1002 Rev.0 - Product Technology - Note Book

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS
NASA-ADMIN-1002 REV.0
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO METALS ............................................................................................... 2
WROUGHT PRODUCTS ...................................................................................................... 19
WELD TERMINOLOGY........................................................................................................ 31
WELDING PROCESSES........................................................................................................ 36
STEEL WELD METALLURGY................................................................................................ 57
WELD DEFECTS.................................................................................................................. 65
CRACKING.......................................................................................................................... 75
OTHER PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGIES.......................................................................... 80
TERMINOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 83
NORMATIVE DOCUMENTS................................................................................................ 93
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING............................................................................................. 94
SUMMARY OF DISCONTINUITIES ...................................................................................... 99
INTERPRETATION VS. EVALUATION ................................................................................ 100
PAGE 1 OF 100

INTRODUCTION TO METALS
What is a metal?
Metals may be described as substances having a 'metallic' lustre and are usually malleable,
ductile, of high specific gravity and are good conductors of heat and electricity, although some
materials classified as metals may lack some of these properties.
Common metals are iron (steel), copper, lead, aluminium etc. Metals usually occur as
components of an 'ore' in the earth crust and need separation and refining to allow their use.
Metals may be combined with other metals to form 'alloys'.
Pure materials are known as 'Elements' and consist of atoms that are a collection of particles held
together by various bonds. These particles are known as protons, neutrons and electrons.
The number of protons and electrons determine the type of element each having a different
number. An element is a pure material that cannot be separated into a simpler substance. There
are 94 naturally occurring elements and around another 20 that can be made artificially.
Atomic Structure
Iron has an atomic number of 26 which means that its atom contains 26 protons and 26 electrons
there are also 30 neutrons in the core giving an atomic weight of 56.
Element
Proton (+)
Neutron
Electron (-)
Atomic Weight
Aluminium
13
14
13
27
Carbon
12
Copper
29
35
29
64
Iron
26
30
26
56
Silver
47
61
47
108
PAGE 2 OF 100

CASTING
Protons have a positive charge and electrons a negative charge equal but opposite value. The
number of protons and electrons is the same giving the atom a neutral charge. The nucleus of the
atom also contains a number of neutrally charged particles called neutrons and the number of
protons and neutrons gives the element its atomic weight.
The amount of metals present in the earths crust is variable, for instance, iron is 4.3%,
aluminium 7.4%, copper 0.01%, silver 0.0001%. They are not, however, spread evenly so some
areas are rich and some contain none.
The ores are mined at source and by stages separated from the unwanted material for refining.
Different materials have different methods of refining, for the purposed of these notes we will
follow the process which produces engineering steel, steel being an alloy of iron, carbon and
other materials to tailor its required properties.
When iron ore has been concentrated to a usable value, it is 'smelted' in a blast furnace to give a
pure metal which can be mixed with other elements to give the required properties.
Blast Furnace
The iron ore is fed into the blast furnace along with coke and limestone which are heated to
above the iron's melting point this then falls to the bottom of the furnace along with the slag for
tapping off when required. The iron at this stage is known as pig iron containing up to 4% carbon
and other impurities including unwanted material making it brittle and requiring further
processing.
In the steel making process materials are added which form 'compounds' with the impurities.
These impurities are then removed from the steel as gas or slag, the output from this refining is
now called steel and may be cast into an 'ingot' for later processing or into a continuous casting
(concast) machine.
Ingot castings tend to be used for short runs or special materials, whereas continuous castings
allows continuous production of a standard material specification and a range of simple cross
sectional shapes.
PAGE 3 OF 100

The steel making process
The Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) process is the steel refining process commonly used today
where the molten iron from the blast furnace is mixed with scrap steel. This is to aid the cooling
process as very high temperatures are produced in the BOS process.
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS)

Most of the impurities which are contained in the pig iron are removed by the oxidation process,
where oxygen is blown through the molten metal by a water cooled lance and reacts with the
impurities as it passes through. The carbon contents is lowered and changes the pig iron to a low
carbon steel. However the oxygen also reacts with the iron to produce dissolved iron oxide which
would release gases on cooling and cause unsound castings or ingots. The addition of manganese
transfers the oxygen to a manganese oxide which is removed with the slag. The steel is tapped
from the furnace when it is at the correct temperature and composition. The furnace is tilted and
the molten metal is run out via the tap hole into a ladle. Once the steel has been removed, the
furnace is turned upside down for the slag to run into another ladle which is further used in the
production of cement or in building roads. Quantities of 250 tons of steel may be processed in a
little as 40 minutes. The process generates large quantities of heat so up to one fifth of the
charge is made up of steel scrap partly to control temperature. Electric arc furnace are used for
smaller quantities of high grade steels. The electric arc furnace usually melts scrap metal that has
been shredded which has a known content and has already been refined as above and so can
control final analysis more closely. The furnace is charged with the scrap metal, the roof of the
furnace is then swung back over the furnace to allow meltdown to start. The electrodes are
lowered onto the scrap metal and an arc is struck this then starts the melting process. Once the
temperature and chemistry of the steel is correct it is tapped off into ladles through tilting the
furnace. Further reduction in gases can be made by subjecting the liquid to a vacuum to draw off
the gases. This is called vacuum degassing.
PAGE 4 OF 100

Electric Arc furnace
Charging
Usually 2 baskets - first part melted, then second charged.
Melting
Use of oxygen and fuel + arc to melt then C boil 0.5/0.6% carbon required. Reduces Si to SiO 2Mn
to MnO, P to P2O5 these in the slag. Boil purges the melt of N2 and H2.
After the oxidising stage the slag is removed and the bath 'blocked' (deoxidised) with FeSi or Fe
Mn or Ae or a combination of these desulphurisation can then be achieved in the ladle with CaSi.
Note: electric arc furnaces are very versatile with the range of steels from low C to stainless
steels and super alloys.
PAGE 5 OF 100

Composition of steel
Steel is an alloy of iron. Carbon is added to produce desirable strength, toughness, ductility and
hardness. The amount added determines which of these properties becomes dominant.
For example:
Low carbon 0.1 - 0.3% - car bodies
Medium carbon 0.4 - 0.6% - general engineering
High carbon 0.7 - 1.1% - drills and cutting tools
Other elements are blended with the steel as can be seen below to give additional properties.
Silicon - deoxidiser
Manganese - deoxidiser, desulphuriser
Aluminium - refines grain, deoxidiser
Chromium - improves hardness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance
Nickel - improves strength and ductility, corrosion resistance
Molybdenum - improves creep resistance
Vanadium - improves strength, toughness and ductility
When steel solidifies the atoms form into regular structures called crystals. These crystals form
into groups called grains. Steel therefore has a grain structure and where the crystal structure
changes we have a grain boundary.
Steel usually exists in one of two different crystal structures and it is these structures that give it
its strength. The first is Body Centred Cubic (BCC) consisting of a cube with an atom at each
corner and one in its centre. Materials with these structures are magnetic.
Body Centred Cubic
PAGE 6 OF 100

The second in the Face Centred Cubic (FCC). This also consist of a cube with atoms at each corner
plus one in the centre of each face. The materials with this structure are non-magnetic.
Face Centred Cubic

Steel at room temperature may consist in a variety of forms depending on composition and heat
treatment. Normally it will consist of a mix of ferrite and cementite, the mix giving hardness and
ductility. Grains containing alternate layers of ferrite and cementite are called Pearlite.
The amount of the above constituents vary with carbon content.
Heat treatment can vary the hardness and other properties by changing the formation of the
structure. An extreme case is that by rapid cooling, Martensite is formed which is very hard but
brittle.
Ingot production
The molten metal from the steel making process is teemed into moulds to solidify. Ingot moulds
can be separated into 2 basic types, wide end up (WEU) and narrow end up (NEU) and in cross
section are usually shaped to avoid sharp corners which could lead to cracking.
PAGE 7 OF 100

Before teeming additions are made to the metal to add alloying elements or to remove gases in
solution (molten metal will dissolve gases forming iron oxide) the amount they will dissolve
becoming less as the temperature falls so the gases come out of solution and form bubbles.
Gases evolved are normally CO (Carbon Monoxide) due to carbon/ oxygen reactions which reform as CO2 (Carbon Dioxide).
Formation of these gases may be suppressed by adding de-oxidation materials such as
ferromanganese, aluminium, silicon.
Rimming steel ingots
These ingots are produces by semi-killing the steel in the ladle with silicon (Si), just sufficient to
allow oxygen to react with the carbon in the rim of the ingot producing blowholes of CO 2 and a
pure iron rim free from carbon. The subsurface CO 2 gas welds up on rolling.
This is mainly used for sheet, although used in plate form for non-critical applications.
Killed steel ingots
These ingots are produced by fully killing the steel prior to transfer of the liquid steel from ladle
to ingot mould. All carbon/ oxygen reactions are killed by either silicon or aluminium, or a
combination of both. Aluminium also refines the grain structure producing fine grained steels.
Semi killed ingots have a reduced level of additions to allow for some reactions.
All engineering grades of steel, high alloy and tool steels are killed steels.
Grain Structure of a Casting

The solidification from a liquid to room temperature occurs on 3 stages - contraction of the liquid
steel, liquid to solid contraction and contraction of the solid room temperature.
During the liquid to solid contraction crystals begin to grow from the mould face. The first
crystals are formed close to the wall of the mould and comprise of the chilled layer. These have
the smallest grain structure.
The liquid to solid contraction is the next stage and it is the growth if dendritic crystals
perpendicular to the mould wall. They grow in an elongated manner and are called columnar
crystals. The factors that affect these crystals are thermal properties of the mould, the liquidus to
solidus range of the metal, the thermal conductivity of the solidifying metal and the teeming
temperature.
PAGE 8 OF 100

When the temperature of the remaining liquid starts to fall and the cooling rate slows, directional
growth stops and the final solidification takes place with the formation of equiaxal grains.
Solidification of the metal in an ingot mould is accompanied by a reduction in volume as the
temperature falls. As the metal cools from the outside first, the last liquid is at the centre
towards the top and it is in this area that the final shrinkage takes place. Any impurities in the
metal also float to the top due to their lower specific density and melting point and gather at the
top centre of the ingot.
In a narrow end up ingot, the solidifying metal contracts during cooling to form sinks in the top of
the ingot this is known as 'primary pipe' and the shrinkage within the ingot is known as
'secondary pipe'. One way of reducing this is to place a refractory top on to the iron mould to
reduce heat loss, this is often referred to as a 'hot top'.
Some impurities or evolved gas may be trapped in the ingot which may form defects during later
processing.
Cross section of a casting
1100C
1200C
1300C
Plan section of a casting
PAGE 9 OF 100

Continuous casting
Also known as 'concast' produces continuous lengths of simple shapes which are cut into the
required lengths for further processing.
Molten metal from a ladle is teemed into a 'tundish' which feeds metal into a vertical, open
bottom mould. This mould is water cooled copper flux lined and oscillates (to prevent sticking),
the molten metal solidifies at the surface of the mould and withdrawn from the bottom. The
centre solidifies as it passes through water cooling jets and through rolls to support and curve it
into the horizontal plane but has no significant effect on the as cast grain structure, it is then
flame cut to length.
Concast machines may produce several strands simultaneously giving a high production rate.
Because of the shapes produced it is possible to omit the first stage of rolling that is necessary
with ingots.
The diagram shows the ladle which is kept at the required temperature whilst being transferred
from the steel furnace to its position at the top of the tower structure.
Continuous casting of steel (vertical)

Sand casting
Casting is the teeming of molten metal into a mould, where solidification occurs. Almost every
finished metal product has been cast at some time during its manufacture, and it may contain
evidence of this in its structure, or segregation, voids or surface defects.
The cavity in the sand is formed by using a pattern (an approximate duplicate of the real part)
which are typically made out of wood and sometimes metal. The cavity is contained in an
aggregate housed in a two part box. The core is made of sand and inserted into the mould to
produce the internal feature of the part such as holes or internal passages. Core print is the
region added to the pattern, core or mould that is used to locate and support the bodies of large
cores within the mould and subsequently melt to become part of the casting.
PAGE 10 OF 100

A riser is an extra void created in the mould to contain excessive molten material. The purpose of
this is to feed the molten metal to the mould cavity as the molten metal solidifies and shrinks
thereby preventing voids in the main casting.
The molten material is poured in the pouring basin (feeder) which is part of the gating system
that supplies the molten material to the mould cavity. The vertical part of the gating system is
called the sprue and the horizontal portion is called the runners and finally the points where it is
introduced into the mould are called gates. Additionally extensions to the gating system are
called vents that provides a path for the build of gases and displaced air to be vented to the
atmosphere.
The casting cavity is usually made oversize to allow for the metal contraction as it cools down to
room temperature. This is achieved by making the pattern oversize to account for the shrinking.
The shrinkage allowances are only approximate, because exact allowances are determined by the
shape and size of the casting, different parts of the casting might require a different shrinkage
allowance and some materials expand and contract more than others.
Typically the sand casting is in two halves and the upper half is known as the cope and the lower
half is known as the drag. The parting line on the surface of the casting where excess material
exists is known as a fin, it is where the cope and drag separate.
Sand mould
On removal of the casting from the mould, the excess material on the casting i.e. feeders and
risers, are removed by grinding. This removal process is generally referred to as fettling.
PAGE 11 OF 100

Shell moulding
A ferrous or aluminium pattern is made resembling the cast item to be manufactured. The
pattern is heated to between 150-370C and has a coating of silicone applied which acts as a
release agent. A fine sand mixed with a thermo-setting binder is then blown over the heated
pattern to provide optimum coverage prior to placing into a sand box containing the same
material. Further heating is applied to complete resin curing.
The shell is then taken from the pattern in two halves and suitably mounted to receive molten
material to produce castings within very fine tolerance.
The shell moulding process

Investment casting
Investment casting is also known as the Lost Wax process. Metals that are hard to machine or
fabricate are good candidates for this process and intricate shapes can be made with a high
degree accuracy. This can also be used to make parts that cannot be produced by normal
manufacturing techniques such as turbine blades that have complex shapes, or airplane parts
that have to withstand high temperatures.
The types of materials that can be cast are aluminium alloys, bronzes, tool steels, stainless steels
and precious metals. Parts made with investment castings often do not require any further
machining, because of the close tolerances and surface finish that can be achieved.
The mould is made by making a pattern using wax or some other material that can be melted
away. This wax pattern is dipped in refractory slurry, which coats the wax pattern and forms a
skin. This is dried and the process of dipping in the slurry and drying is repeated until a robust
thickness is achieved. After this, the entire pattern is placed in an oven and the wax is melted
away. This leads to a mould that can be filled with the molten metal. Because the mould is
formed around a one piece pattern (which does not have to be pulled out from the mould as in
traditional sand casting process) very intricate parts and undercuts can be made.
The materials used for the slurry are a mixture of plaster of Paris, a binder and powdered silica, a
refractory, for low temperature melts. For higher temperature melts, sillimanite and aluminiasilicate is used as a refractory, and silica is used as a binder.
PAGE 12 OF 100

Depending on the fineness of the finish desired additional coatings of sillimanite and ethyl silicate
may be applied. The mould thus produced can be used directly for light castings, or be reinforced
by placing it in a larger container and reinforcing it with more slurry.
Just before the teeming the mould is pre-heated to about 1000C (1832F) to remove any
residues of wax and harden the binder. Teeming can be done using gravity, pressure or vacuum
conditions. Attention must be paid to mould permeability when using pressure, to allow the air
to escape as the teeming is done.
Traditional Investment Casting

Die casting
Die casting is primarily used to make castings with aluminium, magnesium alloys and low melting
point materials.
The molten metal is forced into the die cavity of special steel dies at pressures between 0.7-700
MN/mm2.
There are two types of process:
1.
2.
Hot chamber process - a piston forces the hot molten metal into the die cavity and
maintains pressure until the metal solidifies. Ideal for zinc, tin and lead materials.
Cold chamber process - molten material is teemed into a cold piston aperture and then
is injected into initially cold die-plates. Ideal for aluminium, magnesium alloys and
copper base alloys.
PAGE 13 OF 100

The cold chamber process

Expandable-pattern casting (lost foam process)
The pattern used in this process is made from polystyrene (this is the light, white packing
material which is used to pack electronics inside boxes). Polystyrene foam is 95% air bubbles, and
the material itself evaporates when the liquid metal is teemed on it.
The pattern itself is made by moulding the polystyrene beads and pentane which are put inside
an aluminium mould and heated; it expands to fill the mould, and takes the shape of the cavity.
The pattern is removed and used in the casting process as follows:
The pattern is dipped in a slurry of water and clay (or other refractory grains); it is dried
to get a hard shell around the pattern.
The shell-covered pattern is placed in a container with sand for support, and liquid metal
is teemed from a hole on top.
The foam evaporates as the metal fills the shell; upon cooling and solidification, the part
is removed by breaking the shell.
The process is useful since it is very cheap, and yields good surface finish and complex geometry.
There are no runners, risers, gating or parting lines - thus the design process is simplified. The
process is used to manufacture crank-shafts for engines, aluminium engine blocks, manifolds, etc.
PAGE 14 OF 100

