2001 Rev.0 - Magnetic Particle Testing Level 1 & 2 Combined - Note Book

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK
NASA-MT-2001 REV.0
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 QUALIFICATION, CERTIFICATION AND AUTHORISATION .............................. 2
CHAPTER 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES .......................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 3 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES .............................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 4 CURRENT TYPES........................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 5 MAGNETIZING METHODS............................................................................ 27
CHAPTER 6 DEMAGNETISATION .................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER 7 DETECTION MEDIUM................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 8 VIEWING CONDITIONS ................................................................................ 56
CHAPTER 9 MAGNETIC FIELD INDICATORS .................................................................... 61
CHAPTER 10 PERFORMANCE CHECKS ............................................................................ 65
CHAPTER 11 INTERPRETATION VS. EVALUATION .......................................................... 68
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NASA-MT-2001 REV.0
CHAPTER 1 QUALIFICATION, CERTIFICATION AND AUTHORISATION

SNT-TC-1A & ISO 9712
It is important that the technician be qualified and certified in the NDT method before the
technique is used and the test results evaluated.
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing recommends the use of their document
Recommended Practice No SNT-TC-1A.
The International Standards Organisation requires the use of their Specification, namely ISO
9712.
These documents provides the employer with the necessary guidelines to properly qualify and
certify the NDT technician in all methods.
To comply with these documents, the employer must establish a written practice which describes
in detail how the technician will be trained, examined and certified.
These documents specifies the initial number of hours of classroom instruction and months or
hours of experience necessary to be certified as an NDT testing technician. The main difference
between these documents are that:
SNT-TC-1A requires Company (Employer) Certification, and
ISO 9712 requires Certification by a Body such as PCN or CSWIP.
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LEVELS OF QUALIFICATION
Level 1
An individual certified to Level 1 has demonstrated competence to carry out NDT according to
written instructions and under the supervision of Level 2 or Level 3 personnel. Within the scope
of the competence defined on the certificate, Level 1 personnel may be authorized by the
employer to perform the following in accordance with NDT instructions:
a)
b)
c)
d)
set up NDT equipment;

perform the tests;
record and classify the results of the tests according to written criteria;
report the results.
Level 1 certified personnel shall neither be responsible for the choice of test method or
technique to be used, nor for the evaluation of test results.
Level 2
An individual certified to Level 2 has demonstrated competence to perform NDT according to
NDT procedures. Within the scope of the competence defined on the certificate, Level 2
personnel may be authorized by the employer to:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
select the NDT technique for the testing method to be used;

define the limitations of application of the testing method;
translate NDT codes, standards, specifications, and procedures into NDT instructions
adapted to the actual working conditions;
set up and verify equipment settings;
perform and supervise tests;
interpret and evaluate results according to applicable standards, codes, specifications or
procedures;
carry out and supervise all tasks at or below Level 2;
provide guidance for personnel at or below Level 2;
report the results of NDT.
Level 3
An individual certified to Level 3 has demonstrated competence to perform and direct NDT
operations for which he is certified. Level 3 personnel have demonstrated:
a)
b)
c)
the competence to evaluate and interpret results in terms of existing standards, codes,
and specifications;
sufficient practical knowledge of applicable materials, fabrication, process, and product
technology to select NDT methods, establish NDT techniques, and assist in establishing
acceptance criteria where none are otherwise available;
a general familiarity with other NDT methods.
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Within the scope of the competence defined on the certificate, Level 3 personnel may be
authorized to:
a)
b)
assume full responsibility for a test facility or examination centre and staff;
establish, review for editorial and technical correctness, and validate NDT instructions
and procedures;
interpret standards, codes, specifications, and procedures;
designate the particular test methods, procedures, and NDT instructions to be used;
carry out and supervise all tasks at all levels;
provide guidance for NDT personnel at all levels.
c)
d)
e)
f)
EXAMINATION BREAKDOWN
The end of Course examination (SNT-TC-1A), at NASA will comprise of the following:
General examination:
Closed book.
40 Multi-choice questions.
1 Hour.
Specific examination:
20 Multi-choice questions.
5 Open Code Book Questions. (10 points)
1 Hour.
Practical examination:
Pre-Test Calibrations:
Complete a Calibration Procedure as allocated by examiner.
1 Hour.
Practical 1:
Visible, wet, continuous method with AC Yoke on welded sample.
Complete a Written Instruction.
Fill out a Test Report.
3 Hours.
Practical 2:
Fluorescent, wet, continuous method with AC Yoke on welded sample.
Complete a Technique sheet.
Fill out a Test Report.
2 Hours.
A minimum of 70% must be scored on each segment of the exam with an aggregate of 80% in
order to pass.
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NASA-MT-2001 REV.0
CHAPTER 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES

INTRODUCTION
Magnetic Particle Testing (Inspection) (MT or MPI) is a Non-Destructive Testing method used for
defect detection. MPI is fast and relatively easy to apply, and part surface preparation is not as
critical as it is for some other NDT methods. These characteristics make MPI one of the most
widely utilized non-destructive testing methods.
MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e. iron filings) to detect flaws in
components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the component
being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of
their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will
allow the inspection to be effective.
The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including castings, forgings, and
weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a
component's fitness-for-use. Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle inspection
are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries.
Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection may be used to test
items such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
A magnetic field is introduces into a specimen to be tested, then fine particles of ferromagnetic
powder, or ferromagnetic particles in a liquid suspension, are applied to the area being tested.
Any discontinuity in the test area which cuts across the magnetic field creates a leakage field. A
leakage field has a north and South Pole on either side of it, and therefore will attract the
ferromagnetic particles in great numbers.
There are many ways to apply a magnetic field, e.g. by the use of permanent magnets,
electromagnetic yokes, coils, prods, cables and other devices.
A basic sequence of operations for the examination of a weld using MPI with a permanent
magnet and black ink is shown below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Clean area using a wire brush if required.

Apply a thin layer of white contrast paint.
When the paint is dry, straddle the magnet over the weld at 90 to the weld axis.
Apply the magnetic particles.
Interpret the area. Look for indications with their length lying along the same axis as the
weld. Evaluate in accordance with the relevant specification.
To look for transverse weld discontinuities, turn magnet approximately 90 and re-apply
the ink.
Interpret the area. Look for indication with their length perpendicular to the weld axis.
Evaluate in accordance with the relevant specification.
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HISTORY
Magnetism is the ability of matter to attract other matter to itself. The ancient Greeks were the
first to discover this phenomenon in a mineral they named magnetite. Later on Bergmann,
Becquerel, and Faraday discovered that all matter including liquids and gasses were affected by
magnetism, but only a few responded to a noticeable extent.
The earliest known use of magnetism to inspect an object took place as early as 1868. Cannon
barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing the barrel then sliding a magnetic compass
along the barrel's length. These early inspectors were able to locate flaws in the barrels by
monitoring the needle of the compass. This was a form of Non-Destructive Testing but the term
was not commonly used until some time after World War I.
In the early 1920s, William Hoke realized that magnetic particles (coloured metal shavings) could
be used with magnetism as a means of locating defects. Hoke discovered that a surface or
subsurface flaw in a magnetized material caused the magnetic field to distort and extend beyond
the part. This discovery was brought to his attention in the machine shop. He noticed that the
metallic grindings from hard steel parts (held by a magnetic chuck while being ground) formed
patterns on the face of the parts which corresponded to the cracks in the surface. Applying a fine
ferromagnetic powder to the parts caused a build-up of powder over flaws and formed a visible
indication. The image shows a 1928 Electro-Magnetic Steel Testing Device (MPI) made by the
Equipment and Engineering Company Ltd. (ECO) of Strand, England.
In the early 1930s, magnetic particle inspection was quickly replacing the oil-and-whiting method
(an early form of the liquid penetrant inspection) as the method of choice by the railroad industry
to inspect steam engine boilers, wheels, axles, and tracks. Today, the MT inspection method is
used extensively to check for flaws in a large variety of manufactured materials and components.
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TEST PROCEDURES
Approved procedures for magnetic particle testing are formulated from analysis of the test
specimen, review of its past history, experience and information available concerning
discontinuities in like or similar articles. It is the responsibility of personnel conducting or
checking tests to ensure that the test procedures are adequately performed, and that the test
objective is accomplished. Procedures found incorrect or inadequate must be brought to the
attention of responsible supervision for correction.
TEST OBJECTIVE
The objective of magnetic particle testing is to ensure maximum reliability by providing a means
of:
Obtaining a visual image of an indication related to a discontinuity below the surface or

at the surface of a material.
Disclosing the nature of discontinuities without impairing the material.
Separating acceptable and unacceptable material in accordance with predetermined
standards.
ADVANTAGES
The magnetic particle method has a number of outstanding advantages within its field of
usefulness that is, on ferromagnetic materials. Some of these are the following:
It is the best and most reliable method available for finding surface cracks, especially
very fine and shallow ones.
It will detect cracks filled with foreign material.
No elaborate pre-cleaning is ordinarily necessary.
It will work well through thin coatings of paint, or other nonmagnetic coverings such as
plating.
DISADVANTAGES
Although the method has many desirable and attractive advantages, it has, as does every
method, certain limitations. These, the operator must be aware of, and take into account by
observing the precautions which they dictate. Some of these are the following:
It will work only on ferromagnetic materials.

