying, and spraying should be done
sparingly so that a thin coating covers the entire test area. The sheen of the metal should barely
be covered. Several light coats are usually preferable, rather than attempting to cover the test
area with one spray. A light check spray should be performed away from the test surface to
ensure the spray nozzle is clean and free of obstructions.
DEVELOPER DWELL TIME

This is the time allowed between the application of developer and the actual final viewing of
indications. It is very important in the interpretation of indications because if too little time is
allowed, indications may not have had time to develop. Too much time will cause the indications
to become blurred or distorted. Developer dwell times vary with specification, company
procedures or techniques, type of materials, type of discontinuity to be detected, and type of
developer to be used. These dwell times typically range between 5 min and 4 hrs.
VIEWING CONDITIONS
Whether or not an indication will be seen involves the relative amount of light reflected which in
turn, should provide a clear difference between an indication and its background. The intensity of
light should be measured at the surface of the inspected part and in fluorescent testing
applications even the ambient light should be tested. In fluorescent methods we have to ensure
that only a certain amount of visible light (white light) is present in the area. Visible light
intensities are measured in units of lux or foot-candles. The Ultra Violet light source should be
measured at the surface and has to achieve a specified minimum intensity. UV-light is measured
in units of W/cm2. These intensity values are specified by the referencing code in the procedure
to be used.
INTERPRETATION
To interpret an indication is to decide what condition caused it. The technician should first
determine if the indication is false, non-relevant or relevant. One method of determining if an
indication is relevant is to dampen a cotton swab with solvent and gently wipe the indication off.
If the indication reappears, it is a relevant indication. This technique is known as the bleed back
method. If the indication is found to be non-relevant, the technician must determine the source
of the invalid indication and correct the problem. Test objects with false indications must be recleaned and reprocessed.
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FALSE INDICATIONS
The most common sources of false indications is poor cleaning of test objects, poor removal of
excess penetrant, penetrant on the hands of the technician, contamination of developer (does
not apply to aerosol cans), penetrant rubbing off from one object to another and penetrant spots
on testing table. These indications cannot be ignored as they may mask relevant indications.
Therefore, re-processing shall be done.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS
Non-relevant indications are caused by features in the test object that are there by design, but
are in no way a relevant discontinuity. Non-relevant indications include those that appear on test
objects that are press fitted, riveted or spot welded together, and those caused by surface
roughness. Any non-relevant indication that interferes or could mask a relevant indication must
be further evaluated and sometimes retested. If a test object is too rough to perform a proper
liquid penetrant test, or has a condition like weld undercut that has been accepted visually, the
test object or weld may have to be returned for further preparation for liquid penetrant testing.
Relevant indications are those caused by a material discontinuity. The interpretation of an
indication as relevant is a matter of observing the indication, eliminating the possibility of it being
a false indication and then further determining that it is not a non-relevant indication. Any
relevant indication immediately becomes subject to evaluation of its cause (type of
discontinuity). Some procedures allow measuring the visible discontinuity size after wiping out
the developer, other procedures require evaluation to be done considering the entire size of the
indication bleed-out. When the technician determines that the indication is relevant, it must then
be evaluated to the acceptance criteria.
POST CLEANING
Penetrant inspection residues can have several adverse effects on subsequent processing and
service. Developer and penetrant residues left on the test part, have detrimental effects on the
application of surface finishes such a painting, plating, and anodizing. Penetrant residues left in
the discontinuities can seriously affect the weld quality if not removed prior to repair welding.
Developer residues can interfere with the functioning of the part if they involve a moving or wear
surface. In addition, developer materials can absorb and retain moisture resulting in corrosion of
the part. Except for liquid oxygen, food compatibility and the chlorine/ sulfur free requirements
in the pre-cleaning and post-cleaning of nickel alloys, certain stainless steels and titanium, no
special materials are required for post cleaning unless required by specification of company
procedures.
CLEANLINESS CHECK
It is recommended that a final check be done under a UV-light to ensure that all penetrant
material residues have been removed from the part or surface inspected.
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REPORTING
A detailed report should be made in accordance with the clients requirements, procedure for the
inspection and referencing code specifications. These reports must be easily understandable and
clear. Each report has its own number and must be signed off by an approved level II or level III
technician for it to be valid. A report would generally consist of information on the method of
test, part specifications/ identification, penetrant material identifications, penetrant methods
and techniques. The report is normally accompanied by photos and/ or drawings on the findings
with results of the interpretation and evaluation made by technician.
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CHAPTER 5 SPECIAL PURPOSE CHEMICALS