Expandable mould casting

Centrifugal Casting
In centrifugal casting, a permanent mould is rotated about its axis at high speeds (300 to 3000
rpm) as the molten metal is poured. The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the outer
mould wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The casting is usually a fine grain casting with a very
fine-grained outer diameter, which is resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with
pipes. The inside diameter has more impurities and inclusions, which can be machined away.
Typical materials that can be cast with this process are iron, steel, stainless steels, and alloys of
aluminium, copper and nickel. Two materials can be cast by introducing a second material during
the process. Typical parts made by this process are pipes, boilers, pressure vessels, flywheels,
cylinder liners and other parts that are axi-symmetric.
Centrifugal Casting
PAGE 15 OF 100

CASTING DEFECTS
The following defects may be present in the material before any further processing operations
such as forging or rolling have begun. All casting defects are therefore inherent.
Porosity
This is formed by gas which is insoluble in the
molten metal. The gas is trapped within the
metal when it solidifies and remains in the form
of spherical or tubular cavities.
Airlocks
A cavity formed by air which has been trapped
in the mould by the metal during pouring.
Blowholes
These are small holes near to or on the surface
of the casting. They are caused by gas evolution
from the decomposition of grease, moisture
etc. but not from the mould itself.
For example, during the sand casting operation,
moisture from the mould produces steam, this
is normally forced through the mould due to
the absorbent nature of the sand but
sometimes the steam cannot get through to the
outside and is forced back into the casting,
blowing holes in the casting surface. There is an
increased possibility of this occurring in hand
produced sand moulds on the cross sectional
changes, where the operator has compressed
the material too much whilst trying to pick up
the change of section.
PAGE 16 OF 100

Non-metallic inclusions
Non-metallic inclusions are impurities such
as slag, oxides and sulphides, which exist in
the molten metal and finally the solidified
metal.
Pipe/shrinkage defects
This is a cavity in the centre of the
ingot/casting caused by shrinkage during
solidification. A primary pipe defect is
surface breaking and a secondary pipe
defect is one that exists sub-surface. The
top of an ingot casting is removed to get
rid of the primary and secondary pipe
defects (if existing) prior to rolling...
Other shrinkage defects may occur in
steel castings where there is a localized
variation in section thickness. Shrinkage
defects are not normally associated with
gas, but a high gas content will magnify
their extent.
Interdendritic shrinkage: very small
shrinkage cavities associated with
dendrite solidification.
PAGE 17 OF 100

Segregation
Segregation is chemical heterogeneity, or the
non-uniform distribution of the alloys or
impurities. Pure metals do not exhibit
segregation.
In carbon steels, the elements which segregate
are those that are either insoluble or form
lower freezing point complexers, e.g. sulphur,
phosphorus, carbon, manganese and silicon.
Cold shuts
A cold shut is an area where two or more
streams of metal meet within the mould
however they do not fuse together this may
be surface breaking or sub-surface in a
casting. Cold shuts may result from splashing,
surging, interrupted teeming or the meeting
of two streams of molten metal coming from
different directions, usually where casting
temperature is too low.
Hot tears (cracks)

Cracks caused by non-uniform cooling
resulting in stresses which may or may not
rupture the surface of the metal while its
temperature is still in the brittle range. They
appear as ragged lines of variable width and
numerous branches.
The tears may originate where stresses are
set up by the more rapid cooling of thin
sections that adjoin heavier masses of metal,
which are slower to cool. Curved surfaces
and corners tend to promote hot tearing.
PAGE 18 OF 100

WROUGHT PRODUCTS
A wrought product is a worked product, primarily produced by hot working, e.g. forging or
rolling, although cold working is possible in some cases and is classed as a high energy forming
process. Forging is usually used for higher strength applications in comparison to the casting
process.
FORGING
Forging is one of the oldest forms of metal working processes known to man and is simply
illustrated by the blacksmith using a hand held hammer and anvil working the hot metal
supported by tongs.
At the other extreme, very precise pairs of dies may be used with hydraulic presses to produce
precision finished components.
Forging is often used when strength and toughness are needed from the components. Many
basic components, e.g. nuts, bolts and rivets are mass produced by forging.
Because the base material is more malleable at high temperatures, hot forging* is easier to
perform. Cold forging requires much greater forces to distort the material to shape, but will be
capable of finer finished tolerances and a higher surface profile than a hot worked material.
Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal. With proper
design, the grain flow can be orientated to take account of the direction of principal stresses
encountered in actual use. Grain flow is the direction of the pattern that the crystals take during
plastic deformation. Physical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much
better in a forging than in the base metal, which has crystals randomly orientated.
PAGE 19 OF 100

Direction of Grain Flow

In order to make hollow items it may be required to pierce a solid forged block. This is achieved
by forcing a punch through the blank. The end product may be a flat item such as a greater blank,
a large diameter ring or a length of tubing. To control the inner diameter of items either an
internal roll (rings) or mandrel is used.
Although more complicated and expensive than cutting from plate (gear blanks and rings) or
rolling and welding plate (tubing), forging offers control of fibre flow and thus directional
strength.
A gear blank cut from the plate would have weak planes in line with the plate rolling direction,
whereas a forged gear blank would have the strong planes radiating from the centre giving
maximum strength and toughness in the essential plane.
Forging can be carried out by many methods, some of which are listed below:
Hammer forging
For components to be used in industry, hand forging is rarely used; however, automatic hammer
processes may be encountered.
Hammer forging uses the energy derived from the mass and velocity of the hammer contacting
the stationary work piece.
There are two main types of hammer used in industry:
1.
2.
Gravity drop hammers (drop forging) - this is where a forging ram is raised against
gravity by chain, belt, air and stream etc., and is then allowed to fall freely to contact the
workpiece.
Power drop hammers - these are similar to the above but the power (down stroke) is a
pressurised ram that intensifies the impact. The ram is air, steam or hydraulically
operated, this allows for more control and hence more versatility.
PAGE 20 OF 100

Hammer Forging
Press forging
Press forging is when force is imparted by a pressing action, generally applied to non-ferrous
materials and allows a deeper flow of the metal; the specific methods used are:
1.
2.
Mechanical presses - these have a crank or eccentric type of actuation. They are limited
by the inherent length of stroke but high forces can be generated. Special component
dies are fitted to meet component manufacturing requirements.
Screw press - this uses the stored energy of a flywheel or centrifugal mass; the mass of
flywheel or centrifugal mass is a limitation in itself. This system uses die inserts and is
only suitable for light work.
PAGE 21 OF 100

Press Forging
Open die forging
Two flat dies are placed in the two forging faces and a suitable heated section of material is
placed on the lower die. The faces are brought together and the material is shaped by
compression, sometimes termed upsetting.
Open die forging
Closed die forging

Used when special shapes are required. A sequence of forging sets have to be used: the material
is shaped, part formed, formed again, possibly pierced and finally trimmed to produce
components almost to size. Closed die forging produces excess metal called flash which has to be
trimmed off.
To ensure the die is fully filled by the base material in all areas, the blank (base material being
formed) contains more material than the finished forging, this excess material is squeezed into an
area around the die called the gutter, this excess material is now referred to as flash and is
removed afterwards via fettling.
Closed die forging

Cold forging
This produces a good surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Material must be capable of being
cold worked.
PAGE 22 OF 100

Rolling
Rolling practice
When an ingot or continuously cast section is to be further processed, the first operation is
usually rolling. Rolling modifies the shape to one that can be either the finished product or is
suitable for further processing.
Rolling also modifies and homogenises the structure from the as cast state.
Primary rolling (roughing/cogging) is usually only applied to ingots to bring them to a suitable size
and shape. This size and shape may also be a direct product of continuous casting so concast
products are not subject to primary rolling.
Further stages of rolling (secondary) produce progressively more useful shapes. The product of
this rolling may be blooms, billets, slabs, plate, I or H beams.
Blooms, billets and slabs
The following terms are commonly used in the iron and steel industry:
Square bloom - Semi-finished product with sides generally greater than 120 mm.
Rectangular bloom - Semi-finished product with cross sectional area greater than
14,400 mm2 and with a ratio width to thickness greater than 1:1 and less than 2:1.
Square billet - Semi-finished product with sides generally equal to or greater than 50
mm and less than or equal to 120 mm.
Rectangular billet - Semi-finished product with cross-sectional area equal to or greater
than 2500 mm2 and less than or equal to 14,400 mm 2 and with a ratio of width to
thickness greater than 1:1 and less than 2:1.
Round billet - Semi-finished product with diameter equal to or greater than 75 mm. (Up
to 75 mm is termed round bar)
Slab - Semi-finished product of thickness equal to or greater than 50 mm and with a
width to thickness ratio equal to or greater than 2:1.
Flat slab - Slab with a width to thickness ratio greater than 4:1.
Rolling may be carried out 'hot' or 'cold'. Hot means that the process is carried out at a
temperature above the 'recrystallisation' temperature. Above this temperature, grains that have
been distorted and elongated are re-formed as small equiaxed grains. Rolling temperature is
critical as grain growth continues at higher temperatures which could lead to excessive grain size
and consequently weak material.
From the above simple shapes a multitude of end products may be produced.
Primary rolling usually takes place between a pair of large diameter work rolls, the arrangement
being called '2 high'. Each pair of rolls is held in a 'stand'. Rolling may take place back and forth
through these rolls (reversing mill) or through a series of roll stands (roll train).
As thickness is decreased the length will increase. Initial (primary) rolling from ingot (or concast
billet or bloom) is carried out hot and reductions in thickness of over 500mm per pass can be
achieved.
Hot rolling is carried out initially to make the material easier to deform and to allow modification
of the structure to enhance properties. Ingots are preheated in a soaking pit to around 1300
PAGE 23 OF 100

degrees C. When hot working steel the material reacts with the oxygen in the atmosphere
creating scale on the material surface and has to be periodically removed to avoid being rolled
back in to the surface, this is achieved by
Scale busting rolls i.e. the plate is bent then straightened and the hard inflexible scale
breaks off.
"Scarfing" a generic term for using heat to remove surface imperfections in this case
scale has a different coefficient of expansion and contraction rate to the base steel and
falls away, sometimes with a tremendous release of energy.
Blasting, normally with water not at high pressure but simply to induce a cooling effect.
Other techniques may include pickling (acid) or mechanical techniques such wire
brushing, grinding, needle guns or machining.
The process is carried out between two large rolls (up to 50 inches in diameter and each weighing
up to 20 tons) called a "two high mill".
Two High Mill

These may be reversing rolls with reductions taking place on consecutive passes through the rolls
in opposite directions. Width is controlled by side rolls.
From this stage the steel goes to "three high mills" which are not reversing, the direction being
changed by raising or lowering a table.
These use less power and have less wear and tear as they run continuously in one direction.
As the process continues, more accuracy is needed and rolls are given backing rolls to control
distortion. Mill stands then become '4 high', '6 high' or may be complicated 'cluster mills' with
20+ rolls in them for producing thin foil.
For greater control over dimension, surface finish and properties, a cold rolling process is carried
out which will use mills having four or more rolls per set.
By using smaller work rolls there is less surface area in contact with the metal and less energy
required but to prevent bending (and maintain dimensional tolerances) backing rolls are used.
PAGE 24 OF 100

Cold rolling gives good dimensional control and surface finish.
Four High Mill
Effects of Hot Rolling
PAGE 25 OF 100

HOT ROLLING PRACTICES
COLD ROLLING PRACTICES
PAGE 26 OF 100

EXTRUSION AND DRAWING PROCESS

Extrusion
Extrusion is the process which pushes material through a shaped die. A lubricant is often
employed to reduce friction through the dies and varies with the material extruded i.e. glass may
be used as a lubricant when dealing with some steels. The lubricant is generically referred to as
"Soap". There are two main types of extrusion process:
1.
2.
Direct extrusion - a hot billet is placed in a chamber, then forced out under pressure
through a die opening.
Indirect (or reverse) extrusion - the billet is held within the chamber, the die holder is
then forced into the billet extruding the shaped section.
Extrusion is normally carried out at elevated temperatures termed hot extrusion to increase the
ductility of the material and therefore the ease in which the extrusion can be achieved. After
extrusion a thin residual shell known as "Skull" is sometimes left in the chamber, the existence of
skull confirms that the extruded material is free of oxides.
This process is normally associated with non-ferrous materials and classified as a high energy
process to form the product, it is rarely used for high melting point materials unless difficult to
forge or roll.
Direct extrusion
Indirect extrusion
PAGE 27 OF 100

WROUGHT PRODUCT DFECTS

Laps
Forging laps are caused by metal being folded
over and flattened but not fused onto the
surface of the forging. Laps can be produced by
using faulty/ oversized dies/ misaligned dies
particular reference to the closed die forging
process or too greater reduction attempted
when rolling plate/strip causing a back up of
material which eventually is pulled through the
rolls folding back onto the plate/strip surface.
Bursts
Forging bursts are surface or internal ruptures
caused by processing at too low a temperature,
excessive working or metal movement during
forging.
Laminations (in flat plates)

Laminations are planar voids usually aligned
parallel to the surface of the material. They
may be the result of any original casting
defect enlarged and flattened.
Slugs
A slug is a piece of foreign material which has
been processed or rolled into the surface of a
wrought material.
PAGE 28 OF 100

Stringer
As a billet is rolled into a bar section, any nonmetallic inclusions are squeezed out into longer
and thinner defects. These are called stringers.
Seams and laps (in bar stock)

During the rolling operation, faulty, oversized dies,
surface cracks or any surface irregularities may
cause laps or seams.
Banding
As the ingot is forged and rolled, the
segregations are elongated and reduced in
cross-section. If further processing is carried
out, they may appear as very thin parallel
lines or bands and is generally known as
banding. Banding is not usually considered
significant. However, this could cause nonrelevant MT indications.
Flakes
Internal ruptures usually associated with hydrogen and nitrogen and often found in heavy alloy
steel forgings. Flakes are caused during cooling and, being internal are seldom found by magnetic
or penetrant testing.
Clinks
A form of cracking occurring due to a rapid thermal gradient, so called due to the sound created
as the material spontaneously cracks, usually associated with large forgings or high strength
materials when rapidly cooled for high (working) temperatures.
Slivers
Where the metal has been scarfed, usually to remove visible surface defects and burning torches
have not evenly melted/ removed the surface it can leave ridges on the surface and when the
material is then re rolled the ridges are pushed into the material surface being fused at one end
only to the base material, this is also sometimes referred to as fash.
PAGE 29 OF 100

Chevron Cracks (Cone Cracking)

Associated with the extrusion process
when the material deformation rate at the
contact of the dies is excessively different
to that of the central area of the product
resulting in stresses beyond the plastic
flow capability of the material and a
rupture occurs, often at regular intervals
along the length of the product.
PAGE 30 OF 100

WELD TERMINOLOGY
GENERAL
Welding is the process of joining two or more pieces of material together by bringing the atoms
of each piece into such close contact that an atomic bond takes place, i.e. the separate pieces
fuse together to form one.
This process is not restricted to metals, many materials such as plastic and glass can also be
welded.
The first welding carried out was called forge welding. As the name implies, it was used in the
forge or smithy by blacksmiths. The method involves heating the pieces of iron to be joined to
red heat and hammering them together. Because no melting of the materials is involved, the
process is termed hot solid phase welding or welding with pressure.
Fusion welding is the alternative process to welding with pressure.
Welding with pressure is used to obtain a welded joint between two materials without melting
them. The process involves the use of high pressures to bring the materials into close enough
contact for an atomic bond to be obtained.
To achieve an atomic bond, the pressure applied must cause plastic deformation of the surfaces
being welded in order to break up and remove the oxides on the surfaces. The weld is obtained
by atomic diffusion followed by crystal growth across the surfaces being joined.
The application of heat, or the generation of heat due to frictional effects, has the effect of
reducing the amount of plastic deformation required to produce a bond.
Welding with pressure has a low heat input when compared to fusion welding, this is
advantageous for many welding applications. Welding with pressure can also join together
dissimilar metals which are difficult to weld with any fusion welding process. However, fusion
welding processes are more widely used than the welding processes involved with pressure.
The fusion process relies on the properties of molten materials to easily form atomic bonds.
When a material melts, the lattice structures which form the material are destroyed, allowing the
atoms to easily mix together. Upon cooling and solidification, the atoms re-form into new lattice
structures. These structures may well be different to the original lattice for various reasons,
including the rate of heating, the temperatures reached, the rate of cooling, and any additions
made to the molten material. Therefore the finished weld may have properties quite different
from the parent materials.
Fusion welding processes require a local application of heat in order to bring the material to a
temperature at which it will fuse, for steels this is approximately 1400C to 1500C. The
temperature in the molten weld pool may be in the 2500C to 3000C range. The average
temperature in the arc is 6000C. This heat energy is dissipated into the surrounding atmosphere
and parent material on either side of the weld.
Additions to the weld may be made unintentionally by exposing the molten material to the
atmosphere. The gases which form the air (primarily nitrogen and oxygen) are readily combined
with the molten metal and undesirable nitrides and oxides may be formed. It is therefore
desirable to shield the molten weld metal from the air; most fusion welding processes
incorporate a system to protect the weld pool from atmospheric contamination.
PAGE 31 OF 100