It is not in all cases reliable for locating discontinuities which lie wholly below the
surface.
Exceedingly heavy currents are sometimes required for the testing of very large castings
and forgings.
Care is required to avoid local heating and burning of highly finished parts or surfaces at
the points of electrical contact.
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NASA-MT-2001 REV.0
TERMINOLOGY
Air Gap When a magnetic circuit contains a small gap, which the magnetic flux must cross, the
space is referred to as an air gap. Cracks produce small air gaps on the surface of an article.
Alternating Current Electric current periodically reversing in polarity or direction of flow.
Ampere The unit of electrical current. One ampere is the current that flows through a
conductor having a resistance of one ohm at a potential of one volt.
Ampere Turns The product of the number of turns in a coil and the number of amperes flowing
through it. A measure of the magnetizing or demagnetizing strength of the coil.
Bath The suspension of iron oxide particles in a liquid vehicle (light oil or water).
Black light Radiant energy in the near ultraviolet range. This light has a wavelength of 3200 to
4000 angstrom units (A), peaking at 3650 A, on the spectrum. This is between visible light and
ultraviolet light.
Black light filter A filter that transmits black light while suppressing the transmission of visible
light and harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Carbon Steel Steel which does not contain significant amounts of alloying elements other than
carbon and manganese.
Carrier Fluid The fluid in which fluorescent and non-fluorescent magnetic particles are
suspended to facilitate their application in the wet method.
Central Conductor An electrical conductor that is passed through the opening in a ring or tube,
or any hole in an article, for the purpose of creating a circular field in the ring or tube, or around
the hole.
Circular Field See Field, circular Magnetic.
Coercive Force The reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove residual magnetism in
demagnetizing an article.
Coil Shot A pulse of magnetizing current passed through a coil surrounding an article for the
purpose of longitudinal magnetization.
Contact Head The electrode, fixed to the magnetic particle testing unit, through which the
magnetizing current is drawn.
Contact Pads Replaceable metal pad, usually of copper braid, placed on contact heads to give
good electrical contact thereby preventing damage to the article under test.
Continuous Method An inspection method in which ample amounts of magnetic particles are
applied, or are present on the piece, during the time the magnetizing current is applied.
Circular Magnetization A method of inducing a magnetic field in an article so that the magnetic
lines of force take the form of concentric rings about the axis of the current. This is accomplished
by passing the current directly through the article or through a conductor which passes into or
through a hole in the article. The circular method is applicable for the detection of
discontinuities with axes approximately parallel to the axis of the current through the article.
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Core That part of the magnetic circuit which is within the electrical winding.
Curie Point The temperature at which ferromagnetic materials can no longer be magnetized by
outside forces, and at which they lose their residual magnetism: approximately 1200 to 1600F
(649 to 871C) for many metals.
Current Flow Method A method of circular magnetization by passing a currant through an article
via prods or contact heads. The current may be alternating, half-wave rectified alternating, or
direct.
Current Induction Method A method of magnetization in which a circulating current is induced
in a ring-shaped component by fluctuating magnetic field.
Defect A discontinuity that interferes with the usefulness of an article or exceeds acceptability
limits established by applicable specifications. A fault in any material or part which is
detrimental to its serviceability. Note that all cracks, seams, laps, etc., are not necessarily defects
as they may not affect the serviceability of the part in which they exist.
Demagnetization The reduction in the degree of residual magnetism in ferromagnetic materials
to an acceptable level.
Diffuse Indications Indications that are not clearly defined as, for example, indications of
subsurface defects.
Direct Current An electric current which flows steadily in one direction.
Discontinuity An interruption (cracks, forging laps, seams, inclusions, porosity, etc.) in the
normal physical structure of configuration of an article. A discontinuity may or may not affect the
usefulness of the article.
Distorted Field The direction of a magnetic field in a symmetrical object will be substantially
uniform if produced by a uniformly applied magnetizing force. But if the article being magnetized
is irregular in shape, the field is distorted and does not follow a straight path or have a uniform
distribution.
Dry Method Magnetic particle inspection in which the particles employed are in the dry powder
form.
Dry Powder (Dry Method) Finely divided ferromagnetic particles suitably selected and prepared
for magnetic particle inspection by the dry method.
Electromagnet A magnet created by inserting a suitable metal core within, or near, a
magnetizing field formed by passing electric current through a coil of insulated wire.
Etching The process of exposing subsurface conditions of metal articles by removal of the
outside surface through the use of chemical agents. Due to the action of the chemicals in eating
away the surface, various surface or subsurface conditions are exposed or exaggerated and made
visible to the eye. For example forging flow lines, discontinuities, and defects.
Ferromagnetic A term applied to materials which can be magnetized and strongly attracted by a
magnetic field.
Field, Bipolar Longitudinal magnetic field within an article that creates two poles.
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Fields, Circular Magnetic Generally, the magnetic field in and surrounding any electrical
conductor or article resulting from a current being passed through the conductor or article or
from prods.
Field, Magnetic Leakage The magnetic field that leaves or enters the surface of an article at a
magnetic pole.
Field, Longitudinal Magnetic A magnetic field where in the flux lines traverse the component in a
direction essentially parallel with the axis of the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the two
poles at the magnetizing yoke.
Field, Magnetic The space within and surrounding a magnetized article, or a conductor carrying
current, in which the magnetic force is present.
Field, Residual Magnetic The field that remains in magnetizable material after the magnetizing
force has been removed.
Field Resultant Magnetic A magnetic field that is the result of two magnetic forces impressed
upon the same area of a magnetizable object at the same timesometimes called a vector
field.
Field, Vector See Field, Resultant Magnetic.
Flash Magnetization Magnetization by current flow of very brief duration.
Fluorescence The emission of visible radiation by a substance as the result of, and only during,
the absorption of black light radiation.
Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Inspection The magnetic particle inspection process employing a
finely divided fluorescent ferromagnetic Inspection medium that fluoresces when activated by
black light of 3200 to 4000 Angstroms.
Flux Density This is the flux-per-unit area through an element which cuts the unit area at right
angles to the direction of the flux. Flux density is usually designated by the letter B and its unit is
the gauss.
Flux Leakage Magnetic lines of force which leave and enter an article at poles on the surface.
Flux Lines Imaginary magnetic lines used as a means of explaining the behavior of magnetic
fields. Their conception is based on the pattern of lines produced when iron filings are sprinkled
over a piece of paper laid over a permanent magnet. Also called lines of force, the unit is a
single line of force called the Maxwell designated by the Greek letter Phi().
Flux Penetration, Magnetic The depth to which a magnetic flux is present in an article.
Furring Build-up, or bristling, of magnetic particles due to excessive magnetization of the article
under examination resulting in a furry appearance also referred to as Fur or Grass.
Gauss The unit of flux density. Numerically, one gauss is one line of flux per square centimeter
of area and is designated by the letter B.
Heads The clamping contacts on a stationary magnetizing unit.
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Head Shot A short pulse of magnetizing current passed through an article or a central conductor
while clamped between the head contacts of a stationary magnetizing unit for the purpose of
circularly magnetizing the article.
Horseshoe Magnet A bar magnet, bent into the shape of a horseshoe so that the two poles are
adjacent. Usually the term applies to a permanent magnet.
Hysteresis
1) The lagging of the magnetic effect when the magnetic force acting upon a ferromagnetic
body is changed.
2) The phenomenon exhibited by a magnetic system wherein its state is influenced by its
previous magnetic history.
Hysteresis Loop A curve showing the flux density, B, plotted as a function of magnetizing force,
H. As the magnetizing force is increased to the saturation point in both the positive, negative,
and positive direction sequentially, the curve forms a characteristic S-shaped loop. Intercepts of
the loop with the B and H axes and the points of maximum and minimum magnetizing force
define important magnetic characteristics of the material.
Indication Any magnetically held magnetic particle pattern on the surface of an article being
tested.
Inductance The magnetism produced in a ferromagnetic body by some outside magnetizing
force. The magnetism is not the result of passing current through the article.
Inspection The process of examining and checking materials and articles for possible defects or
for deviation from established standards.
Interpretation The determining of the cause and significance of indications of discontinuities
from the standpoint of whether they are detrimental defects or false or non-relevant indications.
Leakage Field The magnetic field forced out into the air by the distortion of the field within an
article.
Lines of Force. See Flux Lines.
Longitudinal Field See Field, Longitudinal Magnetic.
Longitudinal Magnetization The process of inducting a magnetic field into the article such that
the magnetic lines of force extending through the article are approximately parallel to the axis of
the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the two poles when yokes (electromagnets) are used.
Magnet, Permanent A highly retentive metal that has been strongly magnetized for example,
the alloy Alnico.
Magnetic Field See Field, magnetic.
Magnetic Field Meter An instrument designed to detect and/or measure the flux density and
polarity of magnetic fields.
Magnetic Field Strength The measured intensity of a magnetic field at a point always external to
the magnet or conductor usually expressed in Oersted.
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Magnetic Material Some materials are attracted by a magnet while others are repelled. From
the definition of magnetism it follows that magnetic materials are those that are attracted by
magnetism. These materials are known as paramagnetic materials, whereas materials which
repel are known as diamagnetic materials. The subdivision of paramagnetic, called
ferromagnetic, is a main concern as only ferromagnetic materials can be strongly magnetized.
Magnetic Particle Inspection A nondestructive inspection method for locating discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials. It utilizes flux leakage that forms magnetic poles to attract finely
divided magnetic particles which mark the discontinuity.
Magnetic Particle Inspection Indications The accumulation of ferromagnetic particles that may
be either true indications of discontinuities, or may be false or non-relevant indications.
Magnetic Writing A form of non-relevant indications caused when the surface of a magnetized
part comes in contact with ;another piece of ferromagnetic material that is magnetized to a
different value.
Magnetizing Current The flow of either alternating, rectified alternating or direct current used to
induce magnetism into the article being inspected.
Magnetizing Force This is the total force tending to set up a magnetic flux by a magnetizing
current. It is usually designated by the letter H and its unit is the Oersted.
Non-relevant Indication A magnetic particle indication due to a leakage magnetic field which is
not caused by an actual discontinuity in the magnetized material, but by some other condition
which does not affect the usefulness of the article (such as a change of section).
Oersted A unit of field strength which produces magnetic induction and is designated by the
letter H.
Paramagnetic Materials which are slightly attracted by a magnetic field. Examples are
chromium, manganese, and aluminum.
Paste (Slurry) Finely divided, ferromagnetic particles in paste form used in preparing wet
suspensions.
Permeability
1)
The ease with which a material can become magnetized.
2)
The ratio between field strength produced and the magnetizing force (B/H).
3)
The ratio of flux density produced to magnetizing force.
Pole The area on a magnetized article from which the magnetic field is leaving or returning to
the article.
Prods Hand-held electrodes attached to cables used to transmit the magnetizing current from
the source to the article under inspection.
Rectified Alternating Current Alternating current which has been converted into direct current.
Reluctance The opposition of a magnetic material to the establishment of magnetic flux. The
reluctance of the material determines the magnitude of the flux produced by a given magnetic
force. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance; in an electric circuit.
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Residual Field See Field, Residual Magnetic.
Residual Magnetism The amount of magnetism that a magnetic material retains after the
magnetizing force is removed also called residual field.
Residual Method A procedure in which the indicating material is applied after the magnetizing
force has been discontinued.
Resultant Field See Field, Resultant Magnetic.
Retentivity The ability of a material to retain a portion of the magnetic force induced in it after
the magnetizing force has been removed.
Saturation The point in the magnetization of a magnetizable article at which an increase in the
magnetizing force produces no increase in the magnetic field within the article.
Sensitivity The capacity of degree of responsiveness to magnetic particle inspection.
Solenoid (Coil) An electric conductor formed into a coil; often wrapped around a central core of
highly permeable material.
Subsurface Discontinuity Any discontinuity which does not open onto the surface of the article
in which it exists.
Suspension The correct term applied to the liquid bath in which is suspended the ferromagnetic
particles used in the wet magnetic particle inspection method.
Swinging Field Magnetization Magnetic fields induced in two different directions alternately
and quickly to detect, more accurately, defects oriented in different directions in an article.
Test Piece An article containing known artificial or natural defects used for checking the
efficiency of magnetic particle flaw detection processes.
Vector Field See Field, Resultant Magnetic.
Wet Method The inspection method employing ferromagnetic particles suspended in a liquid
(oil or water) as a vehicle.
Yoke A U or C shaped piece of highly permeable magnetic material, either solid or
laminated, sometimes with adjustable pole pieces, around which is wound a coil carrying the
magnetizing current.
Yoke Magnetization A longitudinal magnetic field induced in an article, or in an area of an
article, by means of an external electromagnet shaped like a yoke.
CONVERSION TABLE
1m
1 000 mm
1 000 000 m
1 Bar
14.5 Psi
100 000 Pascal
3650
365 nm
10 W/m
1 000 w/cm
1 fc (foot-candle)
10,76 lx (lux)
1 C
(? F - 32) x 5/9
1 000 000 000 nm
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CHAPTER 3 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