FILTERED PARTICLE TESTING
This inspection technique can be used to locate defects in porous surfaces such as unfired dried
clay, certain fired ceramics, concrete, some powdered metals, carbon, and partially sintered
tungsten and titanium carbide. In this method a fluid containing suspended particles is applied to
the porous surface. The liquid is absorbed in the specimen. Because of the extra absorbent area
provided by a defect, the fluid is absorbed to a greater extent at the defect areas. As the fluid is
absorbed by the porous surface, the suspended particles being larger than the defect opening are
filtered out and left behind on the surface to form an indication. The suspended particles can give
a visible indication, or particles coated with a fluorescent pigment can be used to give higher
contrast. The commercially available materials consist of a light petroleum distillate carrying in
suspension a wide range of particle sizes in the micron range. A filtered particle method is sold
under the trade name Partek by the Magnaflux Corporation.
FOOD COMPATIBLE
It may seem impossible to use PT in food industry: chemicals in contact with foodstuffs!!! In fact,
PT materials do not come in close contact with foodstuffs, but they are widely used. For instance,
in plants manufacturing cream and yoghurts from milk, very large heat exchangers, made of
scores or hundreds very thin stainless steel sheets, are used to warm milk. On one side, there is
milk, on the other side, steam brings the heat to the system. In no way steam and milk must
come in contact. This could happen if a leak exists in one, or several, sheets. Leak-through testing
is mandatory on a periodic basis, using either colour-contrast products or a fluorescent system,
quite often without a developer then.
LIQUID OXYGEN (LOX) COMPATIBLE PENETRANTS
Liquid oxygen (LOX) has a high degree of chemical reactivity. It will explosively react or combine
with a large number of materials. This includes oils and traces or residues from normal penetrant
inspection materials. There are special cleaning procedures to be used on parts and components
that will be contacting gaseous or liquid oxygen. Disassembled parts may be penetrant inspected
in the lab, but shall be sent to the cleaning shop for complete removal of residual inspection
materials. Difficulties are encountered with assembled parts and complex shaped parts
containing crevices, recessed areas, or faying surfaces where inspection materials become
trapped and are not easily removed by cleaning. Such items shall be inspected by another nondestructive test method or special penetrant materials shall be used which do not react with
liquid oxygen. There are LOX compatible materials available by special order which are either
completely volatile and evaporates from the surfaces and discontinuities within a certain time
period or, the materials are water soluble and can be completely washed off with water.
LOW TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
To carry out PT in winter or in countries where temperature is often below 10 to 15C, a specific
colour contrast system may be used down to -30C. Be sure to remember that water is not
welcome as a remover. The Solvent removable methods and solvent based developer would be
ideal for these uses. Spray can propellant is mostly LPG (liquid petroleum gas) or DME (dimethyl
ether), both being liquefied gases. When temperatures are very low, the pressure in spray cans
using liquefied gases may dramatically drop, more than in spray cans propelled with compressed
gases, such as carbon dioxide CO2. This is why the spray cans shall be kept at a minimal
temperature of 10C. The technicians body heat can be utilized for this temperature control.
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HIGH TEMPERATURE PENETRANT MATERIALS