PAGE 32 OF 100

Weld Cladding Definition
Weld cladding is a recognised method of protecting against erosion and corrosion. Industry has
developed, and is continuously improving, techniques for the application of cladding to a wide
variety of components.
Weld cladding is a means of depositing a metallic layer onto a substrate to enhance the
properties. The most common purpose is to enhance corrosion resistance and is commonly
applied to boiler walls and roofs in utility boilers and energy-from-waste boilers. Cladding has
been successfully deposited over large surface areas and in intricate, hard-to reach places in high
value plant items. Additional applications include deposition of weld metal buttering to reinstate
minimum design thickness requirements on vessels and tanks. The benefit of weld cladding is
that it is a fused bond onto the substrate creating an integral layer with the component,
eliminating the risk of the layer spalling or detaching during service and aiding volumetric
inspection.
MAIN WELDING METHODS (PROCESSES)

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) also called MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING (MMA)
GAS METAL ARC WEDING (GMAW)
FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
PAGE 33 OF 100

TYPES OF JOINTS
JOINT PREPARATION
PAGE 34 OF 100

WELD ZONE TERMS
WELD ZONE
INCLUDED ANGLE
DESIGN
THROAT
PARENT
METAL
HEAT
AFFECTED
ZONE
ORIGINAL
FACE
WELD
JUNCTION
ROOT GAP
ACTUAL
THROAT
ROOT FACE
(LANDING)
FUSION ZONE
ROOT
PARENT
METAL
WELD
METAL
WELD
JUNCTION
ORIGINAL
FACE
HEAT
AFFECTED
ZONE
ROOT
FUSION
ZONE
DESIGN
THROAT
ACTUAL
THROAT
PAGE 35 OF 100

WELDING PROCESSES
OXY-GAS WELDING
The term oxy-gas welding is a generic term for a fusion welding process which uses a fuel gas and
oxygen to provide a flame hot enough to weld the materials to be joined.
Acetylene is the only fuel gas, when mixed with oxygen, which gives sufficient thermal energy for
the commercial welding of steels; a flame temperature of 3100C is produced. Oxy-acetylene
welding is suitable for the welding of most metals including carbon steels, stainless steels, cast
iron, bronze, copper, aluminium etc. For all materials except the carbon steels the use of a flux is
required.
The main area of application for oxy-gas welding is on metals less than 5 mm thickness, although
thicker sections may be welded.
The main disadvantage of oxy-gas welding is the slow speed of travel (and therefore heat input),
this causes a wide HAZ, possibly undesirable metallurgical changes and distortion.
In recent years the process has declined in popularity, mainly due to the development of other
more efficient processes such as TIG, MIG/MAG and plasma arc.
Process technique
The high temperature flame is used to bring a small area of the parent metal up to the melting
point, a separate filler wire is then dipped into the molten pool and a portion is then melted off,
this mixes with the base metal to provide the weld.
Two main welding techniques are used for oxy-gas welding:
PAGE 36 OF 100

1.
Forehand technique:
The filler wire precedes the blowpipe along the seam to be welded. The forehand
technique is for general purpose work.
2.
Backhand technique:
The backhand technique is vice versa to the forehand technique, i.e. the blowpipe
precedes the filler wire along the welded joint. This technique can be used on thicker
sections and, with modifications, on positional work.
The oxy-acetylene flame

There are three distinct flame types which can be set with oxy-acetylene and these are as
follows:
1.
The neutral flame:

The neutral flame is combined from equal quantities of oxygen and acetylene and has a
distinct inner white cone with a rounded tip. This flame is the most frequently used. It is
suitable for all carbon steels, cast irons, low alloy steels and aluminium.
2.
The carburizing (carbonizing) flame:

The carburizing flame has a slight excess of acetylene and is identified by the feather
around the inner white cone. The flame is suitable for the welding of high carbon steels
and for hard surfacing applications. Some welders prefer a very slightly carburising flame
when welding aluminium as it ensures that there is no chance of excess oxygen being
present to contaminate the weld pool.
3.
The oxidizing flame:

The oxidising flame has an excess of oxygen and is identified by an inner white cone
which is shorter and sharper than the neutral cone. This flame is suitable for all brass,
bronze, zinc applications, i.e. bronze welding and brazing.
PAGE 37 OF 100

MANUAL METAL-ARC (MMA) WELDING OR SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

Manual metal arc welding is the most versatile of the welding processes, suitable for almost all
thickness and types of ferrous and most non-ferrous metals. Welding can be carried out in all
positions relatively economically with reasonable ease of use, although the eventual weld quality
is dependant mainly upon the skill of the welder.
Manual metal arc welding is an arc welding process, the heat being provided by an electric arc
which is itself formed between a flux coated consumable electrode and the metal being welded.
The arc has an average of around 6,000C which is more than sufficient to melt the parent metal
consumable electrode and flux.
Power requirements
MMA welding is carried out using either AC or DC. In the case of DC, Positive (+VE) or Negative
(-VE) polarity may be used. The actual current form selected is dependent upon the composition
of the electrode flux coating and the specified requirements of the weld. AC transformers are the
most cost effective form of power source.
Power for MMA can be obtained from either transformers, transformer-rectifier, generators or
inverters.
Regardless of type, the welding plant must provide the following:
a)
A high open circuit voltage (OCV) to initiate the arc, e.g. 65-90 volts, and a lower arc or
welding voltage to maintain the arc, e.g. 20-40 volts; therefore the plant must have a
drooping characteristic.
b) A reasonable range of current must be available; 30-350 amps is typical. Approximately
500 amps would be the maximum capable of being handled manually.
PAGE 38 OF 100

c)
Arc stability. A rapid arc reignition (arc recovery) must be available after short circuiting
without excessive current surges which can cause spatter.
d) A current which remains almost constant even if, as is usual, the operator varies the arc
length during welding, so that consistent electrode burn off rate and weld penetration
characteristics are maintained.
Current (amperage)
The welding current, measured in amperes, controls electrode burn off rate and depth of
penetration. The possible effects of having an incorrect amperage when using MMA are shown
below:
Amperage too low
Poor penetration or fusion, unstable arc, irregular bead

shape, slag inclusions, porosity, electrode freezes to the weld,
possible stray arc strikes.
Amperage too high
Excessive penetration, burn throughs, porosity, spatter, deep

craters, undercut, electrode overheats, high deposition
(positional welding difficult).
Voltage
The welding potential (voltage) controls the weld pool fluidity. The possible effects of having an
incorrect voltage when using MMA are shown below:
Voltage too low
Poor penetration, electrode freezes to work, possible stray

arcs, fusion defects, slag inclusions, unstable arc and irregular
bead shape.
Voltage too high
Porosity, spatter, arc wander, irregular bead, slag inclusions,

very fluid weld pool, positional welding difficult.
Speed of travel
The speed of travel affects heat input and therefore also effects metallurgical-and mechanicalconditions. The possible effects of having an incorrect welding speed when using MMA are
shown below:
Travel speed too fast
Narrow thin bead, slag inclusions, fast cooling, undercut, poor

fusion/penetration.
Travel speed too slow
Excessive deposition, cold laps, slag inclusions, irregular bead

shape.
PAGE 39 OF 100

Current type
The current type, and more specifically its polarity, determines the heat distribution at the arc.
DC electrode positive
An electrode connected to the DC +VE pole will have two thirds of the available energy-which is
mainly heat-developing in the electrode tip with the remaining one third of the energy in the
parent material.
This connection produces a wide, shallow weld pool with a broad HAZ which together slow down
the rate of cooling and reduce the possibility of hydrogen entrapment and/or the development of
a brittle metallurgical structure.
DC electrode negative
An electrode connected to the DC -VE pole has reversed energy distribution compared to DC +VE
and therefore has one third of the energy develops at the electrode and two thirds of the energy
in the parent material.
This creates a rapid development of the weld pool which is narrow, deep and fast freezing with
limited HAZ. Using this polarity with certain electrodes, may lead to hydrogen entrapment and a
brittle metallurgical structure which is more susceptible to cracking during contraction or when
external stresses are applied.
AC
In an AC arc the polarity is reversing 100 times per second (50 CPS). This has the effect of
equalising the heat distribution; half the heat at the electrode and half in the parent material.
The weld zone and mechanical characteristics are therefore midway between those produced
with electrode DC +VE and electrode DC -VE.
Consumable electrodes
Three electrode types/coverings are commonly used:
Rutile,
Cellulose,
Basic.
PAGE 40 OF 100

GAS METAL ARG WELDING (GMAW)

METAL INERT-GAS (MIG) AND METAL ACTIVE-GAS (MAG) WELDING
MIG and MAG welding may be considered together because the welding equipment, including
power source, is essentially the same. It is the shielding gas and consumables (filler wires) which
differ.
The MIG/MAG welding process uses a bare wire consumable electrode to provide the arc and
weld metal. The wire, typically 0.8-1.6 mm diameter, is continuously fed from a coil through a
specially designed welding gun.
Because the process is fluxless, it is necessary to eliminate the possibility of atmospheric
contamination by introducing a shielding gas. For some materials, argon is an efficient shielding
gas, being inert, it does not chemically react with the weld metal. When an inert gas is used for
shielding the welding process is known as metal inert-gas (MIG) welding.
Different shielding gases change the electrical properties of the arc, this influences metal transfer
properties, heat input, penetration and weld profile characteristics.
The shielding gas selected will depend on the material to be welded, the corresponding filler
wire, and the required characteristics of the weld. For example, carbon steel-as an electrodecannot be transferred successfully through a pure argon shielded arc; a very irregular weld profile
with poor fusion would result.
Carbon steel can be transferred successfully through an arc using carbon dioxide (CO2) as the
shielding gas. CO2 is an active gas, i.e. it chemically reacts with the weld pool to produce an oxide,
and therefore extra deoxidizers must exist in the wire for an acceptable weld to be produced.
This process is widely referred to as CO2 welding but is also called metal active-gas (MAG)
welding. This latter terminology also applies to the process when other active gases. Gas
mixtures are used, e.g. 75% argon, 25% CO 2.
PAGE 41 OF 100

Shielding gases
The gas shield fulfils two main functions:
It provides a suitable ionisable atmosphere for the electric arc,
It protects the weld pool from atmospheric contamination.
Example gases and applications for MIG/MAG welding

Gas
Application Examples
Pure argon
Aluminium copper, 9% nickel steel
Argon + 1% to 5% oxygen
Stainless steel
CO 2 (carbon dioxide)
C steel up to 0.4% C, Low alloy steel
Argon + 5% to 25% CO 2
Carbon and low alloy steels
Argon + 5% hydrogen
Nickel and its alloys
Argon + 15%
Copper and its alloys
75% helium + 25% argon
Aluminium and copper
75% helium + 25% argon + CO 2 trace
Austenitic stainless steel
Note: A H2 trace may be added to most gases to increase arc voltage and therefore overall
deposition rates.
Wire consumable
The solid wire consumable used for MIG/MAG welding should conform to BS EN ISO 14341
Welding Consumables. Wire electrodes and deposits for gas shielded metal arc welding of nonalloy and fine grain steels or other agreed specification.
Because of the porosity problems which can occur when welding carbon steels with the MAG
process, fully deoxidized (killed) wire, such as silicon manganese, should be used.
PAGE 42 OF 100

Metal transfer modes
Metal transfer for MIG/MAG welding may be achieved in one of four ways:
Dip transfer (semi-short circuiting arc),

Globular transfer,
Spray transfer,
Pulsed transfer.
PAGE 43 OF 100

In Short Circuit Transfer Mode both low amperage and low arc volts are required so that the
consumable wire electrode touches the weld pool and short circuits. This is followed by a short,
rapid rise in current which causes the tip of the wire to melt off creating an arc which gradually
reduces in length until it short circuits again and the process is repeated. Because this transfer
mode produces a relatively cool arc, it can be used on thinner sections and for all positional
welding, including vertical down welding.
Globular Transfer Mode occurs in the intermediate range between spray and dip transfer. This
transfer mode has no manual application area in MIG/MAG welding and only limited success on
mechanized and automatic set-ups.
Spray or Free Flight Transfer is accomplished when a high welding current is used, the weld
metal transfers across the arc in the form of a fine spray. This type of transfer gives high
deposition rates and deep penetration welds. The spray transfer mode is suited to thick
materials, and except for the light alloys may only be used in the flat or horizontal welding
positions.
Pulsed Transfer is a modified form of spray transfer which effectively uses both the dip and spray
transfer modes in one operation. Pulses of high powered spray transfer current are
superimposed over a constant low semi-short circuiting background mode. This results in a lower
heat output compared to true spray transfer but is greater than with dip transfer; this permits
hotter welding which allows for high deposition rates and all positional welding. The main
advantage of the pulsed transfer mode is that poor fusion of root runs is virtually eliminated.
There is also regular penetration, no spatter, good profile and the welds are high quality.
Power requirements
Power for MIG/MAG welding is usually electrode DC +VE of a flat (constant voltage)
characteristic, this can be obtained from a generator or transformed-rectifier.
Advantages and disadvantages
The advantages and disadvantages of the MIG/MAG welding process particularly when compared
to MMA welding can be summarized as follows:
Advantages
Minimal wastages of consumable electrode,

No frequent changing of consumable electrode,
Little or no interpass cleaning required (no slag produced),
Heavier weld beads are produced,
Faster welding process,
Low hydrogen process - preheat may not be required.
Disadvantages
Increased risk of porosity - due to displacement of the gas shield,

More maintenance of plant involved,
High risk of lack of fusion.
MIG is ideal for materials with high oxidation rates i.e. Magnesium, Titanium and
Aluminium.
PAGE 44 OF 100

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG) OR TUNGSTEN ACTIVE GAS (TAG) WELDING
General
The TIG welding process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to provide an arc. Filler
metal, when required, is fed from a separate filler rod in a manner similar to oxy-acetylene
welding. A shielding gas, e.g. argon, is fed through the welding gun to the weld area and provides
a gas shield to prevent contamination by the atmospheric gases. No fluxes are used with the
process.
Although initially developed for the light alloys, i.e. aluminium and magnesium, TIG welding may
be used on a large variety of metals particularly those with high oxidation rates.
The manual TIG process is expensive when compared to most other manual arc welding
techniques and is generally only used on carbon steels when high metallurgical and mechanical
properties are required for the weld. An example application is for the deposition of high quality
root runs on pipework; the fillers and cap are usually deposited by a more cost effective process
such as MMA or MAG.
When high quality root runs are to be deposited, a back purge is used to prevent oxidizing
(coking) of the weld metal.
When access to the weld area is difficult, e.g. with deep vee preparations or corner welds, the
tungsten electrode stick-out length can be increased providing a gas lens is fitted to stiffen the
gas shield to prevent turbulence, which would otherwise lead to oxidation of the weld metal.
It is possible to automate the TIG process and many systems are in current use, particularly on
pipe where the welding head travels in fixed rings around the joint, the electrode may be
stationary or may oscillate from side to side. On root beads it is usual to pulse the current to
control the penetration.
PAGE 45 OF 100

Tungsten electrodes
There are two classifications for tungsten electrodes:
1.
Plain (unactivated) tungsten

Plain tungsten electrodes tend to laminate in use and can cause tungsten inclusions in
the weld. This type of electrode is rarely used and is suitable for lower quality general
purpose welds on all metals.
2.
Activated tungsten
The addition of either thoria or zirconia to the tungsten gives considerable advantages
including increased electron emission for better arc striking, re-ignition and stability,
particularly with low current values. There is also a reduction in the possibility of
tungsten inclusions in the weld.
1% Thoriated tungsten electrodes: used with electrode DC -VE for the welding of all
metals except the light alloys (aluminium and magnesium).
2% Thoriated tungsten electrodes: as above, but for applications where lower
amperages are used and improved arc stability is required.
Zirconiated tungsten electrodes are specifically used with AC for the welding of the light
alloys.
Selection of current type

In selecting the type of current to be used for TIG welding, consideration has to be given to the
material being welded and the requirements of the arc. Sometimes arc stability is one of the
prime importance, but occasionally the removal of surface oxide, i.e. a cleaning action, takes
priority. Tungsten has a good ionization potential, i.e. electrons and therefore current flow, are
easily produced; this produces an inherently stable arc. Electrons flow from negative to positive,
therefore natural stability will also be achieved with electrode DC -VE however, because most
metals have some natural ionization potential, then stability will also result with electrode DC
+VE but the arc voltage will be higher.
When electrode is negative it is at the cool end of the arc, when it is positive it is at the hot end of
the arc. Tungsten electrodes usually require a clean sharp tip to be maintained during welding.
Welding with electrode DC +VE can overheat and melt the tip, which becomes globular in shape
resulting in an uncontrolled arc and possible tungsten inclusions in the weld metal. For most
metals electrode DC -VE is used, the exceptions are aluminium, magnesium, and their alloys. The
welding of the light alloys requires an electric arc which is capable of removing the oxide film
which has a higher melting point than the material from which it was formed.
There is a scavenging action achieved with electrode DC +VE which does not exist with DC -VE,
therefore from a cleaning point of view, this connection is the one most suitable for the welding
of the light alloys. However, electrode DC +VE polarity will melt the electrode tip as stated earlier,
unless a low current with a very large electrode is used, but this is unsuitable as it creates an
unstable arc. A compromise is met by using alternating current, so that for 50% of each current
cycle the electrode is positive, therefore cleaning and welding takes place, and for the other 50%
of the time the electrode is negative and is cooled down, therefore melting of the electrode is
prevented. In AC arcs, because of the reversal of polarity, the heat distribution is even.
PAGE 46 OF 100

Protection of the molten pool

The gas shield fulfils two main functions:
It provides a suitable ionisable atmosphere for the electric arc.