MAGNETISM
All materials consist of atoms and molecules which may or may not have a permanent magnetic
influence depending on the electron configuration within the material.
Atoms in magnetic materials group together in regions called magnetic domains; each domain
has its own north and South Pole. When these domains are randomly positioned, the material is
unmagnetized. If the domains are aligned in a common direction, then the material will be
magnetised and the material itself will have its own north and South Pole.
The domains can be aligned by bringing them within an existing magnetic field. If the domains
remain aligned when they are removed from the influence of the magnetic field, then the
material is said to be permanently magnetised.
The poles of magnetised materials have an inherent attraction/ repulsion effect. If two pieces of
magnetised material are placed with their dissimilar poles end to end there is an attraction, but if
the poles are alike then there is a repulsion, therefore: like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
When two magnetizing fields are imposed simultaneously in the same part, the object is not
magnetized in two directions at the same time. A vector field is formed which is the resultant
direction and strength of the two imposed fields. This is illustrated in below where A is the first
magnetizing force, B is the second force, and C equals the resultant magnetizing force.
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LINES OF FORCE
Faraday used the concept of lines of force to explain what happens in the space between two
magnets. He suggested properties for these lines of force, which he imagined as spreading out
from all magnetic poles into the surrounding space.
It can be seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all along the length of the magnet but
that the poles are concentrated at the ends of the magnet. The area where the exit Poles are
concentrated is called the magnet's North Pole and the area where the entrance poles are
concentrated is called the magnet's South Pole.
By assuming the lines were in tension, like pieces of stretched elastic, he could account for the
attraction of unlike poles, since the lines of force stretch from one pole to another.
But, the tension of the lines of force must increase as they shorten, since the repulsive force
between two like poles increases as the poles approach. With like poles, the lines of force also
tend to curve outwards, seeming to suggest that they repel each other. Faraday used this
hypotheses to account for the repulsion of like poles.
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The properties of magnetic lines of force are as follows:
They form closed loops between north and south poles.

They do not cross one another. (Repel each other laterally)
They seek paths of least magnetic resistance.
Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles, i.e. the number of lines
of force in a unit area decreases.
They are considered to have direction, that is: from the north pole to South Pole
external to the magnet, and from the South Pole to the North Pole within the magnet.
They are in a constant state of tension.
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The degree to which materials are capable of being influenced by a magnetic field varies greatly
from material to material, however, they fall into three specific categories defined by their
behaviour in the magnetic field.
Diamagnetic materials
These are, to a very slight degree, repelled by a magnetic field and include copper, titanium and
most non-metals. ( < 1)
Paramagnetic materials
These are very weakly attracted by a magnetic field and include oxygen and most metals
including austenitic stainless steel, magnesium, molybdenum, lithium and tantalum. ( 1)
Ferromagnetic materials
These are strongly attracted by a magnetic field and include iron, cobalt, nickel and many of their
alloys. They also exhibit permanent magnetism and can themselves be magnetized. ( > 1 ; 240
or more)
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PERMEABILITY ()
For magnetic particle inspection, the only materials of interest are those which are
ferromagnetic. Within this group, some materials are more easily magnetised than others, that is
to say, more permeable.
To permeate means to spread through. In this context it refers to the ease by which the magnetic
lines of force are spread through the material. Soft iron and low carbon steel have a high
permeability, i.e. they are easy to magnetise. Hard iron and high carbon steel have a low
permeability, i.e. they are difficult to magnetise.
An alternative description favoured in the USA would be, the ability to concentrate magnetic
fields and it is shown on the 'slope' of the B/H curve which varies continuously.
Permeability () may be calculated by dividing the flux density (B) achieved by the magnetising
force applied (H).
=
The permeability of a material may be given a value based on a ratio when compared with free
space. These values vary depending on alloy composition, heat treatment and any working
applied.
RELUCTANCE (R)
Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is a concept used in the analysis of magnetic
circuits. It is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit, but rather than dissipating electric
energy it stores magnetic energy. In likeness to the way an electric field causes an electric current
to follow the path of least resistance, a magnetic field causes magnetic flux to follow the path of
least magnetic reluctance.
Reluctance is the reciprocal of permeability, i.e.
R=
RETENTIVITY
When a magnetising force is removed from a ferromagnetic material the amount of magnetism
remaining will vary between materials and depends upon the permeability of the material. The
remaining magnetism is termed residual magnetism and the material is said to have retentivity or
retained magnetism.
If a material has high permeability it is very difficult to magnetise, that is to say it has high
magnetic reluctance, but once magnetisation has been achieved then it does not give up the
magnetic force easily, therefore it has high retentivity.
High permeability = Low retentivity
Low permeability = High retentivity
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RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
Remanence or remanent magnetization is the magnetization left behind in a ferromagnetic
material after an external magnetic field is removed.
The equivalent term residual magnetization is generally used in engineering applications. In
transformers, electric motors and generators a large residual magnetization is not desirable as it
is an unwanted contamination, for example a magnetization remaining in an electromagnet after
the current in the coil is turned off. Where it is unwanted, it can be removed by demagnetisation.
COERCIVE FORCE
Coerce means to forcibly control; in this context it relates to the reversed magnetising force
which is necessary to remove remnant or residual magnetism for demagnetisation of a part.
To summarise:
PERMEABILITY
RELUCTANCE
RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
RETENTIVITY
COERCIVE FORCE
This refers to the ease with which a magnetic flux is established in

the article being inspected.
This is the opposition of a magnetic material to the establishment of
a magnetic flux. A material with a high permeability will have a low
reluctance.
This refers to the amount of magnetism retained after the
magnetizing force is removed.
Refers to the ability of the material to retain a certain amount of
residual magnetism.
Refers to the reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove the
residual magnetism from the part.
MAGNETIC FLUX () AND MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B)

When a specimen is magnetised, lines of force or flux exist within the specimen the stronger the
magnetising force applied, the greater the amount of flux produced. The magnetising force may
be applied by using a permanent magnet or electrically operated magnetic flow apparatus, or by
passing an electric current through the specimen.
Magnetic flux is measured in Webers (Wb).
1 Wb = 108 lines of force
The number of lines of force (or flux) passing transversely through a given cross-sectional area is
known as the flux density (B)
Flux density (B) =
Where: = flux
A = Area
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Flux density is measured in Tesla (T)
1 Wb/m2 = 1 Tesla (T).
The old (cgs) unit for flux density which is still widely encountered is the Gauss:
1 Gauss = 1 line of force/cm2.
10,000 (104) Gauss = 1 Tesla
1 Gauss = 0.1 mT
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH (H)