Standard penetrant materials are limited to temperatures of about 50C. There are special
penetrant systems formulated for use above 50C. These special hightemperature penetrants contain visible and fluorescent dyes that resist heat degradation. The
vehicles and solvents are carefully chosen to remain liquid and resist evaporation at the
operating temperature. The non-aqueous wet developer must be modified since standard
developer will peel or curl on hot surfaces. The upper temperature limits are in the range of
177C to 204C. Typical applications for high temperature penetrant systems are the inspection
of live steam valves and lines and intermediate weld beads prior to laying down a covering bead.
LOW SULPHUR AND CHLORIDE
There is considerable concern over the effects of small quantities of sulfur and halogens present
in penetrant materials. This concern is due to the increased use of high temperature alloys such
as nickel and cobalt-base alloys, austenitic stainless steel and titanium in aircraft and engines.
These alloys are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement, intergranular corrosion, and stress
corrosion. Small amounts of sulfur and halogens, principally chloride, remaining on the alloys
during service will increase their susceptibility to attack. Sulfur and halogens are not essential
compounds in penetrant materials, nor are they deliberately added. They are usually introduced
as contaminants in the raw materials.
REVERSED FLUORESCENCE METHOD
The reversed fluorescence method is similar to a photographic-negative of the standard
fluorescent penetrant inspection. A standard visible-dye penetrant is applied to the surface to be
inspected and after the dwell, the excess is removed in the normal manner. A special developer,
containing a low intensity fluorescing dye and a relatively small amount of developer powder, is
applied by spraying under a black light. The entire surface will fluoresce, except for the flaw,
which appears as a dark line where the penetrant has quenched the fluorescent dye.
PLASTIC-FILM DEVELOPERS
Plastic-film developers form a dry, flexible layer that can be peeled or stripped to provide a
record of indications on test surfaces. The most frequently used plastic-film developers are twopart systems. The first part provides developer action while forming a white, reflecting
background. The second part forms a clear layer that freezes the indication and provides film
strength and some flexibility. The layers combine and can be removed from the part as a thin film
and maintained as a record of the indication.
FINGERPRINTS' DETECTION
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) sprays a Level 2 WW fluorescent penetrant on the
areas on which fingerprints could have been left by people they are looking for. The penetrant is
glued by the lipo-acidic (oily sweat) skin coating marks left on glass and other surfaces. This
process comes in addition to the cyanoacrylate ester (super glue) process. (Process often shown
in series such as CIS: Crime Scene Investigation. The part is put into a closed cabinet,
cyanoacrylate glue is heated and settles down on the wrinkles left by the fingers on the
surfaces).
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CHAPTER 6 INLINE SYSTEMS

Inline penetrant testing units can be arranged so test objects are moved manually, mechanically
assisted, semiautomatic or fully automatic. This choice depends on budget, timing and the long
term system performance. The size of the testing unit is largely dependent on the size and types
of test objects. The layout of the equipment may be U shaped, or L shaped or straight line, and is
determined by the facilities available, the production rate and the required ease of handling.
Herewith follows some pictures/ photos of these systems.
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CHAPTER 7 CONTROL CHECKS

The reliability of any penetrant test is determined in large part by the condition of the materials
used and the ambient conditions of the testing area.
LIQUID PENETRANT MATERIALS

Even the best procedures are ineffective if test materials are faulty. To ensure satisfactory
condition of penetrant test materials, various quality control procedures are used. This chapter
discusses the in-service checks used to test penetrant materials held in open tanks and subject to
contamination or evaporation. Each of the quality control procedures mentioned here is based
on the assumption that care, handling and use of the materials are strictly in accordance with
manufacturers recommendations.
Many additional quality control procedures, such as the determination of sulfur and chlorine
content, liquid oxygen compatibility, temperature stability, water tolerance, viscosity, flash point,
toxicity and developer precipitation rates, are described in the various controlling specifications
and standards. These procedures, however, are primarily of interest to the manufacturer or
laboratory technician rather than the individual performing or monitoring penetrant tests.
Quality control procedures are also available from manufacturers and various technical societies
such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and various ISO standards.
Described below are various control checks that have to be done on the materials in open tanks
(not done on aerosol cans) to ensure that they are still usable:
CONTAMINATION OF PENETRANT, EMULSIFYER AND DEVELOPERS
Penetrant and Developer tanks should be checked daily for signs of precipitates (unknown
material deposits), waxy deposits, white colouration, surface scum or any other evidence of
contamination or breakdown. Emulsifiers should have clear orange, red or blue (depends on
product) colours and if it starts to turn opaque (milky) it should be replaced.
CONCENTRATION OF HYDROPHILIC EMULSIFIERS
A periodic check should be done to check the concentration of the Emulsifier mixture. This most
widely accepted and most accurate test is by use of a refractometer.
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CONCENTRATION OF DEVELOPERS
The concentration of water based developers should be checked on a weekly basis by measuring
the specific gravity with a hydrometer. If the readings differ from manufacturers specifications,
either powder or water should be added to bring to specified levels.
WATER WASHABILITY TEST