It protects the weld pool from atmospheric contamination.
Gas type and gas flow rates are important considerations. Excessive gas pressure can cause
rippling of the weld pool and give a coarse finish to the weld bead.
Three gases may be considered for TIG welding: argon, helium, and nitrogen.
1.
Argon
The inert gas argon provides a very cost effective gas shield for all metal types, it
produces a smooth, quiet arc with low arc volts which makes it ideal for light gauge
material or positional welding. It improves the cleaning action when used with AC on
light alloys.
The addition of between 1% and 5% of the active gas hydrogen will raise the arc voltage
and give deeper penetration or increases welding speed on stainless steel, or on carbon
steels that can accept the extra hydrogen content on the weld/HAZ.
2.
Helium
The inert gas helium is lighter than argon, therefore requires higher flow rates (2 to 2.5
times) to give the same effective shielding. Helium creates a higher arc voltage which is
useful for welding thick sections and metals with a high thermal conductivity.
When used with AC on the light alloys there is less cleaning action when compared to
argon. Helium is also more expensive than argon.
3.
Nitrogen
Inert at room temperature, nitrogen combines with oxygen at arc temperatures and
becomes active, therefore it is unsuitable for the majority of metals but gives good
results on copper as it increases arc voltage which creates more heat and is far more
cost effective than argon or helium.
Filler material
The filler material used for TIG welding should conform to BS EN ISO 14341 Welding
Consumables. Wire Electrodes and Deposits for Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Non Alloy and
fine Grain Steels (or other national/international specifications).
Because of the porosity problems which can occur when welding carbon steels with the TIG
process, killed or fluffy deoxidized wire-such as silicon manganese-should be used. For very high
quality welds, triple deoxidized silicon/manganese/aluminium wire is recommended.
PAGE 47 OF 100

Power source requirements
A high OCV of around 90 volts is required for TIG welding to ensure arc stability at all times. The
power source, which may be a generator, transformer or transformer-rectifier must be of a
drooping characteristic to maintain a relatively constant current value, the operator being
responsible for arc length control.
To assist arc initiation, to prevent tungsten inclusions in the weld and to prevent damage to the
electrode tip, a high voltage, high frequency current is superimposed at the start of all DC
welding operations.
These characteristics are permanent when AC is used, to assist arc reignition at the beginning of
each positive half cycle.
PAGE 48 OF 100

PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW)

Plasma arc welding is basically a modification of the TIG process, the majority of the equipment
being similar, but with modifications to the power source and torch design. PAW can be
complementary to, or used as a substitute for, TIG welding, offering greater welding speed, less
sensitivity to process variations and consequently better weld quality.
The welding capability range is much greater than TIG, particularly for low material thickness
where micro-plasma units can operate as low as O.1 amps, for the welding of very thin materials
and high conductivity materials.
The PAW process has the ability to produce welds by the keyhole technique, this is used closed
square butts on material 1.5-10.0 mm thick. Full penetration in a single pass is achieved with
considerably reduced distortion compared to more conventional welding processes.
PAW may require the use of a separately fed filler wire or may be used autogenously.
Method of operation
The welding torch consist of a non-consumable tungsten electrode set back into a constricted
nozzle through which the plasma gas flows, this nozzle lies within another nozzle through which
the shielding gas flows.
PAGE 49 OF 100

Gas is fed into the inner nozzle under low pressure and passes through the electric arc where it
becomes ionized before being forced through the nozzle constriction. This increases the gas
pressure and thus the temperature which is in the range of 10,000-17,000C. This superheated
ionized gas is referred to as plasma.
Power source and equipment
A conventional TIG power source, i.e. transformer/rectifier capable of operating in the range
from 5 to 200 amps, may be used with an additional plug in plasma arc module, although
purpose built units are available.
Shielding and plasma gases used are pure argon, helium or argon/helium/hydrogen mixtures
dependent upon the material type being welded.
The electrode should be connected to the negative pole when DC is being used. When AC is used,
a square wave form is recommended to give instant reversal of current.
Methods of arc transfer
Two means of arc transfer are used in plasma arc welding, these being the transferred arc and
non-transferred arc processes.
With the transferred arc process, the work piece forms part of the circuit. The arc transfers from
the electrode to the work piece via the plasma gas; this results in additional heat output. The
combined temperature of both arc and plasma is in the region of 17,000C.
With the non-transferred arc process, the arc is initiated between the electrode and the
constricting nozzle within the torch and only plasma gas (no arc) exits the nozzle; the work does
not form part of the circuit. The plasma temperature is in the range of 10,000C.
PAGE 50 OF 100

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
Submerged arc welding uses a continuously fed bare wire consumable electrode, 1.6 to 6.4 mm
diameter, to produce a weld pool which is protected from atmospheric contamination by a
separately supplied shielding flux in fused or agglomerated form.
It is possible to feed more than one consumable wire electrode into the weld pool at the same
time to increase production rates by up to a factor of eight times compared to using a single wire.
Submerged arc welding is normally fully mechanised, but may be used manually or in a fully
automatic mode. The arc and molten weld metal are completely submerged beneath the layer of
shielding flux and are not visible to the eye, however, protection against the arc light is advisable.
The flux also provides additives to the weld, removes impurities from the weld and provides a
thermal blanket (slag) protecting the weld as it cools down. The remaining unfused flux is
recovered for re-use after the removal of impurities and sieving.
It may be specified that the flux used can only contain a limited amount of recycled flux e.g. a
maximum of 25%. If this is the case the recycled flux must always be thoroughly mixed in with the
new flux before use. An advantage of the submerged arc welding process is that very high
welding currents can be used to produce the rapid deposition of heavy weld beads without the
spatter. Although it is possible to use 5,000 amps or more to produce for example a 37 mm thick
weld in one pass, it is more usual to restrict the current to around 1000-2000 amps and deposit a
multi-run weld because of the improvement in metallurgical properties.
Power source and equipment
Both AC and DC power sources are used with SAW with a typical current output of 400-1500
amps. Both drooping characteristic and flat characteristic power sources are used. Because of the
high current draw off, a 100% duty cycle capability is recommended.
Flat characteristic DC power sources are the type most commonly used for applications where
the current does not exceed 1000 amps, they are also the best for the high speed welding of
thinner steel sections.
PAGE 51 OF 100

Above 1000 amps and for the thicker sections, drooping characteristic AC is preferred and works
best if the sine wave are square because polarity reversal is instantaneous. AC is also preferable
for multi-wire techniques and applications where arc-blow is a problem.
Single, twin or triple wire feed systems are commonly used, all feeding into the same weld pool.
All the wires may be live, or dead fillers may be applied. In a multi-wire application, the leading
wire is usually DC +VE polarity, this will limit the risk of burn through, although deep penetration
will be achieved because of the high current used. AC would normally be used for the remaining
wire(s), or dead fillers could be used, or a combination of both.
Application areas
Submerged arc welding is widely used in ship building, structural steel work, general engineering
applications, and for the fabrication of pipes and pipelines, e.g. double jointing stations. Carbon
steel, alloy steel and stainless steels are the main materials welded using this process. Because of
the heavy deposition rates and fluid slag, it is only possible to weld in the flat or horizontal
vertical position. However, circumferential welds may be made on pipes and vessels. For this
application the welding head remains stationary while the work piece rotates beneath it.
Wires to BS EN ISO 14171, Fluxes to BS EN 760
Weld quality and properties are influenced by the choice of wire and flux. The determination of
the best wire and flux combination to use to give optimum qualities is often a case of trial and
error. The BS EN ISO 14171 - Wire electrodes and flux combinations for submerged arc welding of
non-alloy and fine grain steels, gives requirements for the wire and flux, designates a coding
system for SAW wires and fluxes, and also offers guidance on choice.
Fluxes
Fluxes for SAW are divided into two types:
Fused - granulated,
Agglomerated - powdered.
Fluxes can be further classified depending on their basicity or acidity.

Fused fluxes
Fused fluxes are manufactured as follows: the ingredients are mixed and melted at a high
temperature, the mixture is then poured onto large chill blocks or directed into a stream of water
to produce granules which have a hard glassy appearance. The material is then crushed, sieved
for size, and packaged.
Advantages of fused fluxes include:
Good chemical mix achieved,

They do not attract moisture (not hydroscopic) this improves handling, storage, use, and
weldability. Any moisture present is easily removed by low temperature drying,
The easy removal of impurities and fine particles etc. when recycling.
The main disadvantage is the difficulty in adding deoxidants and ferro-alloys. These would be lost
during the high temperature manufacture. The maintenance of a controlled flux depth is
considered critical.
PAGE 52 OF 100

Agglomerated fluxes
All the flux materials are dry mixed and then bonded with either potassium or sodium silicate,
they are then baked at a temperature below the fusion or melting point and therefore remain as
a powder which is sieved for size and packaged.
Advantages of agglomerated fluxes include:
Easy addition of deoxidants and ferro-alloys,
Disadvantages include:
Tendency for flux to absorb moisture and a difficult redrying procedure,

Possibility of molten slag causing porosity,
Difficult re-cycling, i.e. the removal of impurities and sieving.
Flux basicity or classifications

A certain amount of oxygen will exist during welding, some will remain in the weld metal either in
gaseous form or as oxide inclusions. The oxygen can be controlled by chemical reactions with the
molten flux.
Basic oxides tend to be more stable than acidic oxides. Generally the higher the basicity of a flux,
the less the production/formation of oxygen (porosity) and oxide inclusions, leading to an
improvement of weld metal strength.
Fluxes for SAW may be classified as follows:
Acid-general purpose use and for dirty (rusty) steel

Neutral
Semi-basic
Basic
High basicity - maximum weld toughness and performance
IMPROVING QUALITY
PAGE 53 OF 100

ELECTROSLAG WELDING (ESW)

The main application area of the electroslag process is the joining of plates approximately 10 mm
thick and above, although plates in excess of 50 mm thick are more likely to be welded using this
process. Carbon steel, low alloy steels and austenitic stainless steels are the only materials
weldable with the electroslag process.
Welding is carried out only when the plates are in the vertical, near vertical position. A square cut
joint is always used. Once welding has started it must be carried out to completion because
restarts produce defective areas. The process is used on ships, pressure vessels, steel castings,
structural steel etc..
For welds up to 75 mm thick, the ESW process uses less weld metal and 90% less flux than SAW;
plates 75-300 mm thick are welded at 600-1200 mm/hr. Angular distortion is eliminated.
Electroslag welds are relatively defect free, slag entrapment, porosity and lack of fusion defects
are almost non-existent. Electroslag welds normally require post-weld heat treatment especially
on the thicker materials, due to the resultant coarse grain structure.
A flat characteristic power source is required. A typical 3 mm diameter wire will require 40 volts
and 600 amps.
Method of operation
ESW is a fusion welding process which uses the combined effect of current and electrical
resistance to produce a conducting bath of molten slag which melts both the filler wire(s) and the
surfaces of the work pieces to be welded. The weld pool is also shielded by this slag which covers
the full surface of the weld and rises as the weld progresses up the joint.
The process is initiated by an arc, usually struck on wire wool type material, which is itself laid
onto a starting block which supports the initial liquid material.
Powdered flux is placed at the bottom of the joint, this is liquified by the arc which is then
extinguished by the now conductive, though highly resistive, molten slag. All the current now
passes through this molten slag, the resistance creating heat.
In order to retain the molten mass of flux and weld metal, water cooled copper shoes are fitted
either side of the joint and walk or slide progressively upwards as the welding proceeds.
PAGE 54 OF 100

Process options
Two variations of ESW are in general use. These are non-consumable guide and consumable
guide processes.
Non-consumable guide process
In this technique, one or more wires, depending upon metal thickness, are fed into the molten
slag through a guide or guides which are constantly maintained approximately 75 mm above the
molten slag. One electrode is required for each 60 mm of metal thickness. If an oscillating or
pendulum technique is used this can be increased to 120 mm. This method of ESW is suitable for
material thicknesses ranging from 10 to 500 mm thick.
Consumable guide process
With this method, filler metal is supplied by both the electrode and its compatible metal guide.
The metal guide directs the wire to the bottom of the joint and extends for the full weld height
which may be as much as 10 meters. The guide is consumed as welding progresses upwards and
can provide from 5 to 15% of the filler metal. One electrode/ guide is required for each 60 mm of
weld metal but this increases to 150 mm if an oscillating technique is used. The consumable
guide technique is suitable for material of unlimited thickness.
PAGE 55 OF 100

Specialist welding systems
Ultrasonic Welding
The components usually of thin section
are vibrated to achieve a clean contact
with each other at the atomic level. This
system is mainly employed for materials
less than 2.5 mm in thickness and also in
the joining of plastics.
Explosive Welding
Where large areas if dissimilar materials
are required to be joined this method is
often employed. A controlled explosion
brings the two materials into close contact
to each other achieving an atomic bond
whilst pushing out the contaminates.
Diffusion Welding
This method presses the two clean
surfaces together whilst raising the
temperature, normally carried out in an
inert atmosphere to reduce possible
contamination.
PAGE 56 OF 100

STEEL WELD METALLURGY

GRAIN STRUCTURES
The grain structure of a material will influence its weldability, its mechanical properties and inservice performance. The type and number of grain structures present in a material will be
primarily influenced by three factors: (1) the elements in the material, (2) the temperatures
reached during welding and/or post-weld heat treatment and (3) the cooling rates produced.
Single or multiple grain structures may be present in a material in its final state.
Austenite
Austenite is the high temperature form of Fe (pure iron) found in C, C-Mn and alloy steels which
exists above 723C. The temperature at which the steels are fully austenitic depends on carbon
content, e.g. low carbon <0.1%C - over 910C, 0.8%C about 730C.
The cooling rate from the austenite region determines the hardness of the steel at room
temperature. Very slow cooling produces very soft steels; medium cooling rates produce soft to
medium steels; fast cooling can produce very hard and brittle steels depending on the carbon
content and thickness of the steel.
Ferrite
Ferrite is essentially pure iron at room temperature, it contains either very little or no carbon.
This grain structure is formed from the austenite region by holding at a temperature which
depends on the content of the steel, e.g. 910C for low carbon steel. Ferrite is very soft and
ductile and has low tensile strength but has good machining properties.
Pearlite
Pearlite forms from the austenite region under slow cooling and consist of plates of ferrite and
cementite, it is harder than ferrite because of the layers of hard cementite it contains. Pearlite is
the most frequently encountered grain structure in a constructional steel.
Bainite
Bainite forms from the austenite region when the cooling rate is too fast for the pearlite to form,
it is harder and usually tougher than pearlite. Bainite often forms in the HAZ area of C-Mn steel
welds.
Martensite
Martensite is a very hard and brittle grain structure but it can be tempered in order to improve
toughness. It is formed from the austenite region by quenching or very fast cooling. This grain
structure can only be formed in plain steels when sufficient carbon exists, usually over 0.3%. For
alloy steels this figure may be much lower because other alloys in the steel - especially chromium
- also have an influence. Unless specifically designed into the steel, the presence of martensite
should be avoided.
PAGE 57 OF 100

THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ)

During welding using a fusion welding process, there is a huge temperature difference between
the weld and parent material. Because of this temperature difference, the material immediately
adjacent to the weld undergoes microstructural changes. This area, which lies between the fusion
boundary and the unaffected parent material, is called the heat affected zone (HAZ)
The extent of the changes in microstructure will depend on the following:
a) Material composition; especially carbon content.
b) Heat input. The higher the heat input or arc energy, the wider the heat affected zone.
Metallurgical properties will also be affected.
Arc energy (kJ/mm) =
c)
The rate of cooling. The faster the rate of cooling the harder the heat affected zone,
especially if the carbon equivalent of the steel is high.
The HAZ of a fusion weld on steel consists of up to four separate regions of microstructure, the
actual condition will be dependent upon the alloying elements present and the thermal
conditions applied during welding. The following grain structures - starting from the area
immediately adjacent to the weld - are typically present on a 0.15%C steel:
1.
2.
3.
4.
A coarse grained region (heated between 1100C and melting point).