The magnetic field strength or magnetising force is that which is needed to induce a flux in a
magnetic circuit and is measured in amperes per metre (A/m), or in old (cgs) units, the Oersted.
1 Oersted =79.58 Amperes per metre.
MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material by
studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced
magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop. An
example hysteresis loop is shown below.
The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material while the
magnetizing force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously
magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As
the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic
field in the component (B+). At point "a" almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an
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additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The
material has reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to zero, the curve will
move from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in
the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as the point of
retentivity on the graph and indicates the Remanence or level of residual magnetism in the
material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost their alignment.)
As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c", where the flux has been
reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing
force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the material is zero.) The
force required to remove the residual magnetism from the material is called the coercive force or
coercivity of the material.
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again become
magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H to zero brings the
curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the other
direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve
did not return to the origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual
magnetism. The curve will take a different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where
it with complete the loop.
When AC is used for magnetising a specimen, a complete hysteresis loop is produced with each
cycle of current; in the U.K. this is 50 times per second.*
A material which exhibits a hysteresis loop with a wide appearance will have high retentivity and
therefore may be useful for making permanent magnets. A material which exhibits a hysteresis
loop with a narrow appearance will have low retentivity and therefore may be useful for making
magnetic particles.
The gradient of the loop also gives information regarding the usefulness of materials for use in
magnetising apparatus, for making magnetic particles or for magnetising purposes. For example,
a material which exhibits a steep gradient will attain a high flux density when using a low
magnetising force.
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FLUX LEAKAGE
When a magnetic field is created within a ferromagnetic within a ferromagnetic specimen, lines
of magnetic flux are developed and flow through and around the material completing a circuit.
Magnetic particle inspection relies on a leakage of flux occurring within this circuit, this may be
caused by a break or discontinuity in the material.
Because it is a change in magnetic permeability that causes a leakage field, flux leakages may also
be caused by changes in metallurgy.
Opposite poles attract, therefore any break or discontinuity causing a flux leakage will, because
of the magnetic poles, attract a ferromagnetic material such as iron powder. This would
accumulate at the area of the leakage field and give an indication of the defect's existence.
Where the flux leaves the circuit a North Pole is created.
Where the flux re-enters the circuit a South Pole is created.
For a discontinuity to be detected by MPI it must interrupt the lines of force. Any linear
discontinuities running parallel with the flux or small non-linear discontinuities, i.e. equiaxed
defects do not break the lines of force, they bend around these defects taking the path of least
resistance; these discontinuities therefore remain undetected.
MPI is most effective in detecting discontinuities with their major axis at 90 to the lines of force,
but will usually remain effective down to about 45 of this axis (BS EN ISO 17638: 2009 and BS EN
ISO 9934: 2001 quotes 60). Below that it is unlikely that the discontinuity will be found,
therefore in order to examine a specimen completely, the lines of force must be applied in
different directions.
Magnetic particle inspection used for the detection of surface breaking discontinuities and only in
ferromagnetic materials. This is because the magnetic fields induced are concentrated at the
surface of the components. However, sub-surface discontinuities may be detected if using
permanent magnets or electrical systems using direct or rectified current, because the magnetic
field penetrants much further into the test specimen in comparison with MPI test methods which
use alternating current. It is unlikely that any form of MPI would be used to detect discontinuities
deeper than 2 mm or 3 mm below the surface.
MPI test equipment using alternating current as an output produces a high density magnetic flux
at the surface of the test component. This phenomenon, known as the skin effect, produces a far
stronger flux leakage field on the surface breaking, or near surface discontinuities, compared to
permanent magnets or direct current test equipment.
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The depth of flux penetration is governed by the wave frequency of the alternating current, the
conductivity of the test material and its permeability. If any of these variables increase, the depth
of penetration will decrease.
It is difficult to try and interpret very weak and diffused MPI indications which could be from
sources other than defects, e.g. caused by rough/ uneven surfaces or changes in permeability.
Because of this problem, sub-surface, or body defects, would normally be located by other
methods of NDT, assuming the detection of sub-surface defects is a requirement.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
There is a fundamental relationship between electricity and magnetism; the movement of an
electric charge will create a magnetic force field around it, in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the electric charge.
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Electrons that are moving in a current carrying conductor set up a magnetic field, the direction
and orientation of which are given by the right hand rule if we assume the current flow, by
convention, is opposite to electron flow; or the left hand rule if we assume the direction of
electron flow.
Current Flow Theory = Right Hand Rule =
+ to
Electron Flow Theory = Left Hand Rule =
to +
When a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form a coil, a
magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along its longitudinal
axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil. The magnetic field circling each loop
of wire combines with the fields from the other loops to produce a concentrated field down the
center of the coil. A loosely wound coil is illustrated below to show the interaction of the
magnetic field. The magnetic field is essentially uniform down the length of the coil when it is
wound tighter.
The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing current but also with
each loop that is added to the coil. A long, straight coil of wire is called a solenoid and can be
used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. The
concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is very useful in magnetizing ferromagnetic materials for
inspection using the magnetic particle testing method. Please be aware that the field outside the
coil is weak and is not suitable for magnetizing ferromagnetic materials.
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CHAPTER 4 CURRENT TYPES

As seen in the previous pages, electric current is often used to establish the magnetic field in
components during magnetic particle inspection. Alternating current and direct current are the
two basic types of current commonly used. Current from single phase 110 volts, to three phase
440 volts, are used when generating an electric field in a component. Current flow is often
modified to provide the appropriate field within the part. The type of current used can have an
effect on the inspection results, so the types of currents commonly used will be briefly reviewed.
Direct Current
Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A battery is the
most common source of direct current. As previously mentioned, current is said to flow from the
positive to the negative terminal. In actuality, the electrons flow in the opposite direction. DC is
very desirable when inspecting for subsurface defects because DC generates a magnetic field that
penetrates deeper into the material. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field produced by
DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the component. Conversely, the field
produced using alternating current is concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the
component.
Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second. In the United
States, 60 cycle current is the commercial norm but 50 cycle current is common in many
countries. Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for
magnetic particle inspection. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in
ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field will be limited to narrow region at the surface of the
component. This phenomenon is known as the "skin effect" and occurs because the changing
magnetic field generates eddy currents in the test object. The eddy currents produce a magnetic
field that opposes the primary field, thus reducing the net magnetic flux below the surface.
Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to surface
defects.
Rectified Alternating Current

Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection applications call for the
detection of subsurface defects. However, the convenient access to AC, drives its use beyond
surface flaw inspections. Luckily, AC can be converted to current that is very much like DC
through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC can be converted
to a one directional current. The three commonly used types of rectified current are described
below.
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Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)

When single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is allowed to flow in
only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out so that a one directional,
pulsating current is produced. The current rises from zero to a maximum and then returns to
zero. No current flows during the time when the reverse cycle is blocked out. The HWAC repeats
at same rate as the unrectified current (60 hertz typical). Since half of the current is blocked out,
the amperage is half of the unaltered AC.
This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC. The pulsation of the
HWAC helps magnetic particle indications form by vibrating the particles and giving them added
mobility. This added mobility is especially important when using dry particles. The pulsation is
reported to significantly improve inspection sensitivity. HWAC is most often used to power
electromagnetic yokes.
Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)

Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than blocking it out.
This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between the pulses. Filtering is usually performed
to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified current. While particle mobility is not as
good as half-wave AC due to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic
field is improved.
Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current

Three phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it has more favorable
power transmission and line loading characteristics. This type of electrical current is also highly
desirable for magnetic particle testing because when it is rectified and filtered, the resulting
current very closely resembles direct current. Stationary magnetic particle equipment wired with
three phase AC will usually have the ability to magnetize with AC or DC (three phase full wave
rectified), providing the inspector with the advantages of each current form.
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CHAPTER 5 MAGNETIZING METHODS

CONTINUOUS MAGNETISATION METHOD
The continuous method is a testing method by which the magnetic ink or powder is applied to
prior to and during energisation and the test area is viewed whilst the magnetising force is
applied. This is always considered to be the most sensitive method, whatever apparatus is used
to magnetise, due to the fact that the induced magnetic field is always the strongest whilst the
magnetising force is being applied.
RESIDUAL MAGNETISATION METHOD

The residual method is a testing method where the magnetic ink or powder is applied and the
test area is viewed after the magnetising force has been removed. The test is performed using
the residual magnetism left in the sample. This method is generally only used on materials with a
high retentivity. When multiple items are being tested by the residual method, care must be
taken to ensure that the components do not come into contact with each other before the
detecting media is applied otherwise a phenomena know as magnetic writing will occur.
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETISATION
When the length of a component is several times larger than its diameter, a longitudinal
magnetic field can be established in the component. The component is often placed
longitudinally in the concentrated magnetic field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This
magnetization technique is often referred to as a "coil shot." It can be accomplished by placing a
part in a fixed coil or wrapping the part with flexible cable.
Another method of longitudinally magnetising a part or rather a section of the part is by using
Permanent magnets or Electromagnetic Yokes. These methods is by far the most widely used
today, especially for site inspections.
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PERMANENT MAGNETS
Permanent magnets are so called because they are able to maintain a magnetic field in the
surrounding space. The field strength can vary considerably, depending on the flux density in the
magnet and its shape.
The simplest form of penetrant magnet is a bar magnet, which is basically a piece of
ferromagnetic material with a magnetic pole at each end.
If the bar was formed into a closed loop, then the magnetic field would be fully contained within
a closed circuit and no external field would exist. If a defect was present in the loop, a flux
leakage would still occur.
Neither bar magnets or ring (looped) magnets have any use in MPI. But, if a bar magnet is simply
formed into a U shape, the magnetic lines of force will be concentrated in the gap between the
magnetic poles; this provides an ideal configuration for magnetic particle inspection.
Permanent magnets provide magnetic flow only in the specimen and produce a longitudinal
magnetic field between the poles.
The degree of magnetisation in permanent magnets is determined by the amount of pull
required to lift the magnet clear of the work piece, or by its lifting power.
The pull off force is the force that has to be applied to one pole to break its attraction to the
surface, whilst leaving the other pole attracted.
The lifting power is the ability of the magnet to lift a piece of ferromagnetic material by attraction
alone.
Certain specifications will state the minimum requirements for the strengths of permanent
magnets. When not in use a permanent magnet should have a keeper placed across the poles to
prevent loss of magnetism.
Some permanent magnets may have adjustable arms, others may have rollers attached to the
poles; the rollers are set to keep the magnet just clear of the surface and enable it to be moved
over the work piece with relative ease.
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Advantages of permanent magnets include:
No power supply required.
Inexpensive.
No damage to the test piece from arcing.
Relatively lightweight (easily portable).
They cling to vertical and overhead surfaces.
Both hands free after the magnet is placed onto the surface.
Disadvantages include:
Deterioration with wear/ abuse.
Have to be pulled from the test surface.
Magnetic particles attracted to poles.
Limited application on awkward shapes.
No control over field strength (unless adjustable arms are used).
Only small areas examined in each position.
Keeper required when not in use.
Not recommended to be used in conjunction with flux indicators.
Toxic material when machined.
Very hard.
Low flux density unless rare earth magnets used.
ELECTROMAGNETIC YOKES
Electromagnetic yokes or electromagnets require a source of electrical energy which may be AC
or DC. The test method used is sometimes referred to as the magnetic flow or magnetic flux path
method, producing a longitudinal magnetic field.
The yoke is made from highly permeable, low retentive steel, which is laminated to reduce
induction caused by eddy current flow (associated only with alternating current) this also helps to
prevent the yoke becoming permanently magnetized.
Magnetism is induced into the yoke by encircling it with a coil through which a current is passed,
the strength of the field produced can be varied in one of two ways:
1.
2.
By adjusting the current (amperage) flowing through the yoke - only certain
electromagnets allow for this.
By varying the distance between the poles - most electromagnets allow for this but not
at all.
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Certain specifications will state the minimum requirements for the lifting power of Yokes.
Electromagnets may operate direct from the mains supply of 240V but are available at 110V
(battery packs are now available at 12/ 24/ 36V for more flexibility) when required for site use.
The field produced from an electromagnetic yoke is longitudinal, travelling from pole to pole as
with permanent magnets, however the depth of the field within the test piece will depend upon
the type of current used to induce magnetism.
Surface discontinuities will be more readily found using AC, sub-surface defects will be more
easily located using DC, but Yokes is usually accepted as a surface technique only. The magnet
will have a much greater pull on DC but the flux will be less at the surface of the component
being tested.
The area of inspection for electromagnets is a rectangular area between the poles of the
magnet(s).
Advantages of electromagnetic yokes include:

AC or rectified DC operation.
Controllable field strength (not in all cases).
Can be switched on/off as required.
No damage done to test piece.
Relatively lightweight.
AC yokes can be used to demagnetise.
Power supply required.
Only small areas can be examined at each magnet location.
Leaves only one hand free.
DC yokes are not recommended to be used in conjunction with flux indicators.
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Typical Permanent Magnet and Yoke placement when testing welds.
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COIL TECHNIQUE
RIGID (FIXED) COIL
This technique consists of placing the specimen inside a coil of tubular or solid construction,
through which a low voltage, high amperage current is passed. The magnetic field passing
through the centre if the coil - typically three or five turns - creates longitudinal magnetization
and is therefore used to detect discontinuities which lie transverse to the components major axis,
e.g. good for detecting circumferential discontinuities in shafts or the bores of tubes.
For practical purposes only defects which lie within the confines of the coil should be interpreted
although the field will extend for 100 to 225 mm beyond either end.
If the specimen being tested has a small diameter in relation to the inside diameter if the coil, it
should ideally be positioned close to one side of the coil and rotated to obtain the best results.
NB. The strongest magnetic field is on the inside edge of the coil.
When using any of the current flow or threaded bar methods, the fields strength is largely
determined by the current (amperes) flowing in the circuit. When using any form of coil the field
strength is determined by the current flowing in the circuit and by the number of turns in that
coil, thereby obtaining ampere/ turns. These requirements will be specified by the Procedure
Code used.
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FLEXIBLE CABLES
When a single conductor is used, the magnetic field reduces rapidly at increasing distance from
the conductor; this restricts the production of an adequate test area with a sufficient constant
magnetic field. If the current is made to flow in the same direction through conductors spaced
some distance apart, a relatively constant field is produced.
Flexible cable techniques can be used on a considerable variety of component shapes.
Configurations used are normally obtained with a heavy insulated flexible cable which is placed
through, on, or around the specimen. A current passed through the cable will then induce a
magnetic field into the test piece.
Defects lying parallel to the cable will be the most readily detected. On complex shapes the
position and method in which the cable is wound may have to be found by experimentation to
ensure an adequate field in all areas.
Current values to be used shall be specified by the Procedure Code. Values shall be calculated
considering the Length/Diameter Ratio of the part and the number of turns in the coil.
Advantages of using a Coil:

Slightly Subsurface discontinuities may be found when using DC, HWDC or FWDC.
AC energised equipment may be used for demagnetisation operations.
Large areas inspected with each set-up.
No poles to attract magnetic particles.
Field strength can be altered.
Predictable field strengths.
Cumbersome long heavy cables required.
Longer setting up times.
Heavy transformers required for large amperages.
Expensive equipment.
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CIRCULAR MAGNETISATION
As discussed previously, when current is passed through a solid conductor, a magnetic field forms
in and around the conductor. The following statements can be made about the distribution and
intensity of the magnetic field.
The field strength varies from zero at the center of the component to a maximum at the
surface.
The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the conductor
increases when the current strength is held constant. (However, a larger conductor is
capable of carrying more current.)
The field strength outside the conductor is directly proportional to the current strength.
Inside the conductor, the field strength is dependent on the current strength, magnetic
permeability of the material, and if magnetic, the location on the B-H curve.
The field strength outside the conductor decreases with distance from the conductor.
In the images below, the magnetic field strength is graphed versus distance from the center of
the conductor. It can be seen that in a nonmagnetic conductor carrying DC, the internal field
strength rises from zero at the center to a maximum value at the surface of the conductor. The
external field strength decrease with distance from the surface of the conductor.
When the conductor is a magnetic material, the field strength within the conductor is much
greater than it is in the nonmagnetic conductor. This is due to the permeability of the magnetic
material. The external field is exactly the same for the two materials provided the current level
and conductor radius are the same.
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When the conductor is carrying alternating current, the internal magnetic field strength rises
from zero at the center to a maximum at the surface. However, the field is concentrated in a thin
layer near the surface of the conductor. This is known as the "skin effect." The skin effect is
evident in the field strength versus distance graph for a magnetic conductor shown to the right.
The external field decreases with increasing distance from the surface as it does with DC. It
should be remembered that with AC the field is constantly varying in strength and direction.
In a hollow circular conductor there is no magnetic field in the void area. The magnetic field is
zero at the inside wall surface and rises until it reaches a maximum at the outside wall surface. As
with a solid conductor, when the conductor is a magnetic material, the field strength within the
conductor is much greater than it was in the nonmagnetic conductor due to the permeability of
the magnetic material. The external field strength decreases with distance from the surface of
the conductor. The external field is exactly the same for the two materials provided the current
level and conductor radius are the same.
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When AC is passed through a hollow circular conductor, the skin effect concentrates the
magnetic field at the outside diameter of the component.
As can be learned from these three field distribution images, the field strength at the inside
surface of hollow conductor is very low when a circular magnetic field was established by direct
magnetization. Therefore, the direct method of magnetization is not recommended when
inspecting the inside diameter wall of a hollow component for shallow defects. The field strength
increases rapidly as one moves out (into the material) from the ID, so if the defect has significant
depth, it may be detectable.
However, a much better method of magnetizing hollow components for inspection of the ID and
OD surfaces is with the use of a central conductor. As can be seen in the field distribution image
to the right, when current is passed through a nonmagnetic central conductor (copper bar), the
magnetic field produced on the inside diameter surface of a magnetic tube is much greater and
the field is still strong enough for defect detection on the OD surface.
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PROD TECHNIQUE
With this technique the current is introduced into the item under test by using electrical contacts
known as prods. Prods induce a circular magnetic field within the specimen using current values
typically in the region of 1000 amps; at this current level arcing can occur between the electrodes
and the test surface causing damage. To prevent this possible damage, the prod contact tips and
the test surface must be kept clear of any contamination and the current must not be switched
on until firm contact has been established, likewise, the current should be switched off before
lifting the prods.
Precautions when using current flow in respect to prods/clamps shall be taken to prevent
excessive heating, burning or arcing. Certain metals including copper and zinc (including
galvanised prod tips) may, if used as prod material, contaminate and cause metallurgical damage
to the component if arcing occurs. For this reason and the fact that perfect contact is difficult to
achieve with prods, ideally they shall be made of steel or aluminium. Zinc shall not be used and
copper or copper-tipped prods shall be used only in applications where complete assurance can
be given that metallurgical damage will not occur. The cleanliness of both prod contact faces and
the component shall be such to ensure good electrical contact. Prods shall have a minimum
dimension of 10 mm and shall have as large a contact area as possible. Arcing or excessive
heating shall be regarded as a defect requiring a verdict of acceptability. If further testing is
required on such affected areas, it shall be carried out using a different technique.
Note: Lead contact pads may be used, but only in well ventilated conditions, because they may
generate harmful vapour which may cause headaches and/or dizziness.
Since the lines of force radiate from prods, correct positioning is essential to ensure that all
possible defects are located. Ideally the prods should be in a line parallel to, and on the same
axis, as the defects being sought.
Current requirements shall be specified by the Procedure Code and is based on the thickness of
the part and the distance between the prods.
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Advantages of the prod technique include:
AC, DC, HWDC, and FWDC equipment available.
Low voltage output.
Variable field strength, on/off control.
Can be used in confined spaces.
Relatively fast coverage of area under test.
Disadvantage include:
Risk of creating arc strikes (forming localised hard spots which may contain cracking).
Heavy transformer required.
Classed as a two person operation.
Contacts and small test items can overheat.
Careful positioning and spacing of prods required.
Possible to switch on without creating a field.
May leave residual field which interfere with next prod positions.
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CURRENT FLOW TECHNIQUE (DIRECT MAGNETISATION) (HEAD SHOT OR CLAMPS)
Current flow techniques produce a circular magnetic field by passing a current through the test
piece, i.e. concentric rings of magnetic lines of force radiate at 90 (perpendicular) to the current
flow.
The current flow is normally obtained from a transformer DC, HWDC, FWDC or 3 PHASE FWDC.
The output voltage of current flow equipment is so low that there is no risk of electrical shock to
the operator from the equipment's specimen contact points or test specimen.
The choice of power supply depends on the test requirements, i.e. using AC will reveal only
surface discontinuities, thus not recommended, using DC or rectified DC will reveal
discontinuities typically up to 2 mm to 3 mm below the surface.
An ammeter is usually incorporated in the equipment to indicate the amount if current flowing
through the work piece.
In fixed installations, i.e. bench equipment, the component is firmly clamped between contact
heads. With portable equipment, electrical contact is made by the use of prods and/or clamps.
Current flow can also be achieved in regularly shaped items, e.g. bar or tube, by applying contacts
to the ends of a test piece and passing a high amperage, low voltage current through it. This sets
up a circular field in the ferromagnetic material in a direction at 90 to the current flow, therefore
the technique is used for detecting defects parallel to, and up to 45, of current flow, e.g.
longitudinal defects in bar. Copper gauze is usually placed between the contracts and the test
piece to increase the contract area and reduce the possibility of burning.
Irregular shaped items may also be tested by contact heads, although, depending on the
component's shape and dimensions, it may be preferable to use an alternative method.
Because the current values are dependant only on the test piece perimeter, the length of the test
piece is of no importance, i.e. on a test piece of 25 mm diameter, the same current value would
be used whether it was 10 cm long or 1 m long, therefore, if two test pieces of differing
diameters using the same current, the magnetic field would be stronger in the smaller diameter
test piece. Specifications usually stipulates the current requirements.
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Advantages of the Head Shot technique include:
Low voltage output.
Disadvantage include:
Risk of creating arc strikes (forming localised hard spots which may contain cracking).
Contacts and small test items can overheat.
Possible to switch on without creating a field.
May leave residual fields.
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CENTRAL CONDUCTOR TECHNIQUE (INDUCTION METHOD)
Induction MPI methods do not necessarily require any contact between the magnetising
apparatus and the test specimen.
Sometimes known as the central conductor method, although the conductor need not always be
central.
The object being examined must be of hollow section and access must be available to both ends,
providing these limitations are met, then a conductor - typically made of brass, copper or
aluminium - is threaded through the bore, or aperture, and a current passed through it.
This sets up a circular field in the surrounding ferromagnetic material in a direction at 90 to the
current flow, therefore the technique is used for detecting defects parallel to, and up to 45, of
the current flow, e.g. longitudinal pipe defects.
Conductor may be located centrally to the specimen, but on larger diameters the conductor is
often placed to one side to ensure sufficient flux strengths and the test piece rotated to allow for
surface inspection. Alternatively, two conductors may be used on larger diameter test pieces.
The threaded bar technique is ideal for the testing of ring like specimens, especially because
numerous samples may be tested at the same time; lengths of pipe may also be examined by this
method. A hollow part can be examined for discontinuities on the inside diameter of the part as
well as on the outside, when practical.
On site work, this technique is not widely encountered, but could not be modified by using a
flexible cable instead of rigid conductor.
When using a bar that is not covered with insulating material, care should be taken to ensure
that components in contact with the bar cannot touch any part of the magnetic equipment at
earth potential.
Current requirements is based on the outside diameter of the part, similarly to when using the
headshot and will be specified by the Procedure Code.
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Advantages of the Central Conductor technique include:
Low voltage output.
No current through part.
May leave residual fields.
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MULTIDIRECTIONAL TECHNIQUE
For this technique, magnetization is accomplished by high amperage power packs operating as
many as three circuits that are energized one at a time in rapid succession. The effect of these
rapidly alternating magnetizing currents is to produce an overall magnetization of the part in
multiple directions. Circular or longitudinal magnetic elds may be generated in any combination
using the various techniques.
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Whichever technique or combination of techniques are used to produce the magnetic
ux in the part, maximum sensitivity will be to linear discontinuities oriented perpendicular to
the lines of ux.
For optimum effectiveness in detecting all types of discontinuities, each area is to be examined at
least twice, with the lines of ux during one examination being approximately perpendicular to
the lines of ux during the other.
One or more of the following techniques may be used:
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETISATION
CIRCULAR MAGNETISATION
PERMANENT MAGNET
PRODS
AC YOKE
HEAD SHOT
DC YOKE
CLAMPS
RIGID COIL
BAR CENTRAL CONDUCTOR
CABLE WRAP COIL
CABLE CENTRAL CONDUCTOR
MULTI DIRECTIONAL YOKE OR BENCH UNIT
TYPES OF POWER SUPPLIES