To achieve maximum contrast between indications and background, excess surface penetrant
must be readily removable. In the water washability test, the performance of the used penetrant
is compared to that of the reference penetrant. The penetrants are applied to separate test
panels. After normal dwell and draining periods and emulsification (if applicable), the penetrants
are washed from the panels using a uniform water spray. If washing is found to be difficult, or
retention of background penetrant is noticeably different from that of the reference penetrant,
the penetrant is discarded.
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SENSITIVITY COMPARISON TEST

This test can be used to compare different penetrant materials to see the sensitivity of the
method and/ or to check the sensitivity of used penetrant compared to new penetrant. When
performing a sensitivity comparison test, the penetrant is applied to one half the reference block,
and the reference or control penetrant is applied to the remaining half. The processing used,
including dwell time, emulsification or removal and developing is recommended by the penetrant
manufacturer. The indications are then visually compared under the appropriate lighting (normal
or white light for visible dye penetrant indications and ultraviolet radiation for fluorescent
indications). If a noticeable difference exists in the sensitivity or intensity of indications (as
determined by visual observation), the penetrant is discarded. Likewise, if the penetrant shows
evidence of contamination from dirt, it is discarded.
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WATER CONTENT TEST

Water content of a penetrant is best determined by the test described in ASTM Standard
D95-99e1: Standard Test Method for Water in Petroleum Products and Bituminous Materials by
Distillation. About 100 ml of the penetrant is placed in a boiling flask with a similar quantity of
moisture free xylene. The flask is connected to a reflux condenser so that the condensate drops
into a 25 ml graduated tube where the water settles out. When no more water is being gathered
in the graduated tube (usually after a period of 1 h), the boiling process is terminated. After
cooling, the volume of water in the graduated tube is read. The volume in millilitres is the
percent of water by volume present in the penetrant. The penetrant is also examined for
evidence of gelling, separating, clouding, coagulating or floating of water on the penetrant
surface. If any of these conditions exist, or the percent of water exceeds specification
requirements, the penetrant is discarded.
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FLUORESCENT LUMINANCE TEST

The fluorescent luminance test is a comparison of the luminance of the control penetrant sample
to the used penetrant in tanks. If a visual comparison is made, differences of 25% are obvious,
differences of 12% are noticeable and differences of 6% are detectable by the eye. Experts may
sometimes detect 3% differences, but these are not typically detectable to the average observer.
Most specifications require the luminance test be performed with a fluorometer. In this test, a
small amount of the penetrant to be tested and the reference penetrant are diluted with a
non-fluorescent, highly volatile solvent such as acetone. Test papers, cut to fit the sample holder
of the fluorometer, are then dipped into solutions, withdrawn and dried. The samples are then
alternately read on the fluorometer and the results compared. If the fluorescent intensity of the
penetrant should drop below 90% of the reference penetrant, the penetrant is discarded.
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ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
With fluorescent particles, the examination is performed using an ultraviolet light emitting light
with a wavelength of 365 nanometers. Many of these ultraviolet sources can be dangerous if the
filters are not in place. UV light sources emit UV-A, UV-B, UV-C and white light. UV-B, and UV-C
can cause skin irritation and with too much exposure lead to skin cancer, hence the reason to
ensure that filters are in place. White light is something that should be kept to a minimum when
inspecting, therefore the filters are used to minimise white light emitted as well. Shown below is
the electromagnetic energy spectrum:
The older types of UV-lamps had mercury vapour bulbs. Shown below is both a picture and
sketch. These bulbs operated on 110V (with transformers to convert higher amount of voltages,
but could not operate below 110V) and most had a power output of 100W. Generally, new black
light sources are LED bulbs with some type of magnifying glass and filter to intensify the light.
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Prior to testing, the technician shall ensure that the following parameters are adhered to:
It shall be performed in a darkened area.