A grained refined region (900 to 1100C).
A region of partial transformation (750 to 900C).
A region of spheroidization (just below 750C).
On C-Mn and low alloy steels, the HAZ of the weld tends to be more brittle, i.e. it has a lower
notch toughness, than the actual weld metal. The HAZ area is therefore more prone to cracking,
especially when hydrogen is included, although it must be noted that the tensile strength of the
HAZ is normally high in comparison with the weld and parent material. Unfortunately, if a fusion
welding process is being used, the heat affected zone cannot be eliminated, although it can be
controlled using a properly applied welding procedure.
THE EFFECT OF HYDROGEN IN STEEL

The presence of hydrogen causes general embrittlement in steel and during welding may lead
directly to cracking of the weld zone. The following terms are forms of hydrogen related
problems:
Hydrogen induced cold cracking (HICC),

Fissures/ micro-fissures,
Chevron cracks,
Fish-eyes.
PAGE 58 OF 100

Mechanism
The following text describes the mechanism believed to be involved with the information of
Hydrogen induced cold cracking (HICC) in steel:
Hydrogen enters a weld via the welding arc. The source of hydrogen may be from moisture in the
atmosphere, contamination on the weld preparation, or moisture in the electrode flux. With the
main MMA and SAW processes, the selection of flux type will also affect the H 2 content.
The intense heat of the arc is enough to breakdown the molecular hydrogen (H 2) into its atomic
form (H). Hydrogen atoms are the smallest known to man and therefore can easily infiltrate the
iron atoms while the weld is still hot. When the weld area is hot, the iron atoms are more mobile
thereby producing larger gaps between themselves, i.e. the steel is in an expanded condition.
As the weld cools down, most of the hydrogen diffuses outwards into the parent material and
atmosphere, but some of the hydrogen atoms become trapped within the weld zone. This is due
to the iron atoms settling as the weld cools, therefore the gaps between them become smaller,
i.e. the steel is contracting.
Below 200C, the element of hydrogen prefers to be in its molecular form (H 2), the individual
atoms of hydrogen are attracted towards each other as the weld cools and they congregate in
any convenient space as microscopic gas bubbles.
When the hydrogen molecules exist in large numbers, a lot of pressure is exerted - 60,000 to
200,000 PSI. Because of this internal pressure, the adjacent grain structure may react in one of
two ways:
1.
2.
It may deform slightly to reduce the pressure. This will occur if the surrounding metal is
ductile, e.g. pearlite;
It may separate completely to reduce the pressure, i.e. crack. This will occur if the
surrounding metal is brittle, e.g. martensite.
Weld fractures associated with hydrogen are more likely to occur in the HAZ as this area tends to
have increased brittleness. It must also be observed that it usually takes an external stress to
initiate and propagate a crack. Lower temperatures will decrease the fracture toughness of the
steel and at the same time increase H2 pressure.
Conclusion: before hydrogen cracking occurs, the following criteria must exist:
Hydrogen;
A grain structure susceptible to cracking, this normally means brittle but not necessarily;
martensite grain structures, which are brittle, are very susceptible to cracking;
Stress;
A temperature <200C
To reduce the chance of hydrogen cracking:
Ensure joint preparations are clean,

Preheat the joint preparations;
Use a low hydrogen welding process, or if using MMA, use hydrogen controlled
electrodes;
Use a multi-pass welding technique;
Use H2 release post-heat treatment.
PAGE 59 OF 100

Hydrogen scales
The following chart shows terminology used by the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and
BS EN 1011 Part 2 with regard to hydrogen levels per 100 grams of weld metal deposited:
Diffusible hydrogen content
Hydrogen scale
Ml/100 g of deposited metal
> 15
10 15
10
Hydrogen content of weld processes

The hydrogen content in a specific weld depends on a variety of factors such as the degree of
contamination on the weld preparation, the arc length used, the amount of water vapour in the
immediate environment and cooling rate of the weld. However, it is still possible to approximate
hydrogen contents of welds made under typical well controlled conditions. The amount of
hydrogen remaining in a weld - assuming no hydrogen release post-heat treatment process has
been used - will depend largely on the welding process used. Shown below are welding processes
with hydrogen levels achieved per 100 grams of weld metal deposited:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
TIG
MIG/MAG
ESW
MMA
but
Submerged arc
and
Flux cored MAG
<1 ml is possible.
< 2 ml is possible.
> 3 ml is likely.
< 5 ml possible for high temperature baked basic electrodes,
could be as much as 70 ml for certain cellulose electrodes.
> 5 ml but could be as much as 50 ml. Dependant on flux type
heat treatment of flux.
> 10 ml is likely.
THE CARBON EQUIVALENT OF STEEL

Preheat temperatures on steel pipe and many steel structures are arrived at by taking into
consideration the carbon equivalent (Ceq%) of the material, the material thickness and the arc
energy or heat input (kJ/mm). Reference may be made to standard specifications, e.g. BS EN
1011 - Process of arc welding of carbon and carbon manganese steels, which define preheat
temperatures based on Ceq%, thicknesses and arc energy.
The welding inspector would usually find the preheat temperatures to be used from the relevant
welding procedure.
The Ceq% of a steel primarily relates to its hardenability. If a steel has a relatively high Ceq% it
will be more susceptible to hardening in the heat affected zones of any welds made, in
comparison with welds made on steels of low Ceq%. Hardenability affects weldability, therefore
materials of high Ceq% are considered more difficult to weld.
PAGE 60 OF 100

The Ceq% of a material depends on its alloying elements; the typical elements in a high-grade
carbon manganese steel are as follows:
Iron (Fe)
Silicon (Si)
Carbon (C)
Titanium (Ti)
Manganese (Mn)
Niobium (Nb)
Chromium (Cr)
Aluminium (Al)
Vanadium (V)
Tin (Sn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Sulphur (S)
Nickel (Ni)
Phosphorus (P)
The Ceq% of a steel is usually calculated from the I.I.W. carbon equivalent formula:
Ceq% = C +
Only carbon and manganese have any significant effect on the final Ceq% figure on carbon/
carbon manganese steels, therefore the formula may sometimes be shortened to:
Ceq% = C +
The manganese content is divided by 6 because it has one sixth of the effect of carbon in relation
to hardenability.
A carbon equivalent value less than approximately 0.4% would be considered low for a low alloy
steel (this includes C-Mn steel).
A typical specification example of preheat temperatures for C-Mn steel 8-20 mm thick is as
follows:
For Ceq < 0.4% - minimum preheat 50C
For Ceq > 0.4 < 0.48 - minimum preheat 100C
For Ceq > 0.48% - minimum preheat 200C
EXAMPLE:
What is the Ceq% of a steel which contains 0.12 carbon and 1.3 manganese?
a) Ceq% = C + Ceq% = C +
b) Ceq% = 0.12 +
c) Ceq% = 0.12 + 0.216

d) Ceq = 0.336%
Thicker materials normally require higher preheat temperatures, however, for a given Ceq% and
arc energy, the preheat temperature is likely to be the same for wall thicknesses up to
approximately 20 mm.
PAGE 61 OF 100

HEAT TREATMENT
To reduce the risk of cracking in the HAZ, preheat, controlled interpass temperatures and
possibly post-heating may be applied to the weld areas.
Heat treatment is an expensive operation and is therefore only carried out when necessary i.e. if
there is a significant chance that adverse metallurgical structures and/ or cracks could occur.
Preheat
Preheat is the application of heat to a joint prior to welding. Preheat is usually applied by a gas
torch or induction system.
Preheating has many advantages:
Preheat slows down the cooling rate of the weld and HAZ, which reduces the risk of
hardening and also allows absorbed hydrogen a better opportunity of diffusing out,
thereby reducing the chance of cracking. Basically speaking, the application of a preheat
helps to counteract the adverse metallurgical effects produced by welding on the
material.
Preheat removes any moisture in the region of the preparation.
Preheat improves the overall fusion characteristics during welding.
Preheat ensures more uniform expansion and contraction and lowers the stress
between the weld and parent material.
Preheat temperatures may be measured by the use of a touch pyrometer (thermocouple) or

temperature indicating crayons (Tempil sticks). Temperature indicating crayons exist in two
forms; the type that melt and the type that change colour. The method of temperature
measurement to be used is sometimes stated in the specification for the work being carried out.
Preheat temperatures are measured at intervals along or around a joint to be welded. The
number of measurements taken must allow the inspector to be confident that the required
temperature has been reached over the full area to be welded. Specifications sometimes specify
that the preheat temperature must be maintained over a specified distance from the joint faces,
e.g. 50 - 100 mm.
The preheat temperature should be taken immediately prior to welding. If a gas heat source has
been used, sufficient time must be allowed for the temperature to equalize throughout the
thickness of the components to be welded, otherwise only the surface temperature will be
measured. Time lapses vary depending on specification requirements, e.g. BS EN 1011 states 2
minutes for a 25 mm wall thickness.
The temperature of the joint during welding and between passes is known as the interpass
temperature. It is often specified that the interpass temperature must not drop below the
minimum preheat temperature.
PAGE 62 OF 100

Post-heat treatment
Post-heat treatment in this context is a process in which metal in the solid state is subjected to
one or more controlled heating cycles after welding. The post heat treatment of welds (PWHT) is
normally carried out for the purpose of stress relief, i.e. the reduction of localised residual
stresses. Post-heat treatment may also be used to produce certain properties, such as:
Softening after cold working.

Hardening to produce improved strength structures giving ranges of strength with
toughness.
Tempering to improve hardened structures giving ranges of strength with toughness.
Another PWHT process which may be used is for hydrogen release only.
The relevant variables for a PWHT process which must be carefully controlled are as follows:
Heating rate,
Temperature attained,
Time at the attained temperature,
Cooling rate - in certain circumstances.
Note: Any temperatures quoted in the following sub-sections apply to C-Mn steels.
Temperatures may differ for other steels.
Stress relieving
Used to relax welding stresses without any significant effects on the component's metallurgical
structure because austenite is not produced.
Stress relief is achieved by heating to 550-650C, holding for the required time, e.g. 1 hour per 25
mm thickness, and then cooling down in air. Local heating is carried out with gas flame or electric
elements; whole components may be stress relieved in a furnace.
Annealing
Full anneal - is used to produce a very soft, low hardness material suitable for machining or
extensive cold working. A full anneal is achieved by very slow cooling after the steel has been
heated to above 910C and made fully austenite. By the time the steel has been very slowly
cooled down to 700C, all the austenite changes to ferrite and pearlite with extensive grain
growth. The component is cooled down in air from 680C.
Sub-critical anneal - this process is also known as spheroidizing and is used to produce a soft, low
hardness steel - cheaper than full anneal. Temperatures must not rise above 700C. A sub-critical
anneal is achieved by heating to 680-700C, holding for sufficient time for full recrystallisation to
occur, i.e. new ferrite grains to form; the component is then air cooled in most circumstances.
PAGE 63 OF 100

Normalising
Normalising is used to maintain and improve mechanical properties and to modify grain
structures by making them more uniform giving a refined structure avoiding grain growth.
Normalising is achieved by heating the steel until it is fully austenitic - the same temperature as
that used for full anneal - soaking for the minimum time necessary to achieve a uniform through
thickness temperature and then air cooling.
Hardening/quenching
Hardening is achieved by very fast cooling from the austenite region.
The steel is first heated to produce austenite; it is then allowed to soak at this temperature to
produce grain uniformity, and then fast cooled by quenching into oil or water (brine) to achieve
the desired hardness.
After quenching, the steel is highly stressed, very hard and brittle with a high tensile strength.
Quenched steel is very prone to cracking and therefore required tempering.
Tempering
Tempering is used to produce a range of desired mechanical properties to meet specific
requirements.
Tempering is achieved by slowly heating the hardened steel to a temperature between 200650C to produce the required tensile strength and toughness properties; the component may
then be air cooled.
At 200C, the quenching stresses are reduced and the steel will give maximum tensile and
hardness with a reduced risk of cracking.
Increasing the tempering temperature reduces the hardness and tensile strength whilst
increasing the toughness and ductility. At 650C, a full temper is produced, giving a very fine
grained soft steel with a spheroidized structure.
Hydrogen release
Both normalising and annealing heat treatment processes will help to release hydrogen from a
weld area. However, there may be a situation where only hydrogen release is required. This may
be performed by heating the weld area to 150-200C and soaking for approximately 10-24 hours.
PAGE 64 OF 100

WELD DEFECTS
TERMINOLOGY
Weld defect (BS EN SIO 6520-1: 2007):
"An unacceptable imperfection"
Imperfection (BS EN ISO 6520-1: 2007):
"A discontinuity in the weld or a deviation from the intended geometry"
Weld defect
"A discontinuity the size, shape, orientation or location of which makes it detrimental to the
useful service of the part in which it occurs, i.e. a discontinuity out of specification."
Discontinuity (American):
"Any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part, such as cracks, lack
of fusion, inclusions or porosity. A discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness of a part."
WELD DEFECTS
Cracks
Definition: A linear discontinuity produced by fracture. Cracks may be longitudinal, transverse,
edge, crater, centreline, fusion zone, underbead, weld metal, or parent metal.
There are many types of cracks, some of which only occur with certain types of material. Listed
below are some crack types encountered.
1.
Weld metal cracks:

a)
solidification cracking (hot tearing),
b) hydrogen induced cold cracking (HICC):

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
2.
Macro cracks,
Fissures,
Micro fissures,
Chevron cracks.
Heat affected zone cracks:

a) Liquation cracks,
b) Reheat cracks,
c) HICC
3.
Parent material / HAZ:

a)
Lamellar tearing
PAGE 65 OF 100

Because of the various crack types and causes, a welding inspector, under most circumstances,
need only talk in terms of the position of a crack, e.g. longitudinal centre line crack; longitudinal
crack in the HAZ of the root (root underbead crack); transverse crack; crater crack etc..
A crack is the most serious type of defect. If a crack exists in the weld zone, the application
specification may require the entire weld to be removed (cut out) and rewelded, rather than
carry out a localised weld repair. Some application specifications will permit a localised weld
repair on the cracked area, but very few specifications will allow the acceptance of a detected
crack, no matter how small.
Incomplete Root Penetration (Lack of Penetration)

Definition: The failure to extend into the root of a joint.
Causes:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Root faces too large,

Root gap too small,
Arc too long,
Wrong polarity,
Electrode too large for joint preparation,
Incorrect electrode angle,
Travel speed too high for current.
PAGE 66 OF 100

Root concavity
Definition: A shallow groove that may occur in the root of a butt weld.
The terms suckback and underwashing may also be encountered.
Causes:
a) Root face too large,
b) Insufficient arc energy,
c) Excessive back purge pressure with TIG welding.
Lack of fusion
Definition: Lack of union in a weld:
Between weld metal and parent metal,

Between parent metal and parent metal,
Between weld metal and weld metal.
Lack of fusion can be sub-divided as shown in the diagram:

LACK OF INTER-RUN FUSION
LACK OF SIDEWALL FUSION
LACK OF ROOT FUSION
Causes:
a) Contaminated weld preparation - prevents the melting of material beneath,
b) Amperage too low,
c) Amperage too high - may cause welder to increase his travel speed resulting in a lack of
melting on the underlying metal,
d) Excessive inductance in MIG or MAG dip transfer welding.
See also causes for incomplete root penetration.
PAGE 67 OF 100

Undercut
Definition: An irregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent material, or in previously
deposited weld, due to welding.
Internal Undercut
External/Crown Undercut
Causes:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Excessive welding current,

Welding speed to high,
Incorrect electrode angle,
Excessive weaving,
Electrode too large.
Incompletely filled groove

Definition: A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld, running along its
length, due to insufficient weld metal.
Causes:
a) Insufficient weld metal deposited.
b) Improper welding technique.
PAGE 68 OF 100

Shrinkage groove
Definition: A shallow groove caused by concentration
in the metal along each side of a penetration bead.
SHRINKAGE GROOVE
UNDERCUT
Gas pores/ porosity

Definition: A gas pore is a cavity, generally under 1.5 mm in diameter, formed by entrapped gas
during the solidification of molten metal.
Definition: Porosity is a group of gas pores.
Other terms which relate to entrapped gas in welds are:
Blowhole - a cavity generally over 1.5 mm.