PORTABLE EQUIPMENT
Portable equipment is lighter and less expensive than the
other types of magnetic particle testing equipment.
Typical portable equipment operates on 220 volts AC with
an output of between 500 and 3 000 amperes.
These units usually have a choice of either AC or HWDC.
As with mobile equipment, the cables can be used for
prods, wrapping into a coil, or connecting to a central
conductor.
MOBILE EQUIPMENT
Typical mobile equipment usually operates on 220 /
380 volts AC and will produce about 8 000 amperes.
Mobile equipment will usually produce both AC and
HWDC magnetizing current.
The cables used on mobile equipment vary from 5
meters to 30 meters. Shorter cables will permit the
maximum current output. Prods and cables are
usually used with the mobile equipment. However,
longitudinal magnetization can be produced by
wrapping the cable into the coil. It is also possible to
use a central conductor clamped between the two
cables to produce circular magnetization.
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STATIONARY EQUIPMENT
Stationary magnetic particle inspection equipment is designed for use in laboratory or production
environment. The most common stationary system is the wet horizontal (bench) unit. Wet
horizontal units are designed to allow for batch inspections of a variety of components. The units
have head and tail stocks (similar to a lathe) with electrical contact that the part can be clamped
between. A circular magnetic field is produced with direct magnetization. The tail stock can be
moved and locked into place to accommodate parts of various lengths. To assist the operator in
clamping the parts, the contact on the headstock can be moved pneumatically via a foot switch.
Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved into place so the indirect magnetization
can be used to produce a longitudinal magnetic field. Most coils have five turns and can be
obtained in a variety of sizes. The wet magnetic particle solution is collected and held in a tank. A
pump and hose system is used to apply the particle solution to the components being inspected.
Either the visible or fluorescent particles can be used. Some of the systems offer a variety of
options in electrical current used for magnetizing the component. The operator has the option to
use AC, half wave DC, or full wave DC. In some units, a demagnetization feature is built in, which
uses the coil and decaying AC.
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CHAPTER 6 DEMAGNETISATION
After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to demagnetize the
component.
Remanent magnetic fields can:
Affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.
Interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.
Create a condition known as "arc blow" in the welding process. Arc blow may cause the
weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.
Cause abrasive particles to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase wear.
Each time the magnetizing field is reduced and reversed, the residual field is reduced.
REVERSING THE MAGNETIC FIELD
Reversing the part in the magnetic field.
Reversing the current through the coil.
Reversing the coil (turn the coil 180).

REDUCING THE MAGNETIC FIELD
Reduce the magnet current.
Move the part away from the coil / yoke.
Move the coil / yoke away from the part.

Any method of demagnetization will combine one of the methods to reduce the magnetizing field
with one of the methods to reverse the magnetizing field.
Removal of a field may be accomplished in several ways. This random orientation of the magnetic
domains can be achieved most effectively by heating the material above its curie temperature.
The Curie temperature for a low carbon steel is 770 oC or 1390oF. When steel is heated above its
curie temperature, it will become austenitic and loses its magnetic properties. When it is cooled
back down, it will go through a reverse transformation and will contain no residual magnetic
field. The material should also be placed with it long axis in an east-west orientation to avoid any
influence of the Earth's magnetic field.
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It is often inconvenient to heat a material above its curie temperature to demagnetize it, so
another method that returns the material to a nearly unmagnetized state is commonly used.
Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing magnetic field will return the dipoles to
a nearly random orientation throughout the material. This can be accomplished by pulling a
component out and away from a coil with AC passing through it. The same can also be
accomplished using an electromagnetic yoke with AC selected. Also, many stationary magnetic
particle inspection units come with a demagnetization feature that slowly reduces the AC in a coil
in which the component is placed.
A field meter is often used to verify that the residual flux has been removed from a component.
Industry standards usually require that the magnetic flux be reduced to less than 3 gauss after
completing a magnetic particle inspection. The Procedure Code will specify limits and different
procedures as required.
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CHAPTER 7 DETECTION MEDIUM

As mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection are a key
ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to defects. Particles start out as
tiny milled (a machining process) pieces of iron or iron oxide. A pigment (somewhat like paint) is
bonded to their surfaces to give the particles colour. The metal used for the particles has high
magnetic permeability and low retentivity. High magnetic permeability is important because it
makes the particles attract easily to small magnetic leakage fields from discontinuities, such as
flaws. Low retentivity is important because the particles themselves never become strongly
magnetized so they do not stick to each other or the surface of the part. Particles are available in
a dry mix or a wet solution.
DRY MAGNETIC PARTICLES

Dry magnetic particles can typically be purchased in red, black, gray, yellow and several other
colours so that a high level of contrast between the particles and the part being inspected can be
achieved. The size of the magnetic particles is also very important. Dry magnetic particle products
are produced to include a range of particle sizes. The fine particles are around 0.05 mm (0.002
inch) in size, and are about three times smaller in diameter and more than 20 times lighter than
the coarse particles (0.15 mm). This make them more sensitive to the leakage fields from very
small discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot be made exclusively of the fine
particles. Coarser particles are needed to bridge large discontinuities and to reduce the powder's
dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to surface contamination, such as
remnant dirt or moisture, and get trapped in surface roughness features. It should also be
recognized that finer particles will be more easily blown away by the wind; therefore, windy
conditions can reduce the sensitivity of an inspection. Also, reclaiming the dry particles is not
recommended because the small particles are less likely to be recaptured and the "once used"
mix will result in less sensitive inspections.
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The particle shape is also important. Long, slender particles tend align themselves along the lines
of magnetic force. However, research has shown that if dry powder consists only of long, slender
particles, the application process would be less than desirable. Elongated particles come from the
dispenser in clumps and lack the ability to flow freely and form the desired "cloud" of particles
floating on the component. Therefore, globular particles are added that are shorter. The mix of
globular and elongated particles result in a dry powder that flows well and maintains good
sensitivity. Most dry particle mixes have particles with L/D ratios between one and two.
WET MAGNETIC PARTICLES

Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil. The wet magnetic
particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry because the suspension provides
the particles with more mobility and makes it possible for smaller particles to be used since dust
and adherence to surface contamination is reduced or eliminated. The wet method also makes it
easy to apply the particles uniformly to a relatively large area.
Wet method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder products in a number of ways.
One way is that both visible and fluorescent particles are available. Most non-fluorescent
particles are ferromagnetic iron oxides, which are either black or brown in colour. Fluorescent
particles are coated with pigments that fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. Particles that
fluoresce green-yellow are most common to take advantage of the peak colour sensitivity of the
eye but other fluorescent colours are also available.
The particles used with the wet method are smaller in size than those used in the dry method for
the reasons mentioned above. The particles are typically 0.01 mm and smaller and the synthetic
iron oxides have particle diameters around 0.0001 mm. This very small size is a result of the
process used to form the particles and is not particularly desirable, as the particles are almost too
fine to settle out of suspension. However, due to their slight residual magnetism, the oxide
particles are present mostly in clusters that settle out of suspension much faster than the
individual particles. This makes it possible to see and measure the concentration of the particles
for process control purposes. Wet particles are also a mix of long slender and globular particles.
The carrier solutions can be water or oil-based. Water-based carriers form quicker indications,
are generally less expensive, present little or no fire hazard, give off no petrochemical fumes, and
are easier to clean from the part. Water-based solutions are usually formulated with a corrosion
inhibitor to offer some corrosion protection. However, oil-based carrier solutions offer superior
corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement protection to those materials that are prone to attack by
these mechanisms.
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Suspension liquids used in the wet magnetic particle inspection method can be either a well
refined light petroleum distillate or water containing additives. Petroleum-based liquids are the
most desirable carriers because they provided good wetting of the surface of metallic parts.
However, water-based carriers are used more because of low cost, low fire hazard, and the
ability to form indications quicker than solvent-based carriers. Water-based carriers must contain
wetting agents to disrupt surface films of oil that may exist on the part and to aid in the
dispersion of magnetic particles in the carrier. The wetting agents create foaming as the solution
is moved about, so anti-foaming agents must be added. Also, since water promotes corrosion in
ferrous materials, corrosion inhibitors are usually added as well.
Petroleum based carriers are primarily used in systems where maintaining the proper particle
concentration is a concern. The petroleum based carriers require less maintenance because they
evaporate at a slower rate than the water-based carriers. Therefore, petroleum based carriers
might be a better choice for a system that gets only occasional use or when regularly adjusting
the carrier volume is undesirable. Modern solvent carriers are specifically designed with
properties that have flash points above 93C and keep nocuous vapours low.
MAGNETIC RUBBER
The magnetic rubber technique was developed for detecting very fine cracks and is capable of
revealing finer cracks than other magnetic techniques. Additionally, the technique can be used to
examine difficult to reach areas, such as the threads on the inside diameter of holes, where the
moulded plugs can be removed and examined under ideal conditions and magnification if
desired. The trade-off, of course, is that inspection times are much longer and high cost.
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The techniques uses a liquid (uncured) rubber containing suspended magnetic particles. The
rubber compound is applied to the area to be inspected on a magnetized component. Inspections
can be performed using either an applied magnetic field, which is maintained while the rubber
sets (active field), or the residual field from magnetization of the component prior to pouring the
compound. A dam of modelling clay is often used to contain the compound in the region of
interest. The magnetic particles migrate to the leakage field caused by a discontinuity. As the
rubber cures, discontinuity indications remain in place on the rubber.
The rubber is allowed to completely set, which takes from 10 to 30 minutes. The rubber cast is
removed from the part. The rubber conforms to the surface contours and provides a reverse
replica of the surface. The rubber cast is examined for evidence of discontinuities, which appear
as dark lines on the surface of the moulding. The moulding can be retained as a permanent
record of the inspection.
Magnetic rubber methods requires similar magnetizing systems used for dry method magnetic
particle tests. The system may include yokes, prods, clamps, coils or central conductors.
Alternating, direct current, or permanent magnets may be used to draw the particles to the
leakage fields. The direct current yoke is the most common magnetization source for magnetic
rubber inspection.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