Examiners shall be in the darkened area for at least five minutes prior to performing the
examination to enable their eyes to adapt to dark viewing. Glasses or lenses worn by
examiners shall not be photo chromic or exhibit any fluorescence.
Black lights shall achieve the minimum of intensity on the surface of the part being
examined as specified by the referencing code section throughout the examination.
Reflectors, filters, glasses and lenses should be checked and, if necessary, cleaned prior
to use. Cracked or broken reflectors, filters, glasses or lenses shall be replaced
immediately.
The black light intensity shall be measured with a black light meter prior to use,
whenever the lights power source is interrupted or changed and at the completion of
the examination or series of examination.
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CHAPTER 8 HEALTH AND SAFETY

Be advised that most penetrant materials, whether pressurized or in open tanks should be
treated as the flammable liquids they are. If a technician wishes to know of the composition and
handling of the equipment, and even the use (step by step) you could always consult the
Materials Safety data sheet as shown on the next few pages.
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
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NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
SUMMARY OF DISCONTINUITIES
I SEE DISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuity
Cold shut
Pipe
Hot tears
Porosity
Inclusions
Segregation
INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES
Location
Cause
surface or subsurface meeting of two streams of liquid metal that do not fuse together
surface
absence of molten metal during the final solidification process
surface
restraint from the core of mold during the cooling process
surface or subsurface entrapped gases during solidification of metal
surface or subsurface contaminants introduced during the casting process
surface or subsurface localized differences in material composition
Discontinuity
Seams
Laminations
Stringers
Cupping
Cooling cracks
Laps
Bursts
Hydrogen flakes
PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

Location
Cause
surface
elongation of unfused surface discontinuities in rolled products
subsurface
elongation and compression of inherent discontinuities
subsurface
elongation and compression of inherent discontinuities
subsurface
internal stresses during cold drawing
surface
uneven cooling of cold drawn products
surface
material folded over and compressed
surface or subsurface forming processes at excessive temperatures
subsurface
an abundance of hydrogen during the forming process
Discontinuity
Cold cracking
Hot cracking
Solidification
Liquidation
Lamellar tearing
Lack of fusion
Porosity
Inclusions
Slag
Tungsten
Oxide
Undercut
Overlap
Lack of penetration
PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES IN WELDS

Location
Cause
surface or subsurface atomic hydrogen, hardenable material and high residual stress
surface or subsurface
surface
subsurface
low melting point constituents opening up during solidification

segregation of material in the liquid state during solidification
delamination of base material during solidification and cooling
failure of the filler metal to coalesce with the base metal
entrapped constituents in molten weld metal during solidification
improper cleaning of a previous weld pass

molten weld pool contact with filler metal and tungsten electrode
mixing oxides on the base metal surface into the weld pool
oversized weld pool
insufficient amperage or travel speed
failure of the weld material to penetrate weld preperation to root
SECONDARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuity
Location
Cause
Grinding cracks
surface
localized overheating of the material caused by improper grinding
Heat treating cracks subsurface
uneven heating or cooling
Quench cracks
surface
sudden cooling from elevated temperatures
Pickling cracks
surface
residual stresses being relieved
Machine tears
surface
improper machining practices
Plating cracks
surface
residual stresses being relieved
Discontinuity
Fatigue
Creep
Stress cracking
Hydrogen cracking
subsurface
subsurface
surface
surface
surface
surface
IN-SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES
Location
Cause
surface
cyclically applied stress below the ultimate tensile strength
surface or subsurface material subjected to high temperatures and stress
surface
combined effects of a static tensile load and corrosive environment
surface or subsurface combined effects of stress and hydrogen enriched environment
PAGE 56 OF 57