Wormhole (piping) - an elongated or tubular cavity.
Hollow bead - elongated porosity in the root bead (pipeline terminology).
Herringbone porosity - wormholes side by side taking on a herringbone pattern.
Causes (all types):

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Excessive moisture in the flux,

Excessive moisture on the preparation,
Contaminated weld preparation: scale, oxides etc.,
Use of flow welding current,
Arc length too long (especially with basic hydrogen controlled electrodes),
Damaged electrode flux,
Incorrect weaving technique,
Removal of gas shield, e.g. wind on site.
PAGE 69 OF 100

Slag inclusion
Slag is defined as: a fused, non-metallic residue produced from some welding processes.
A slag inclusion is an entrapped non-metallic deposit in the weld originating from the welding
flux. Linear slag inclusions, or slag lines, almost exclusively exist at the toes of a weld pass.
Equiaxed slag inclusions may exist anywhere in the weld.
Causes:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Insufficient cleaning between passes,

Contaminated weld preparation,
Welding over an irregular profile,
Incorrect welding speed,
Arc too long.
Tungsten inclusion
Definition: An inclusion of tungsten from the electrode in tungsten inert-gas welding.
Copper inclusion
Definition: An inclusion of copper due to the accidental melting of the contact tube or nozzle in
self-adjusting and controlled-arc welding, or to pick-up by contact between the copper nozzle
and the molten pool in MIG/MAG.
PAGE 70 OF 100

Burn through
Definition: A localised collapse of the molten pool due to excessive penetration, resulting in a
hole in the weld run.
Burn throughs are usually associated with the roots of butt welds.
Causes:
a) Excessive amperage during the welding of the root or hot pass on butt welds,
b) Excessive root grinding, which may cause the second pass to burn through,
c) Improper welding technique.
Crater pipe
Definition: A depression due to shrinkage at the end of a weld run, where the source of heat was
removed.
Crater pipes must not be confused with burn throughs or gas pores.
Causes:
a)
Deoxidation reactions and liquid to solid volume change.
PAGE 71 OF 100

Arc strike (stray flash)
Definition: Damage on the parent material resulting from the accidental striking of an arc away
from the weld.
Arc strikes may have a very brittle structure, especially on steels with a high carbon equivalent.
Causes:
a) Electrode straying parent material,
b) Electrode holder with poor insulation touching the workpiece,
c) Poor contact of the earth clamp.
Spatter
Definition: Small droplets of electrode material which have strayed away from the arc, which
may not have fused to the parent plate.
Causes:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Excessive arc energy,

Excessive arc length,
Damp electrodes,
Arc-blow.
PAGE 72 OF 100

CLASSIFICATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF DEFECTS

Defects may be classified depending on their shape:
Planar defects: linear from at least one dimension, crack like, e.g. cracks, lack of fusion.
Relative to other defects usually have a high significance.
Linear volumetric defects: e.g. slag lines, elongated porosity.
Equiaxed defects: rounded and non-linear, e.g. gas pores, slag inclusions. Relative to
other defects, these defects usually have a low significance.
The position of a defect in the cross-section of a weld is also an important consideration. Stress is
more concentrated at a surface and corrosion may also be taking place in the region, therefore a
non-planar defect breaking the surface may be classed as highly significant defect.
The actual acceptance or rejection will depend on the defect acceptance levels listed in the
relevant specification.
DEFECT ACCEPTANCE LEVELS
General
Defect acceptance levels are included in certain specifications - especially in application
specifications. The tolerances are usually determined by the use of fracture mechanics, a subject
which uses mathematical calculations and mechanical tests, in order to arrive at maximum defect
dimensions permissible prior to remedial action.
Some specifications contain defect acceptance tolerances which are stricter than others,
depending on the critically rating of the structure or application to which the specifications
applies.
Overall critically rating depends on a variety of factors including: the stresses involved, e.g. pipe
pressures; the environment, e.g. contact with corrosive chemicals; erosion, e.g. from fluid flow.
The following lists shows a variety of applications in a descending order of criticality:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Vessels and pipework for radioactive substances.

Pressure vessels welded to PD 5500 or the ASME boiler code.
Pipework welded to BS 2633.
Pipelines welded to BS 4515, API 1104, BGC PS P2.
Bridges, ships and general construction.
REPAIR WELDING
If not properly controlled, it is possible for a weld repair to be more detrimental than the original
defect, due to adverse microstructural effects in the HAZ, especially on high Ceq% materials,
therefore separate repair welding procedures are normally required.
Some specifications may not permit the same weld area to be repaired more than once, again
due to adverse metallurgical effects.
Some specifications may limit the length of repairs, taking into consideration resulting
metallurgical changes and stresses acting on the rest of the unopened weld.
PAGE 73 OF 100

Removal of defective areas
The specification or procedure will govern how the defective areas are to be removed.
At least one of the following removal methods will be used:
Grinding,
Gouging using an arc process,
Gouging using a fuel gas process,
Chipping,
Machining,
Filing.
Prior to repair welding, the defective area would normally be removed or blended without
impinging onto the parent material, i.e. the original weld joint profile would normally have to be
maintained. If unacceptable defects exist in the parent material, e.g. surface laminations, arc
strikes, gouges etc., the action to be taken will again depend on the specification requirements.
Some specifications will allow grinding and re-welding, whilst others will require the defective
area to be cut off if the material thickness is reduced below certain limits after grinding/
blending.
PAGE 74 OF 100

CRACKING
Cracks found within the zones may be divided into two broad categories:
1.
2.
Weld process cracks: attributable to the weld process itself.

Service induced cracks: attributable to some external influence during service such as
vibration or cyclic thermal stresses.
Weld process cracks are categorized/ termed in many ways, but there are essentially only four
crack types caused through welding:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Solidification cracks.
Hydrogen induced cracks (HIC).
Lamellar tearing.
Re-heat cracks.
There are also many ways to categorize/ term service induced cracks. The following list identifies
the main types:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Brittle fracture.
Ductile fracture.
Fatigue fracture.
Creep fracture.
Stress corrosion cracking.
Hydrogen cracking induced by corrosion.
Cracks may also be termed in relation to their direction or shape:
Longitudinal with the weld axis.

Transverse with the weld axis.
Branched.
Multi-directional.
Chevron.
Terminology may be smooth or jagged in profile. Some cracks have branches, some are more
multi-directional and some occur intermittently.
WELD PROCESS CRACKS
Solidification cracking
Cracking that takes place during the weld solidification process is termed either hot cracking or
solidification cracking and occurs in all steels which have a high sulphur content - sulphur causes
low ductility at elevated temperatures.
In order for a crack to develop the solidifying metal must be subjected to a high tensile stress,
this may be present as a result of weld metal contraction combined with high restraint.
Solidification cracks usually occur longitudinally down the centre of a weld because of the
segregation of impurities and have a blunt profile compared to other crack types. A crater crack is
a type of solidification crack and is often star shaped, hence the alternative definition - star crack.
If a high longitudinal stress was present this may cause transverse cracks to develop, e.g. on large
submerged arc welds.
PAGE 75 OF 100

Liquation cracking
Solidification cracks in welds may be due in part to the presence of materials within the metal
which have a lower defined melting point than that of the metal itself. These low melting point
materials usually accumulate at the grain boundaries and can cause problems in the HAZ near the
fusion boundary where melting of the parent metal does not occur, but where the temperature is
high enough to cause melting of the grain boundary. If this melting occurs in the presence of a
high tensile (contraction) stress, then the boundaries will be pulled apart and a liquation crack
occurs. Within the steel itself, sulphur is the major liquation material. If the welding involves a
very high heat input, the sulphur in the HAZ is taken into solution by the surrounding steel and
precipitates out during cooling as sulphides, causing embrittled grain boundaries which
significantly weaken the steel. If such an occurrence has happened, the steel is said to be burned.
Copper pick-up may also cause this particular form of liquation cracking. Liquation cracks are very
small and can initiate hydrogen cracking.
Hydrogen induced cracking
See other course notes.
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar tearing has a characteristic step like appearance. It may occur in the parent plate or HAZ
of steels with poor through thickness ductility where the fusion boundary of the weld is parallel
with the plate/pipe surface, i.e. lamellar tearing only occurs in the rolled direction of the parent
material. It is usually associated with restrained joints that are subjected to through thickness
stresses on corners, 'T, K, Y' configurations, tees or fillet welds joining thick plate which have a
high sulphur content, although other non-metallic inclusions may also play a part. The presence
of hydrogen increases a steel's susceptibility to lamellar tearing quite significantly.
The through thickness ductility of the parent material may be assessed by using the short tensile
test - see BS EN 1011-2.
A buttering run is welded onto parent material susceptible to lamellar tearing. This weld metal
has higher ductility than the filler metal. Weld concentration which can cause the parent metal to
tear now only causes the buttering pass to deform thus preventing lamellar tearing from
occurring.
PAGE 76 OF 100

Prevention of lamellar tearing

Buttering the surface of the susceptible plate with a low strength weld metal has been widely
employed. As shown for the example of a T butt weld (Fig. 5) the surface of the plate may be
grooved so that the buttered layer will extend 15 to 25mm beyond each weld toe and be about 5
to 10mm thick.
Buttering with low strength weld metal

a) general deposit on the surface of the
susceptible plate
b) In-situ buttering
Re-heat cracking
Re-heat cracking - also known as stress relaxation cracking - mainly occurs in the HAZ of welds,
particularly in low alloy steels during post weld heat treatment or service at elevated
temperatures.
Most alloy steels are subject to an increase of embrittlement of the coarse grained region of the
HAZ when heated above 600C, the problem is worse with thicker steels containing Cr, Cu, Mo, V,
Nb, and Ti; S and P also have an influence. Typical steels susceptible would be the 2 Cr-Mo-V
types, e.g. creep resisting steels.
During post weld stress relief and at high operating temperatures, the residual stresses will be
relieved by creep deformation which involves grain boundary sliding and grain deformation. If,
due to high creep strength, these actions cannot occur, the grain boundaries may open up into
cracks.
Re-heat cracks most frequently occur in areas of high stress concentration and existing defects.
They are not unknown in the weld area where the cracks may originate from sharp profiles, e.g.
incomplete root penetration or at the toes of badly shaped fillet welds.
Precautions against re-heat cracking include toe-grinding, elimination of partial penetration
welds, the rejection of poor weld profiles, the selection of steels resistant to liquation cracks, the
use of the lowest strength weld metal acceptable and controlled post weld heat treatment.
Note: A crack which has only been found after post-weld heat treatment is not necessarily a reheat crack.
PAGE 77 OF 100

SERVICE INDUCED FAILURES
Brittle and ductile failure
See other course notes.
Fatigue cracks
Fatigue cracking is a service failure which occurs under cyclic stress conditions. It normally occurs
at a change in section, e.g. groove, radius, step, weld toe etc., therefore design and workmanship
are important to minimise failure by fatigue.
All materials are susceptible to fatigue failure. Since design and workmanship play a major part,
ferrous based materials have an endurance limit applied to one grade of steel in a specific heat
treated condition operating within specific parameters, below this limit fatigue is unlikely to
occur. Other metals will all have the potential to fail by fatigue given the required conditions.
Fatigue failures start at a specific point and propagate with each stress cycle at a rate that
depends on the applied stress, Fatigue failure is easily identified by beach markings on the
fractured face. Final failure can be any other mode of fracture, e.g. brittle or ductile failure.
Thermal fatigue cracks may occur if the cyclic stresses are provided by frequent temperature
changes producing fluctuating thermal stresses.
Corrosion fatigue failure results from a combination of cyclic stress and a corrosive environment
at the fatigue site.
Creep/ creep failures
Deformation by creep is the slow plastic deformation of a metal, under a constant stress at any
temperature. The plastic deformation is very small compared with normal tensile loading whilst
the temperature range for creep in a given material is between 0.5 to 0.7 of its melting point
expressed in Kelvin (K). Creep may lead to fracture.
The stages of creep are:
1.
2.
3.
Primary creep
Secondary creep - steady state constant rate creep - the most important stage
Tertiary creep - the stage when the rate of extension accelerates and leads to failure.
Creep may occur in any situation where a steady state of stress exists, e.g. ranging from lead
pipes at room temperature to steam and power generating plant at 450C to 500C.
Materials such as Cr-Mo-V have been developed for high temperature service which resist creep
by blocking the plastic deformation slip systems.
Stress corrosion cracking (Environmentally Assisted Cracking)
This type of cracking occur in materials in a state of tensile stress and in contact with a corrosive
medium. The level of stress which can cause the cracking may be well below the yield point of
the material. Stress corrosion cracks are surface breaking and are found at any sharp change in
section, notch or crevice, especially in structures which have not been stress relieved.
Both ferrous and non-ferrous materials are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking.
PAGE 78 OF 100

WELD DECAY IN AUSTENTIC STAINLESS STEEL

Weld decay, also known as knife-line attack, occurs in unstabilised austenitic stainless steels, e.g.
18-8 type, within the 600-850C range in the HAZ. At this temperature range carbon is absorbed
by the chromium and chromium carbide is precipitated at the grain boundaries as the metal cools
down. This causes a local reduction in chromium content which has the effect of lowering the
resistance to corrosive attack allowing rusting to occur.
Weld decay is prevented in stabilised stainless steels by the addition of niobium or titanium, but
the most common method now used to prevent weld decay is to decarburize the molten steel to
below 0.03% C.
GRINDING CRACKS
Shallow cracks formed on the surface of relatively hard materials due to excessive grinding heat
to allotropic transformation of the surface material, or to the high sensitivity of the material
surface containing high tensile residual stresses.
Grinding cracks typically are at 90C to the direction of grinding. They are perpendicular to the
component surface, have sharp edges and can propagate under cyclic loading.
Overheating can be caused by using the wrong grinding wheel, a dull or glazed wheel, insufficient
or poor coolant, feeding too rapidly or cutting too heavily.
PAGE 79 OF 100

OTHER PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGIES

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composite materials are engineered materials made from two or more constituent materials
with significantly different physical or chemical properties which remain separate and distinct on
a macroscopic level within the finished structure.
Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials. There are
two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion of each
type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by
maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and
physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. The combination of the two different
constituents produces material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials,
while the wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of the product
or structure to choose an optimum combination. Engineered composite materials must be
formed to shape. The matrix material can be introduced to the reinforcement before or after the
reinforcement material is placed into the mould cavity or onto the mould surface. The matrix
material experiences a melding event, after which the part shape is essentially set. Depending
upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can occur in various ways such as
chemical polymerisation or solidification from the melted state.
Shock, impact, or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate to separate at the interface
between two layers, a condition known as delamination. Individual fibres can separate from the
matrix e.g. fibre pull-out.
Composites can fail on the microscopic or macroscopic scale. Compression failures can occur at
both the macro scale or at each individual reinforcing fibre in compression buckling. Tension
failures can be net section failures of the part or degradation of the composite at a microscopic
scale where one or more of the layers in the composite fail in tension of the matrix or failure the
bond between the matrix and fibres.
Some composites are brittle and have little reserve strength beyond the initial onset of failure
while others may have large deformations and have reserve energy absorbing capacity past the
onset of damage. The variations in fibres and matrices that are available and the mixtures that
can be made with blends leave a very broad range of properties that can be designed into a
composite structure. The best known failure of a brittle ceramic matrix composite occurred when
the carbon-carbon composite tile on the leading edge of the wing of the Space Shuttle Columbia
fractured when impacted during take-off. It led to catastrophic break-up of the vehicle when it
re-entered the earth's atmosphere.
POWDER METALLURGY
Powder metallurgy uses the sintering process for making various parts out of metal powder. The
metal powder is compacted by placing in a closed metal cavity (the die) under pressure. This
compacted material is placed in an oven and sintered in a controlled atmosphere at high
temperatures and the metal powders coalesce and form a solid. A second pressing operation,
repressing, can be done prior to sintering to improve the compaction and the material
properties.
The properties of this solid are similar to cast or wrought materials of similar composition.
Porosity can be adjusted by the amount of compaction. Usually single pressed products have high
tensile strength but low elongation.
PAGE 80 OF 100