The supplier of MPI consumables is obliged to make available to the purchaser, all relevant health
and safety data applicable to the supplied goods. The user also has an obligation to comply with
the health and safety requirements. See also the COSHH Regulations in Unit MT11.
Specific health and safety considerations are:
Flammability:
Asthmatic:
Skin hazard:
Read container labels for flash points.

Do not use in confined spaces without masks or adequate ventilation.
Use protective clothing.
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CHAPTER 8 VIEWING CONDITIONS

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Magnetic particle inspection predominately relies on visual inspection to detect any indications
that form. Therefore, lighting is a very important element of the inspection process. Obviously,
the lighting requirements are different for an inspection conducted using visible particles than
they are for an inspection conducted using fluorescent particles.
VISIBLE METHOD
Magnetic particle inspections that use visible particles can be conducted using natural or artificial
lighting. When using natural lighting, it is important to keep in mind that daylight varies from
hour to hour. Inspector must constantly stay aware of the lighting conditions and make
adjustments when needed. To improve the uniformity of lighting from one inspection to the next,
the use of artificial lighting is recommended. Artificial lighting should be white whenever possible
and white flood or halogen lamps are most commonly used. The light intensity usually required is
100 foot-candles or 1 000 Lux on the surface being inspected. It is advisable to choose a white
light wattage that will provide sufficient light, but avoid excessive reflected light that could
distract from the inspection.
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FLUORESCENT METHOD
When performing a magnetic particle inspection using fluorescent particles, the condition of the
ultraviolet light and the ambient white light must be monitored. Standards and procedures
require verification of lens condition and light intensity. Black lights should never be used with a
cracked filter as the output of white light and harmful black light will be increased. The
cleanliness of the filter should also be checked regularly since a coating of solvent carrier, oil, or
other foreign material can reduce the intensity or light by as much as 50%. The filter should be
checked visually and cleaned as necessary before warming-up the light.
For UV lights used in component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is 1000
Watts/cm2 on the surface of the part. The required check should be performed when a new
bulb is installed, at start-up of the inspection cycle, if a change in intensity is noticed, or every
eight hours if in continuous use. Regularly checking the intensity of UV lights is very important
because bulbs lose intensity over time. In fact, a bulb that is near the end of its operating life will
often have an intensity of only 25% of its original output. Black light intensity will also be affected
by voltage variations, so it is important to provide constant voltage to the light. A bulb that
produces acceptable intensity at 120 volts will produce significantly less at 110 volts.
These days most of these limitations are not applicable due to the fact that LED Torches produces
instant UV-A light at full potential without any filters.
When performing a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, it is important to keep white light to
a minimum as it will significantly reduce the inspectors ability to detect fluorescent indications.
Light levels of less than 20 Lux are required by most procedures and some procedures require it
to be less than 5 Lux at the inspection surface. Some specifications require that a white light
intensity measurement be made at 380 mm from a UV light source to verify that the white light is
being removed by the filter.
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The desired wavelength range for use in non-destructive testing is between 350 nm and 380 nm
with a peak wavelength at about 365 nm. This wavelength range is used because it is in the UV-A
range, which is the safest to work with. UV-B will do an effective job of causing substances to
fluoresce, however, it should not be used because harmful effects such as skin burns and eye
damage can occur. This wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created during the welding
process. UV-C (100 nm to 280 nm) is even more dangerous to living cells and is used to kill
bacteria in industrial and medical settings.
The desired wavelength range for use in NDT is obtained by filtering the ultraviolet light
generated by the light bulb. The output of a UV bulb spans a wide range of wavelengths. The
short wavelengths of 312 to 334 nm are produced in low levels. A peak wavelength of 365 nm is
produced at a very high intensity. Wavelengths in the visible violet range (405 nm to 435 nm),
green-yellow (546 nm), yellow (622nm) and orange (677 nm) are also usually produced. The filter
allows only radiation in the range of 320 to 400 nm and a little visible dark purple to pass.
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LIGHT MEASUREMENT
Historically, light intensity measurements where made using a radiometer. A radiometer is an
instrument that translates light energy into an electrical current. Light striking a silicon
photodiode detector causes a charge to build up between internal layers. When an external
circuit is
connected to the cell, an electrical current is produced. This current is linear with respect to
incident light. Some radiometers have the ability to measure both white and UV light, while
others require a separate sensor for each measurement. The sensing area should always be kept
clean and free of materials that could reduce or obstruct light reaching the sensor.
Radiometers are relatively unstable instruments and readings often change considerably over
time. Therefore, they must be calibrated regularly. They should be calibrated at least every six
months. A unit should be checked to make sure its calibration is current before taking any light
readings.
Nowadays there are more sophisticated digital Light meters available, some types incorporate
UV-A and LUX in one device, but is mostly available as separate units.
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SAFETY
UV-A lamps operate with wavelengths between 315-400 nm, shorter wavelengths than this can
cause injuries to the eyes. To prevent injury, a filter should be used which cuts out wavelengths
below 315 nm.
When ultraviolet light enters the human eye, the fluid that fills the eye fluoresces. This condition
is called ocular fluorescence, and while it is considered harmless, it is annoying and interferes
with vision while it exists. When working around ultraviolet lights, one should be careful not to
look directly into lights and to hold spot lights to avoid reflection. UV light will be reflected from
surfaces just as white light will, so it is advisable to consider placement of lights to avoid this
condition. Special filtered glasses may be worn by the inspector to remove all UV light from
reaching the eyes but allowing yellow-green light from fluorescent indications to pass.
Technicians should never wear darkened or photo chromatic glasses as these glasses also filter or
block light from fluorescent indications.
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CHAPTER 9 MAGNETIC FIELD INDICATORS

FIELD DIRECTION
Determining the direction of the field is important when conducting a magnetic particle
inspection because the defect must produce a significant disturbance in the magnetic field to
produce an indication. It is difficult to detect discontinuities that intersect the magnetic field at
an angle less than 45. When the orientation of a defect is not well established, components
should be magnetized in a minimum of two directions at approximately right angles to each
other. Depending on the geometry of the component, this may require longitudinal
magnetization in two or more directions, multiple longitudinal and circular magnetization or
circular magnetization in multiple directions. Determining strength and direction of the fields is
especially critical when inspecting with a multidirectional machine. If the fields are not balanced,
a vector field will be produced that may not detect some defects.
FIELD STRENGTH
The applied magnetic field must have sufficient strength to produce a satisfactory indication, but
not so strong that it produces non-relevant indications or limits particle mobility. If the
magnetizing current is excessively high when performing a wet fluorescent particle inspection,
particles can be attracted to the surface of the part and not be allowed to migrate to the flux
leakage fields of defects. When performing a dry particle inspection, an excessive longitudinal
magnetic field will cause furring. Furring is when magnetic particles build up at the magnetic
poles of a part. When the field strength is excessive, the magnetic field is forced out of the part
before reaching the end of the component and the poles along its length attract particles and
cause high background levels. Adequate field strength may be determined by:
Performing an inspection on a standard specimen that is similar to the test component and
has known or artificial defects of the same type, size, and location as those expected in the
test component. Castrol Strips, Berthold Spoon or ASME Pie Gauge can sometimes be used.
Using a gauss meter with a Hall Effect probe to measure the peak values of the tangent field
at the surface of the part in the region of interest. Most specifications call for a field
strength of 30 to 60 gauss at the surface when the magnetizing force is applied.
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PORTABLE MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH METERS (MAGNETOMETERS)
To measure residual magnetism, calibrated magnetic field strength meters of the type which
contains a soft iron vane are commonly used. The vane aligns itself with the magnetic field, the
strength and direction of the field is measured by the meter calibrated in gauss or Tesla's; similar
non-calibrated instruments exist. Neither of these instruments should be brought into close
contact with any strong magnetic fields as this, may cause damage to the instrument.
SHIM TYPE/FOIL STRIPS (TRADE NAME CASTROL STRIPS/ELY STRIPS)

These are small brass or silver finish strips containing artificial defects (3 slots) in Mu metal; Mu
metal is a highly permeable material containing nickel, manganese and iron. The brass finish
strips are commonly used in general engineering applications and indicate low field strengths.
The silver finish strips will show higher field strengths and are used in aerospace industries or
areas that require a more critical examination.
In either case, if the field is strong enough, three linear indications will show on the strip; they
should be rotated on the specimen surface to define field direction.
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THE ASME FIELD INDICATOR
This consists of eight sections of mild steel brazed together, the separating lines between the
sections forming artificial defects. One side also has a chromium coating applied, this has a
greater sensitivity than the opposite side which shows surface breaking defects.
When the indicator is placed on a magnetised component the magnetic field passes through the
indicator. The separating lines between the sections become visible when the detecting media is
applied. To determine the direction of the magnetic field the indicator should be rotated until
one of the lines is perfectly visible, at this point the direction of the field is at 90 to the line.
THE BERTHOLD PENETRAMETER (BERTHOLD SPOON)