NASA-PT-3001 REV. 0
INTERPRETATION VS. EVALUATION

INTERPRETATION
To decide what condition caused the indication.
FALSE INDICATION
Can be caused by rough surfaces, dirty work surfaces/ areas, hair, lint, dirt, scale, rust and does
not necessarily break the surface continuity. False indications shall be eliminated by re-testing
the part.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATION
Caused by design features such as rivets, grinding grooves, weld curves, certain small indications
as described by some specifications and can be said to be surface breaking discontinuities that
are supposed to be there (part of manufacturing process). Be sure to inspect all non-relevant
indications so not to mask an actual relevant indication.
Caused by surface discontinuities. All relevant indications must be evaluated according to
Acceptance standards.
EVALUATION
To decide whether the indication is acceptable, rejectable or needs rework.
CLASSIFICATION
First determine whether the indication is round or linear (three times as long as wide).
LINEAR INDICATION: L > 3W
ROUND INDICATION: L 3W
SPECIFICATIONS
Design engineers predetermine the acceptance criteria. Standards are written in clear
specifications and should be adhered to at all times.
REPORTS
Measure each relevant indication and fill out a detailed report. Mark out indications on test
object so they can be repaired or reworked.
PAGE 57 OF 57

3001 Rev.0 - Liquid Penetrant Testing Level 1 &amp; 2 Combined - Note Book

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LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

CHAPTER 1 QUALIFICATION, CERTIFICATION AND AUTHORIZATION

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

set up NDT equipment;

select the NDT technique for the testing method to be used;

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

5 Open Code Book Questions. (10 points)

Complete a Calibration Procedure as allocated by examiner.

Complete a Written Instruction.

Fill out a Test Report.

Complete a Technique sheet.

Fill out a Test Report.

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

CHAPTER 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES

Longer contact times are required.

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

COHESION AND ADHESION

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

Capillary Action (Capillarity)

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

Low economic loss due to low evaporation loss.

Uniform removal and fluorescent properties because of minimal evaporation.

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

the ability to be removed from a surface leaving little or no residual background

resistance to being removed from discontinuities

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

DISADVANTAGES (14 listed):

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

BASIC PENETRANT TESTING PROCESS

A thorough pre-cleaning to ensure all surface contaminants

Apply penetrant by brushing, spraying, flooding, dipping, etc.

Allow penetrant to dwell in order for the penetrant to flow

Clean off excess penetrant from the surface.

Apply a thin, even layer of developer and allow a developer

Inspect for indications under correct light requirements.

Post cleaning should be done to ensure all penetrant materials

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

CLASSIFICATION OF PENETRANT MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

Fluorescent Dye Penetrant

Visible Dye Penetrant

Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic (oil based)

Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic (water based)

Non-aqueous wet for fluorescent dye Type I

Non-aqueous wet for visible dye Type II

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

See Wet developer.

The surface on which an indication is viewed. It may be the

Fluorescent residue observed over the general surface of

Term used colloquially to designate the liquid penetrant

See Ultraviolet radiation.

The action of the entrapped penetrant in spreading out

The action of the developer in soaking up penetrant from a

The tendency of liquids to penetrate or migrate into small

Free of interfering solid or liquid contamination.

Colour contrast penetrant:

See Visible dye penetrant.

Comparative reference block:

An intentionally cracked metal block having two separate

A fluid that begins emulsifying penetrant on simple contact

The difference in visibility (luminance or coloration)

The adjustment of the eyes when one passes from a bright

A discontinuity that interferes with the usefulness of an

3001 Rev.0 - Liquid Penetrant Testing Level 1 & 2 Combined - Note Book

3001 Rev.0 - Liquid Penetrant Testing Level 1 & 2 Combined - Note Book