Powder metallurgy is useful in making parts that have irregular curves, or recesses that are hard
to machine. It is suitable for high volume production with very little wastage of material.
Secondary machining is virtually eliminated.
Typical parts that can be made with this process include cams, ratchets, sprockets, pawls,
sintered bronze and iron bearings (impregnated with oil) and carbide tool tips.
POLYMERS
A polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural units typically connected by
covalent chemical bonds. While polymer in popular usage suggests plastic, the term actually
refers to a large class of natural and synthetic materials with a variety of properties.
Due to the extraordinary range of properties accessible in polymeric materials, they have come
to play an essential role in everyday life from plastics and elastomers to DNA and proteins that
are essential for life. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on
ethylene monomer. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a polymer consists
mainly of carbon atoms. However, other structures do exist; for example, elements such as
silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being silly putty and waterproof
plumbing sealant.
Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, and natural rubber have been in use for
centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the main
constituent of wood and paper. The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, Bakelite,
neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more.
Failure of safety-critical polymer components can cause serious accidents, such as fire in the case
of cracked and degraded polymer fuel lines, cracks in fuel lines can penetrate the bore of the
tube and case fuel leakage. If cracking occurs in the engine compartment, electric sparks can
ignite the petrol and can cause a serious fire.
Chlorine-induced cracking of plumbing joints and pipes has caused many serious floods in
domestic properties. Traces of chlorine in the water supply attacked vulnerable polymers in the
plastic plumbing, a problem which occurs faster if any of the parts have been poorly extruded or
injection moulded.
TRIBOLOGY
Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion. It includes the
study and application of the principles of friction, lubrication and wear.
The study of tribology is commonly applied in bearing design but extends into almost all other
aspects of modern technology.
Any product where one material slides or rubs over another is affected by complex tribological
interactions, whether lubricated like hip implants and other artificial prosthesis or unlubricated
as in high temperature sliding wear in which conventional lubricants cannot be used but in which
the formation of compacted oxide layer glazes have been observed to protect against wear.
Tribology plays an important role in manufacturing. In metal-forming operations. Friction
increases tool wear and the power required to work a piece. This results in increased costs due to
more frequent tool replacement, loss of tolerance as tool dimensions shift, and greater forces are
PAGE 81 OF 100

required to shape a piece. A layer of lubricant which eliminates surface contact virtually
eliminates tool wear and decreases needed powder by one third.
The tribological interactions of a solid surface's exposed face with interfacing materials and
environment may result in loss of material from the surface. The process leading to loss of
material is known as "wear". Major types of wear include abrasion, adhesion (friction), erosion,
and corrosion.
Wear can be minimised by modifying the surface properties of solids by one or more of "surface
engineering" processes (also called surface finishing) or by use of lubricants (for frictional or
adhesive wear).
Engineered surfaces extend the working life of both original and recycled and resurfaced
equipment, thus saving large sums of money and leading to conservation of material, energy and
the environment.
Methodologies to minimise wear include systematic approaches to diagnose the wear and to
prescribe appropriate solutions.
PAGE 82 OF 100

TERMINOLOGY
AGE HARDENING
A process causing structural change which may occur gradually in certain metals and alloys at
room temperature or more rapidly at higher temperatures. The effects of Age Hardening are
caused by the precipitation from a super saturated solid solution after rapid cooling from high
temperature, to give an increase in the hardness of the material. Where the ageing occurs at an
elevated temperature the process is often referred to as Precipitation Hardening.
ALLOTROPIC
To exist in several different crystalline structures, hence allows heat treatment to control
properties, or to change the lattice structure in the 'Solid' state only (may give rise to an
exothermic reaction) i.e. Iron.
ALPHA IRON (Ferrite)
Body centered cubic form of iron below 910C which is Magnetic and as such can be inspected
with Magnetic Particle Inspection.
ANISOTROPIC
Properties vary with orientation or direction of testing.
ANNEALING
Performed by heating the material to a temperature of around 850C for Steels and allowing any
carbide to be taken in to solution. On cooling slowly in a furnace any stresses which were present
due to cold working, welding etc. are removed to give a softer more machinable re-crystallized
structure.
SUB CRITICAL ANNEAL (Stress relieving)
Is carried out at a temperature below that at which any carbide are taken into solution. As such
recrystallization does not take place which results in a material not quite having the properties of
a full anneal.
AUSTENITE (Gamma Iron)
Face centered cubic form of iron above 910C which is nonmagnetic. By adding Manganese,
Nickel and Chromium to steel a stable form of Austenite is formed at room temperature - i.e.
Austenitic Stainless Steels.
BECKING (Mandrel Forging)
A process which produces rings by forging discs whose centre has been punched away on a
mandrel bar and working the wall thickness between the mandrel bar and the hammer.
BLOOM
An intermediate product which has been rolled or forged down from an ingot usually square in
section which is to be further worked. The machinery which is used to create this product is
housed in an area usually designated a blooming mill or cogging mill. Another intermediate
product is the rectangular slab which is worked in a slabbing mill.
PAGE 83 OF 100

BLOW HOLE
Rounded or Elongated (Wormhole) smooth walled gas filled cavities in solid metals formed either
by the trapping of gas evolved during solidification of the metal or by gas or steam from a moulds
surface.
BRAZING
The process of joining two pieces of metal by fusing a layer of brass or other non-ferrous metal
between the adjoining surfaces.
CARBURIZING
The introduction by absorption of carbon into the surface layer of steel having low carbon
content. Also known as Case Hardening. The carbon may be obtained from either a solid liquid or
gaseous carbon containing Iridium. After carburizing the surface of the product is capable of heat
treatments such as hardening.
CHAPLETS
Metal supports used to hold the cores in position in the sand mould. They subsequently melt and
become part of the casting.
CHILLS
These are metal inserts which are placed on the side of a sand mould to control the process and
direction of solidification and as such improve the integrity and soundness of a casting.
CHILL CRYSTALS
The first crystals which form very quickly on the inside surface of a metal ingot mould and have
the smallest structure of all the crystals in the ingot.
CLINK
A form of cracking occurring due to a rapid thermal gradient, so called due to the sound created
as the material spontaneously cracks, usually associated with large forgings or high strength
materials when rapidly cooled for high (working) temperatures.
COGGING
The production of slabs or blooms by either forging or rolling from an ingot. This is the first rough
stage of working.
COLD CRACKING
Cracks in cold or nearly cold material due to excessive internal stress caused by contraction. This
may be due to the unsuitable design of a mould and subsequent casting.
COLD DRAWING
A process of reducing the cross sectional diameter of tubes and wire with a subsequent increase
in harden ability by drawing the material through dies without previously heating the material.
PAGE 84 OF 100

COLD ROLLING
Rolling metal or thin sheet at a temperature below the recrystallization to provide a smooth
surface and/ or enhance tensile strength.
COLD SHUT
Any area within a casting where two areas show incomplete fusion. Examples include, unfused
Chaplets and Chills.
COLD WORKING
Working below recrystallization temperature.
CONTINUOUS CASTING
The production of cast slabs or billets of long lengths by withdrawing from water cooled moulds
solidifying metal which is continually being added to.
CORNER CRACK
Formed by bad mould design allowing grains to join together at 90 to each other. Segregation is
often associated with corner cracking and can be reduced with better mould design.
CRATER CRACK
The small crater which occurs at the finish of a weld run due to contraction/ shrinkage.
CREEP CRACKING
Continuous deformation of a material under constant load.
CURIE POINT
The temperature at which alloys become non-magnetic on heating, this is typically in the range of
2/ 3 that of the materials melting point.
CUPPING
Production of seamless pipe via pressing.
DEOXIDISATION
The operation which changes any dissolved oxygen into non-metallic inclusions by the addition of
Aluminium (Al2O3,) or silicon (Si2O). This also prevents the carbon which is present from forming
carbon monoxide which gives rise to blow holes.
DIE CASTING (Chill Casting)
The process of teeming metals probably under pressure into two half metal moulds to generate
the final product. Generally used for lower melting point alloys such as Zinc, Lead and Aluminium
to give a highly precise component.
PAGE 85 OF 100

DROP FORGING (Impact Forging)

The process of using repeated blows on metal between two dies, each of which contains half the
impression of the desired shape.
EXCESS PENETRATION BEAD
Weld filler material deposited which extends beyond the parent metal surface/ thickness in the
root, but within specified limits in the acceptance criteria.
EXTRUSION
The action of forcing a material through a restricted orifice (die) under pressure, causing a greatly
elongated section with the cross sectional shape of the die used.
FATIGUE
The effect on a metal of repeated cycles of stress. Fracture may result from the development of a
crack which propagates under the repeated stress.
FEEDER HEAD
An extra portion into which liquid metal can be poured. This extra metal is available to fill the
cavities below when shrinkage occurs in the casting.
FETTLING
The first cleaning process by which castings (closed die forgings etc have excess material
removed and overall improve the manufactured surface profile).
FLAKES (Hair Line Cracks)
Occur due to entrapment of hydrogen on cooling. Casting in a vacuum or below a slag coating can
reduce the possibility of flakes occurring, as can suitable heat treatment after production.
FLAME HARDENING
This is a method of local hardening by which the steel is hardened by an oxyacetylene torch
which transverses the material at a pre-determined rate, related to the depth of hardening.
Quenching is often carried out by a jet of water immediately following the heating torch.
FLASH
This is the metal which is squeezed out of a pair of forging dies which is excess to filling the two
dies. In drop forgings this excess usually fills a flash line with the dies themselves at a junction of
the parting line.
FIN
Similar to flash above but usually occurs on a casting again on the parting line between two
halves of the mould.
PAGE 86 OF 100

FORGING
The art of working parts at a temperature above the recrystallization point between the hammer
and anvil, either by sharp successive blows of short duration (hammer forging) or by a hydraulic
press where pressure is applied for longer periods of time (press forging).
FRETTING
When two surfaces press against each other whilst slightly moving, heat which is built up
between them allows small particles from each surface to become stuck (welded) together and
eventually break free. This type of debris removal can be a starting place for fatigue to occur.
GATE
This is the end of the runner section which connects to the mould and allows liquid metal to
enter the mould itself. It is an area which gives a change in velocity and as such turbulent flow
within the casting cavity. This site is favourable for the formation of micro shrinkage and porosity.
GATING SYSTEM
Refers to the feeding system which feeds a number of individual ingot moulds from once centre
down gate.
GRINDING CRACKS
Fine shallow cracks caused by local overheating and cooling. Generally a loss of coolant is the
reason for an irregular network of cracks.
HARD FACING
A method of improving wear resistance by the introduction of a hard protective coating of
surface metal such as stellite, metal carbides or inconel, etc.
HARDENABILITY
This is the property which determines depth and distribution of hardness due to quenching from
a high temperature. It is generally a function of carbon content and composition and is related to
the information of Martensite.
HETEROGENIUS
A non-uniform structure.
HOMOGENIUS
A uniform structure.
HOT SHORTNESS
Brittleness in metals with a chance of cracking at certain temperatures when under stress due to
the loss of ductility near the melting point.
HOT SPOTS
Highest temperature area after teeming, ideally kept close to the feeders it is the most likely area
for defects to occur.
PAGE 87 OF 100

HOT TEAR
This crack manifests itself in castings near to or at a change in section due to the stresses where
by differing sections cool and contract at different rates. Hot tears can occur at any time once
solidification has taken place.
HOT TOP
Extension of the ingot mould, used to retain heat in the upper part of the ingot as it solidifies an
exothermic powder is usually applied, this will reduce the formation of secondary piping.
INCLUSIONS
Usually due to deoxidisation using Aluminium and Silicon to produce the non metallic oxides
Silicon oxide and Aluminium oxide. Also caused by manganese which combines with sulphur in
preference to iron forming manganese sulphide. All inclusions can cause a reduction in ductility
fatigue strength and tensile strength.
INDUCTION HARDENING
This process can surface harden or fully harden by heating the material to a temperature above
the transformation range with an alternating magnetic field and then quenching immediately.
INGOT
A casting made in a cast iron ingot mould which is to be reworked by rolling or forging.
INTERCRYSTALLINE CORROSION (Intergranular Corrosion)
Also known as Weld Decay due to this phenomena occurring within the heat affected zone of
austenitic welds. After heating within the range 500-800C. If the material is subjected to a
corrosive atmosphere chemical attack can take place. This is due to the above temperature
allowing carbon to be deposited at grain boundaries as chromium carbide and so depleting the
austenite adjacent to the boundaries of chromium and leaving it susceptible to attack. The
addition of small quantities of niobium or titanium will form carbides in preference to chromium
and will therefore not deplete the austenite of its chromium making it less susceptible to
intergranular corrosion cracking.
ISOTROPIC
Composed of equiaxed grains.
LACK OF FUSION
A lack of bonding between 2 or more materials in a weld, this may be generated by incorrect
welding conditions such as, too low a current, too fast travel, incorrect edge preparation.
LACK OF PENETRATION
Lack of bonding of the original material and the weld metal in the root area; causes could be
through using too large a diameter electrode; having too large a root face, having too narrow a
root gap or too low a current.
PAGE 88 OF 100

LAMELLAR TEARING
Found in the rolled plate of configuration weld joints such as T, K or Y joints caused due to lack of
through thickness ductility which causes a tear to occur along the line of weakness plains present
in the plate.
LAP
This defect occurs when metal is folded on the surface when forging without being welded up on
further working.
MALLEABILITY
The property which enables a metal to be mechanically deformed under compression such as by
hammering or rolling without cracks occurring.
MARTENSITE
The hardest decomposition product of austenite, which is formed due to quenching from high
temperatures at a rate which is greater than its critical cooling rate and as such produces a brittle
hard substance called martensite. Martensite is too brittle to be of use and materials are
generally required to have further heat treatment processes to remove the structure.
MOULD
The cavity usually in two parts places together into which molten metal is poured to produce a
cast product.
NITRIDING
A surface hardening process by which the metal is heated within an ammonia atmosphere for a
number of hours. The steels which are affected by this process must contain amounts of
Aluminium, Chromium, Molybdenum, Vanadium and tungsten which will form a stable hard
nitrides.
NORMALISING
This process involves heating the material to above the transformation (recrystallization)
temperature and holding for a length of time prior to air cooling. Unlike annealing a stress free
structure is not achieved due to the faster rate of cooling but internal stresses are relieved and
grain size is refined.
PIN HOLES
Minute gas cavities generally in light alloy castings due to the liberation of gases which had been
initially absorbed by the materials making up the alloy.
PIPE
The shrinkage cavity which occurs on top of an ingot. Any cavity which is oxidized and open to
the atmosphere is called Primary Pipe and if it is formed subsurface called Secondary Pipe. Both
types can be reduced by using a feeder head.
PAGE 89 OF 100

PRECISION CASTING (Lost Wax or Investment)

Refractory slurry forms the mould by flowing around an exact wax replica of the part to be made.
After heating and subsequent removal of the wax the mould can be filled with molten metal to
give a precise cope of the wax pattern.
QUENCH CRACK
A fracture resulting from thermal and transformation stresses induced during rapid cooling by
immersing a hot part into a quenching medium such as oil, water, brine, etc.
RESIDUAL STRESS
The stress which exists in parts by external loading such as cold corking or phase change. Stresses
are also induced by processes such as castings and welding which transform liquid to solid.
RIMMEL STEEL
Steel which has not been deoxidized and the resultant oxygen reacts with carbon to form CO and
CO2 gases during solidification this results in the formation of below holes.
RISER
The Riser on a casting acts as a reservoir (along with the feeder) head but also allows gases which
are formed to escape minimizing porosity and blow holes. It is also an indication that the cavity is
full.
ROLLING
A process similar to forging except that the material is elongated and reduced in section between
two rolls revolving in opposite directions. Rolling can also be carried out below the
recrystallization temperature and as such is referred to as cold rolling.
SCALE
The oxidized surface of steel produced during hot working at elevated temperatures. The scale
consists of stable iron oxides such as Fe2O3 and Fe3O4.
SEAMS
Elongated indications along rolled bar material where the surface has been pinched together
without being welded together. They can also occur from oxidized surface blow holes which have
been stretched and elongated through working the material.
SEASON CRACKING
This occurs in severely cold worked materials particularly copper and brass resulting from a
combination of corrosion and internal stresses.
SEGREGATION
This is the heterogeneous (non-uniform) distribution of impurities or alloying elements. Not only
is it dependant on the chemical composition but also on the cooling rate. For example close to
the surface of an item the impurities become trapped within the rapidly growing crystals. Further
PAGE 90 OF 100

below the surface where cooling is slower the segregates tend to form together during the V and
A type ghosting segregates.
SHELL MOULDING
A mixture of very fine sand and a resin bonding are mixed together over a heated metal pattern
at about 250C. In this way a thin walled half pattern is formed, which when used in a pair can be
filled with molten metal.
SHOT BLASTING
A method of cleaning steel surface by abrasion, where steel shot is blasted onto the surface. The
surface can become slightly work hardened with an increase in fatigue strength, due to the
peening effect of the shot removing sharp edges etc. on the surface of the material, however this
can/ will also close small crevices and is not advisable prior to penetrant inspection without an
acid etch taking place.
SKELP
Plate prepared to be made into pipe.
SOLIDIFICATION
'Directional solidification' solidifies from one end of a casting to the other. 'Progressive
solidification' solidifies from the outside of the casting to the centre.
SPATTER (Welding)
Globules of molten metal thrown out of the weld pool onto the parent metal remote from the
weld. Causes could be using too high a current using contaminated consumables which give rise
to explosions within the weld pool, or magnetic arc blow if using DC techniques on ferritic
material.
STAINLESS STEELS
Ferritic stainless steel - magnetisable/ non-hardenable, used for general cutlery consists of low
carbon, 13% + Cr e.g. AISI 40310 - 15C 11.5 - 13% Cr.
Martensitic stainless steel - magnetisable/ may be hardened, used for cutting knives consists of
high carbon, 13% + Cr e.g. AISI 440 0.6 - 1.2% C 16-18% Cr
Austenitic stainless steel - non-magnetic/ non-hardenable, a general purpose stainless consists of
low carbon, 17-19 Cr, 8-10% Ni e.g. 0.15C, 17-19% Cr, 8-10% Ni 18% Cr, 8% Ni, 2.5% Mo this is
often used for corrosion resistance in sea water environments.
Duplex stainless steels - are a combination of both ferric and austenitic structures which are used
for high temperature applications up to 600C (typically).
STRESS CORROSION
Also referred to as environment sensitive cracking. Deterioration in mechanical properties
through the simultaneous action of static stress and an exposure to a corrosive atmosphere. It is
often accompanied by cracking which can be either transgranular or intergranular.
PAGE 91 OF 100