This field indicator contains two artificial defects at 90 to one another. There is a sensitivity
adjustment consisting of a cover plate which can be turned to one of four setting which vary the
distance of the cover plate and detecting media from the artificial defects; the greater gap the
higher the field strength necessary to render the lines visible. They are used in a manner similar
to the ASME indicator.
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HALL EFFECT METERS
These instruments are usually used in laboratory type environments to measure tangential,
normal, or axial fields depending on the probe design. Hall effect meters use, as their name
suggest, the Hall effect principle, measuring the value with an advantage of not requiring probe
movement to gain a reading, however they will measure flux in the air not just on the surface of
the test piece.
An electric current is passed through a small semi-conducting crystal contained within a probe. A
voltage is generated across the crystal, when the probe is placed in a magnetic field, the
magnitude of this voltage is directly proportional to the magnetic flux density within the probe.
The relative permeability of the semi-conducting crystal is very close to one, so the voltage
generated is proportional to the magnetic field strength at the point where the probe is placed.
The voltage generated by the probe is measured by an electronic circuit and indicated on a meter
marked in units of field strength.
The Hall Effect meter is calibrated with a series of standard magnets which provide known values
of field strength within the working range of the instrument. Manufacturers supply a zero-field
chamber which is required to set the zero. If the peak value of a time varying field is required, the
meter reading is multiplied by a conversion factor, the value of which depends upon the shape of
the waveform and upon the measuring principle employed by the instrument.
NOTE
Magnetic field strength meters and portable flux indicators should not be used in conjunction
with permanent magnets or with DC electromagnets for determining adequate flux density. A
flux indicator may be used with these magnets but only to verify the suitability or correct
application of an ink or powder.
Circular fields may be contained completely within a specimen, if this is the case, the field will not
be detected.
Many terminologies are encountered when referring to types of magnetic field indicators, which
can be confusing. There are also alternative methods other than those listed below to check for
residual fields.
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CHAPTER 10 PERFORMANCE CHECKS

CALIBRATION OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Changes in the performance of the electrical system of a magnetic particle inspection unit
(POWER SUPPLY, COIL SHOT, BENCH UNIT, PROD UNIT, etc.) can obviously have an effect on the
sensitivity of an inspection. Therefore, the electrical system (Ammeter and Timer) must be
checked when the equipment is new, when a malfunction is suspected, or every six months to
twelve months as required by the Specification.
CALIBRATION OF LIGHT METERS AND THERMOMETERS

All Light Meters and Thermometers shall be calibrated every six months to 1 year, as stipulated
by the Specification, by the manufacturer or an authorised laboratory.
CURRENT FLOW PERFORMANCE CHECK

When current flow techniques are used on bench units, the following test should be carried out
for each wave form available for use:
a) Ensure the test piece is thoroughly demagnetised and pre-cleaned satisfactorily.
b) Position the test piece (see diagram below) between the head and tailstock of the bench
equipment.
c) Slowly introduce a current and apply ink until the first hole (closest to the external
surface) is visible.
d) Note the applied amperage and continue to apply the current progressively until the
second and third holes are noted.
MAGNETIC FLOW PERFORMANCE CHECK

For the Coil Technique, this test block shall be
used in the same way than with the current
flow technique. Note the amperage setting as
the holes become visible.
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ALTERNATIVE TEST BLOCKS
Alternative test blocks may be used to compare different batches of Inks as well as different
equipment to establish sensitivity.
YOKE LIFTING TEST
Prior to use, the magnetizing power of electromagnetic

yokes shall have been checked within the past year. The
magnetizing power of permanent magnetic yokes shall be
checked daily prior to use. The magnetizing power of all
yokes shall be checked whenever the yoke has been
damaged or repaired.
Each alternating current electromagnetic yoke shall have
a lifting power of at least 4.5 kg at the maximum pole
spacing that will be used.
Each direct current or permanent magnetic yoke shall
have a lifting power of at least 18 kg at the maximum
pole spacing that will be used.
Each weight shall be weighed with a scale from a
reputable manufacturer and stencilled with the
applicable nominal weight prior to first use. A weight
need only be verified again if damaged in a manner that
could have caused potential loss of material.
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SETTLING TEST
This is accomplished through the use of an ASTM Test Method D 96 pear-shaped centrifuge
tube. Before sampling, the suspension should be run through the recirculating system for at
least 30 min to ensure thorough mixing of all particles which could have settled on the sump
screen and along the sides or bottom of the tank.
Take a 100-ml portion of the suspension from the hose or nozzle, demagnetize and allow it
to settle for approximately 60 min with petroleum distillate suspensions or 30 min with
water-based suspensions before reading. The volume settling out at the bottom of the tube
is indicative of the particle concentration in the bath.
For fluorescent particles, the required settling volume is from 0.1 to 0.4 ml in a 100-ml bath
sample and from 1.2 to 2.4 ml per 100 ml of vehicle for non-fluorescent particles unless
otherwise specified by the particle manufacturer. Concentration checks shall be made at
least every eight hours.
UV-LIGHT CALIBRATION TEST
It shall be performed in a darkened area. (Less than 20 Lux)

Examiners shall be in a darkened area for at least 5 min prior to performing examinations to
enable their eyes to adapt to dark viewing. Glasses or lenses worn by examiners shall not be
photosensitive.
Black lights shall achieve a minimum of 1000 W/cm2 on the surface of the part being
examined throughout the examination.
Reflectors and filters should be checked and, if necessary, cleaned prior to use. Cracked or
broken filters shall be replaced immediately.
The black light intensity shall be measured with a black light meter prior to use, whenever
the lights power source is interrupted or changed, and at the completion of the
examination or series of examinations.
PAGE 67 OF 70

NASA-MT-2001 REV.0
CHAPTER 11 INTERPRETATION VS. EVALUATION

DEFINITIONS
Discontinuity - an interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part.
Indication - particles accumulated and held at a site by a leakage field.
INTERPRETATION
To decide what condition caused the indication, i.e. False, Non-Relevant or Relevant.
FALSE INDICATIONS (Not caused by Discontinuities)
Can be caused by too high amperage (MT), thick background coating (MT), fingerprints, hair, lint,
dirt, scale, rust (MT / PT) and does not necessarily break the surface continuity (MT / PT / UT /
ECT /RT), electrical interference (UT / ECT), film marks (RT).
False indications SHALL be eliminated and the part re-tested.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS (Caused by Discontinuities or may be a design feature)
Caused by design features such as rivets, grinding grooves, weld curves or indications smaller
than 1.5mm (ASME VIII) or an indication that is supposed to be there (part of manufacturing
process).
RELEVANT INDICATIONS (Caused by Discontinuities bad for part)
Caused by discontinuities and can affect the service life of a part.
All relevant indications MUST be evaluated according to Acceptance standards.
EVALUATION
To decide whether the indication is acceptable, rejectable or needs rework.
CLASSIFICATION
First determine whether the indication is round or linear (three times as long as wide).
LINEAR INDICATION: L > 3W
ROUND INDICATION: L 3W
SPECIFICATIONS
Design engineers predetermine the acceptance criteria. Standards are written in clear
specifications and must be adhered to at all times.
PAGE 68 OF 70

NASA-MT-2001 REV.0
REPORTING
Measure each relevant indication and fill out a detailed report. Mark out indications on test
object so they can be repaired or reworked.
Adequate reporting is essential for the transmission of relevant and correct information after the
test.
Any test report should include the information required by the relevant specification for the work
being performed.
A typical report would require the following:
a) name of the company;
b) work location;
c) description and identity of the part tested;
d) stage of test (e.g. before or after heat treatment, before or after final machining);
e) reference to the written test procedure and the technique sheets used;
f) description of equipment used,
g) magnetising technique, including (as appropriate) indicated current values, tangential
fields strengths, waveform, contact or pole spacing, coil dimensions etc.;
h) detecting media used and contrast paint if used;
i) surface preparation;
j) viewing conditions;
k) method of recording or marking of indications;
l) date of test;
m) name, qualification and signature of the person performing the test.
The test report shall then contain the test results, including a detailed description of the
indications and a statement as to whether they meet the acceptance criteria.
A common method of recording indications is to reproduce indications on a scaled diagram.
Indications should be drawn with references to a datum on the test piece. The diagram(s) should
not be overloaded with too much information; use two diagrams if necessary. A separate
diagram showing magnetising techniques should ideally be included where it is not obvious
which technique has been applied.
PRESERVATION OF INDICATIONS
Prior to the recording of indications, it is essential to ensure that the test conditions, and in
particular the magnetising levels, are as near as possible to the level recommended for the
technique.
It is essential that a common datum be established on both the work piece and the record and
that care be taken not to disturb the indications.
Methods of recording indications are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Photographs
Sketches
Clear sticky tape
Magnetic rubber
Clear Lacquer
PAGE 69 OF 70

NASA-MT-2001 REV.0
SUMMARY OF DISCONTINUITIES
PAGE 70 OF 70

2001 Rev.0 - Magnetic Particle Testing Level 1 &amp; 2 Combined - Note Book

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MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

CHAPTER 1 QUALIFICATION, CERTIFICATION AND AUTHORISATION

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

set up NDT equipment;

select the NDT technique for the testing method to be used;

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

Complete a Calibration Procedure as allocated by examiner.

Fluorescent, wet, continuous method with AC Yoke on welded sample.

Complete a Technique sheet.

Fill out a Test Report.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

CHAPTER 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES

Clean area using a wire brush if required.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

Obtaining a visual image of an indication related to a discontinuity below the surface or

It will work only on ferromagnetic materials.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

The ease with which a material can become magnetized.

The ratio of flux density produced to magnetizing force.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

100 000 Pascal

1 000 000 000 nm

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

CHAPTER 3 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

They form closed loops between north and south poles.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

This refers to the ease with which a magnetic flux is established in

MAGNETIC FLUX () AND MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B)

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH (H)

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

Current Flow Theory = Right Hand Rule =

Electron Flow Theory = Left Hand Rule =

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

CHAPTER 4 CURRENT TYPES

Rectified Alternating Current

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)

Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)

Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

CHAPTER 5 MAGNETIZING METHODS

RESIDUAL MAGNETISATION METHOD

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

Advantages of electromagnetic yokes include:

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LEVEL 1 & 2 COMBINED NOTE BOOK

2001 Rev.0 - Magnetic Particle Testing Level 1 & 2 Combined - Note Book

2001 Rev.0 - Magnetic Particle Testing Level 1 & 2 Combined - Note Book