STRESS RELIEF
A process whereby residual stress is reduced by heating within the range 600-650C for carbon
steel and holding for sufficient time to allow internal stress to be released by creep. This will be
followed by a controlled cooling to prevent further stresses being induced. Stress Relief is
typically carried out after welding, cold working, casting etc.
SUBLIMATION
Changes from a solid directly to a gas.
SUPERHEAT
Additional heat above that necessary for melting.
TEMPERING
This is the process of heating hardened or mechanically worked steel at some temperature below
the transformation temperature to remove brittleness and improve toughness so that the
material can be usefully used. On heating bright steel between the temperature of 200C and
400C the correct temper temperature may be indicated by the colour of the oxide layer which
forms on the surface.
TUBE
Generally a seamless hollow cylinder. If there is a seam joint it is generally referred to as a Pipe.
VACUUM DEGASSING
The process of casting steel in a vacuum vessel or refining the steel to remove gaseous products.
Any molten stream of metal which is introduced into the degassing vessel will have any gases
pulled out the steam. The molten steel can also be stirred using an inert gas such as argon or
helium which purges any gas out of the melt. One of the benefits of degassing is that nonmetallic inclusion content is much reduced.
WORK HARDENING
The increase in hardness and strength produced by cold plastic deformation or mechanical
working.
WELDING
A process by which two pieces of metal are joined by heat or pressure, or both with or without
additional filler metal, so that recrystallization takes place across the joint. Usually there is local
fusion and heat for the process is obtained in a number of different ways, such as an electric arc
which may be struck between an electrode and the metal to be joined or electrical resistance.
Below are some of the more common techniques:
Oxy-gas welding (oxy acetylene)
Manual metal arc welding
Metal inert gas welding
Metal active gas welding
Tungsten inert gas welding
Plasma arc welding
Submerged arc welding
PAGE 92 OF 100

NORMATIVE DOCUMENTS
1.
Normative document: Document that provides rules, guidelines or characteristics for

activities or their results.
The term normative document is a generic term that covers such documents as standards,
technical specifications, codes of practice and regulations. [ISO GUIDE 2]
2.
Standard: Document, established by consensus and approved by a recognized body, that

provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities
or their results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given
context. [ISO GUIDE 2].
3.
Code of practice: Document that recommends practices or procedures for the design,
manufacture, installation, maintenance or utilization of equipment, structures or
products.
A code of practice may be a standard part of a standard or independent of a standard. [ISO

GUIDE 2].
4.
Specification: The document that prescribes the requirements with which the product
or service has to conform.
A specification should refer to or include drawings, patterns or other relevant documents and
should also indicate the means and criteria whereby conformity can be checked.[BS 4478: PART
1].
5.
NDT Procedure: A written description of all essential parameters and precautions to be

observed when applying an NDT technique to a specific test, following an established
standard, code or specification [PCN/ GEN].
6.
NDT Instruction: A written description of the precise steps to be followed in testing to

an established standard, code, specification or NDT procedure [PCN/ GEN].
PAGE 93 OF 100

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
PENETRANT TESING (PT)
This type of testing uses the forces of capillary action to detect surface breaking defects. It is
impossible to detect defects which do not break the surface with this method, but it can be used
on both magnetic and non-magnetic materials providing they are non-porous.
There are several types of penetrant systems, this includes the following which are shown in a
descending order of flaw detection sensitivity:
Post-emulsifiable - fluorescent
Solvent based - fluorescent
Water based - fluorescent
Post-emulsifiable - colour contrast
Solvent based - colour contrast
Water based - colour contrast
Fluorescent penetrants require the use of an ultraviolet (UV-A) light to view indications, whilst
colour contrast penetrants are viewed with the naked eye.
One of the most common site used penetrant systems uses solvent based colour contrast
penetrants in aerosols. A typical sequence of operations on a steel test item is as follows:
1.
Clean area using wire brush, cloth and solvent. On aluminium, other soft alloys and
plastics, wire brushing should not be used, as there is a danger that surface breaking
defects may be closed.
2.
Apply penetrant - leave for typically 15 minutes. Colour contrast penetrants are
normally red in colour and should remain on the part long enough to be draw into any
surface discontinuities. This time can vary from about ten minutes to several hours
depending on the type of material and size/ type of defect sought.
3.
Remove surface penetrant using cloth and solvent. Apply solvent to the cloth and not
directly on to the work piece. Clean thoroughly.
4.
Apply developer - leave for typically 15 minutes. The developer draws any penetrant
remaining in any surface breaking discontinuities with a blotting action.
5.
Interpret area. Any discontinuities are indicated by a red mark, e.g. line or dot against a
white background. Fluorescent penetrants would show green-yellow when viewed with
an ultraviolet (UV-A) light.
PAGE 94 OF 100

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MT)

This method of NDT may detect surface, and in certain cases, slight sub-surface discontinuities up
to 2-3 mm below the surface. MT can be used on ferromagnetic materials only.
A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen to be tested, fine particles of ferromagnetic
powder, or ferromagnetic particles in a liquid suspension, are then applied to the test area. A
discontinuity which interrupts the magnetic lines of force will create a leakage field, which has a
north and south pole on either side of it. This attracts the ferromagnetic particles in great
numbers. The discontinuity may show as a black indication against the contrasting background usually white contrast paint - or as a fluorescent indication which is usually green/ yellow against
a dark violet background.
When MT is carried out using fluorescent inks, the use of an ultraviolet (UV-A) light is necessary
to cause fluorescence of the particles, although there is no need to apply a contrast paint.
Fluorescent ink methods are more sensitive than black ink methods.
There are many ways to apply a magnetic field, e.g. a permanent magnet, coils, prods, cables and
threading bar.
Listed below is a sequence of operations to inspect a weld using a permanent magnet with black
ink:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Clean area using wire brush and a cloth plus solvent if necessary.
Apply a thin layer of white contrast paint.
When the paint is dry, straddle the magnet over the weld.
Apply ink (1.25 to 3.5% particles to a paraffin base).
Interpret area.
Too look for transverse defects, turn magnet approximately 90 and re-apply the ink.
Interpret data.
PAGE 95 OF 100

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING (RT)

Principles
Radiography is carried out using x-ray machines or artificial gamma sources (radio-isotopes).
X-rays or gamma rays pass through the object to be radiographed and record an image on a
radiographic film on the opposite side. The radiation reaching the film will be determined by the
object's thickness and density, e.g. lack of root penetration in a weld will increase the amount of
radiation falling on the film in that area due to a reduction in thickness.
It is the wavelength of the radiation which governs its penetrating power; this is governed by the
Kilovoltage (kV) when using x-rays, and isotope type with gamma rays. The intensity if the
radiation is governed by the milli-amperage (mA) when using x-rays, and by the activity of the
specific isotope with gamma. Activity is measured in Curies (Ci) or Gigabecquerels (GBq).
A negative is produced when the film is processed. The thin areas of an object will be darker than
the thicker areas, therefore most weld defects will show up dark in relation to the surrounding
areas; exceptions are excess weld metal, spatter, tungsten and copper inclusions.
Radiographic quality
An overall assessment of radiographic quality is made by the use of image quality indicators
(IGI's); these usually consist of seven thin wires decreasing in thickness. IQI(s) are pre-placed on
the weld being examined and therefore show on the radiographic image. The more wires visible
the better the flaw detection sensitivity is likely to be.
The density - degree of blackness - of a radiograph is also measured by using a densitometer to
ensure it lies within a specified range of optimum quality.
Advantages and disadvantages
X-radiography requires bulky and expensive machinery in comparison with gamma radiography,
but x-radiography generally produces better quality radiographs and is safer. X-ray machines can
be switched on and off, unlike gamma sources which permanently produce radiation and
therefore require shielding when not in use.
A major disadvantage with radiography is that it will only detect defects which have significant
depth in relation to the axis of the x-ray beam - roughly over 2% of the wall thickness in the same
axis as the x-ray beam, i.e. radiography will not usually detect plate laminations, lack of inter-run
fusion or cracks perpendicular to the x-ray beam.
A major advantage of radiographic testing is that a permanent record is produced, i.e. the
radiograph.
PAGE 96 OF 100

ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)
This method uses the ability of high frequency sound waves, typically above 2 MHz (2,000,000
CPS), to pass through materials.
A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses.
Ultrasound hitting any air interface, or an interface with a different material density, which is
perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam, is reflected back and displayed on a cathode ray tube
(CRT). The actual display relates to the time taken for the ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance
to an interface and back, i.e. the longer the time, the further away the interface.
An interface could be the opposite side of the plate, therefore, wall thickness measurements can
easily be made.
Lamination checks are easily carried out using ultrasonic methods (opposite to radiography).
Welds can be tested using angle type probes, although this requires more operator skill to apply
and interpret results. Defects in welds usually can be located but the type of defect is sometimes
difficult to identify.
To detect a linear defect with radiography, the defects must have depth in line with the radiation
beam; the opposite is true for ultrasonic flaw detection, i.e. when using ultrasonic testing the
defects should ideally have their major face at 90 to the axis of the ultrasonic beam.
For the ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be introduced between the probe and the
specimen, e.g. grease, oil, glycerine or water, because ultrasound does not travel very well
through air.
Ultrasonic equipment is quite portable, but one major disadvantage with most of the equipment
used is that no permanent record of results is produced. Equipment that is able to record results
is currently expensive.
PAGE 97 OF 100

EDDY CURRENT TESTING (ECT)

Eddy current testing uses the electromagnetic induction of electrical currents - eddy currents - in
a material. The currents are affected by any section change in the material, e.g. the presence of
defects. These current changes are detected by the test instrument, often by the use of a probe
which induced the currents initially, they are then displayed on a meter or a cathode ray tube
(CRT).
Eddy current testing is quite versatile. It is used for coating thickness measurements, cladding
thickness measurements and alloy sorting as well as flaw detection.
Eddy current testing is able to detect sub-surface discontinuities, but the depth of eddy current
penetration is limited. It is excellent for surface flaw detection, but for all types of testing, can
only be used on conductive materials; both magnetic and non-magnetic.
Many different types of probe attachments are available, these include: internal bobbin-type
coils, external coils, knife edge probes and many unique designs for specific applications.
PAGE 98 OF 100

SUMMARY OF DISCONTINUITIES
I SEE DISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuity
Cold shut
Pipe
Hot tears
Porosity
Inclusions
Segregation
INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES
Location
Cause
surface or subsurface meeting of two streams of liquid metal that do not fuse together
surface
absence of molten metal during the final solidification process
surface
restraint from the core of mold during the cooling process
surface or subsurface entrapped gases during solidification of metal
surface or subsurface contaminants introduced during the casting process
surface or subsurface localized differences in material composition
Discontinuity
Seams
Laminations
Stringers
Cupping
Cooling cracks
Laps
Bursts
Hydrogen flakes
PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

Location
Cause
surface
elongation of unfused surface discontinuities in rolled products
subsurface
elongation and compression of inherent discontinuities
subsurface
elongation and compression of inherent discontinuities
subsurface
internal stresses during cold drawing
surface
uneven cooling of cold drawn products
surface
material folded over and compressed
surface or subsurface forming processes at excessive temperatures
subsurface
an abundance of hydrogen during the forming process
Discontinuity
Cold cracking
Hot cracking
Solidification
Liquidation
Lamellar tearing
Lack of fusion
Porosity
Inclusions
Slag
Tungsten
Oxide
Undercut
Overlap
Lack of penetration
PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES IN WELDS

Location
Cause
surface or subsurface atomic hydrogen, hardenable material and high residual stress
surface or subsurface
surface
subsurface
low melting point constituents opening up during solidification

segregation of material in the liquid state during solidification
delamination of base material during solidification and cooling
failure of the filler metal to coalesce with the base metal
entrapped constituents in molten weld metal during solidification
improper cleaning of a previous weld pass

molten weld pool contact with filler metal and tungsten electrode
mixing oxides on the base metal surface into the weld pool
oversized weld pool
insufficient amperage or travel speed
failure of the weld material to penetrate weld preperation to root
SECONDARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuity
Location
Cause
Grinding cracks
surface
localized overheating of the material caused by improper grinding
Heat treating cracks subsurface
uneven heating or cooling
Quench cracks
surface
sudden cooling from elevated temperatures
Pickling cracks
surface
residual stresses being relieved
Machine tears
surface
improper machining practices
Plating cracks
surface
residual stresses being relieved
Discontinuity
Fatigue
Creep
Stress cracking
Hydrogen cracking
subsurface
subsurface
surface
surface
surface
surface
IN-SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES
Location
Cause
surface
cyclically applied stress below the ultimate tensile strength
surface or subsurface material subjected to high temperatures and stress
surface
combined effects of a static tensile load and corrosive environment
surface or subsurface combined effects of stress and hydrogen enriched environment
PAGE 99 OF 100

INTERPRETATION VS. EVALUATION

INTERPRETATION
To decide what condition caused the indication.
FALSE INDICATIONS (Not caused by Discontinuities)
Can be caused by too high amperage (MT), thick background coating (MT), fingerprints, hair, lint,
dirt, scale, rust (MT / PT) and does not necessarily break the surface continuity (MT / PT / UT /
ECT /RT), electrical interference (UT / ECT), film marks (RT).
False indications SHALL be eliminated and the part re-tested.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS (Caused by Discontinuities or may be a design feature)
Caused by design features such as rivets, grinding grooves, weld curves or indications smaller
than 1.5mm (ASME VIII) or an indication that is supposed to be there (part of manufacturing
process).
RELEVANT INDICATIONS (Caused by Discontinuities bad for part)
Caused by discontinuities and can affect the service life of a part.
All relevant indications MUST be evaluated according to Acceptance standards.
EVALUATION
To decide whether the indication is acceptable, rejectable or needs rework.
CLASSIFICATION
First determine whether the indication is round or linear (three times as long as wide).
LINEAR INDICATION: L > 3W
ROUND INDICATION: L 3W
SPECIFICATIONS
Design engineers predetermine the acceptance criteria. Standards are written in clear
specifications and must be adhered to at all times.
REPORTS
Measure each relevant indication and fill out a detailed report. Mark out indications on test
object so they can be repaired or reworked.
PAGE 100 OF 100

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PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS)

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Electric Arc furnace

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Body Centred Cubic

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Face Centred Cubic

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Grain Structure of a Casting

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Cross section of a casting

Plan section of a casting

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Continuous casting of steel (vertical)

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

The shell moulding process

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Traditional Investment Casting

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

The cold chamber process

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Expandable mould casting

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Hot tears (cracks)

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Direction of Grain Flow

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Open die forging

Closed die forging

Closed die forging

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Two High Mill

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Cold rolling gives good dimensional control and surface finish.

Four High Mill

Effects of Hot Rolling

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

HOT ROLLING PRACTICES

COLD ROLLING PRACTICES

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

EXTRUSION AND DRAWING PROCESS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

WROUGHT PRODUCT DFECTS

Laminations (in flat plates)

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Seams and laps (in bar stock)

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

Chevron Cracks (Cone Cracking)

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

MAIN WELDING METHODS (PROCESSES)

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL NDT METHODS