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WELDING
PROCESSES
2.
3.
18
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
4.
5.
6.
Electroslag Welding......................................................................... 40
6.1
6.2
7.
8.
9.
1.
1.1
The Process
Known in the USA as Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and elsewhere
as manual metal arc welding (MMA) this welding process is by far the most
widely used, especially for short welds in production, maintenance, repair
and construction in the field (see Figure 1). Welds can be made in areas of
limited access and the equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive and
portable. Welding in any position is possible provided appropriate electrodes
are chosen. The process may be applied to the most commonly used metals
and alloys such as carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, copper, nickel
and their alloys. It is not suitable for low melting metals such as Tin, Lead or
Zinc or the more oxygen reactive metals such as aluminium, titanium and
zirconium.
Most electrodes are 220-450 mm long but may be up to 900 mm with core
wire diameters from 1.6 mm to 8.0 mm. The arc is brought about by the
difference in electrical potential (voltage) between the electrode and the
base metal. In practice, the voltage drop across the arc will be from about
16-40 V, with the current set generally within the range 20-550 amps. Open
circuit voltage (OCV), which may be referred to is not that across the arc but
that generated by the machine when no welding is being done and it is
usually 50-100V. When the arc is struck, the voltage drops to the arc
voltage. The power supply can be alternating or direct current and in the
latter case the electrode may be connected positively or negatively.
Generally AC seems to be favoured in the UK while DC is more commonly
employed in the USA.
Welding Positions
The specification of welding positions is important for two reasons. First, the
manufacturer needs to define the positions for which his electrodes are
suitable. Second, the welder's skills and qualifications are to a large extent
determined by the position at which he can produce an acceptable weld.
Thus for example much greater skill is required to weld in an overhead
position as compared with a flat or downhand position.
It should be pointed out that the welding position is not limited by the
process itself but by the size and type of electrode.
4
Welding Positions
Slope
0-5
0-5
80-90
80-90
0-15
Rotation
0-10
30-90
0-180
0-180
115-180
LR
Symbol
D
X
Vu
Vd
O
ISO
Symbol
PA
PC*
PF
PG
PE*
AWS
Symbol
1G
2G
3G
3G
4G
* Note for fillet welds, horizontal-vertical has the symbol PB and overhead
PD.
1.3
to produce a slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal from the air, to
allow slower cooling and to enhance bead shape and surface
cleanliness of the weld metal;
to provide fluxes, scavengers and deoxidisers to cleanse the weld and
prevent excessive grain growth;
to allow alloying elements to be added to change the composition of
the weld metal.
The use of AC will also affect the demands on the coating since the arc is
extinguished and must be reignited every half cycle. Therefore the arc
atmosphere must contain a suitable ionised gas to make this possible.
Coatings containing iron powder may be used to increase the rate of
deposition and to improve efficiency in the use of arc energy.
1.4
about 15%. Protection of the metal as it is passed across the arc is provided
by the dissociation of the Cellulose and the production of large quantities of
slag which will coat the metal droplets as they are transferred.
Metal powders (e.g. iron) may be included in the flux coating to raise the
efficiency of the process and both basic and rutile coating variations of this
type are available. The heavier rutile coatings contain only about 5%
cellulose and as both varieties produce large quantities of molten metal and
slag they are usually restricted to flat (downhand) and horizontal-vertical fillet
welds. Other types of coating are available such as Acid Rutile, Acid and
Oxidising but are, however, little used. Although there may be considerable
differences in the compositions of the electrode cores depending on the
properties desired in the weld, the technique of modifying composition by
including alloying elements in the coating can be of great importance.
Electrode Coatings are summarised in Table 2.
Constituents of the coatings may also include: various clays; silica; oxides
and carbonates of iron, manganese and calcium; aluminium and magnesium
silicates; calcium fluoride, or fluorspar: carbonates and silicates of sodium
and potassium; and ferro-manganese as a deoxidiser.
Coating compositions are described in general terms only, the proportions of
the different ingredients and even the total number present being the
manufacturer's prerogative and his secret. The quality of the product is
determined in the judgement of the purchaser and although there are
undoubted differences between suppliers, equally, there are variations in the
opinions and tastes of individual welders and their employers.
It should be apparent that the coating on the electrode not only has an
important influence on the properties of the resulting weld metal but it will
also be the principle influence on the welding characteristics themselves,
especially affecting such aspects as welding positions.
The functions of the individual constituents in a coating are listed in Table 3.
Table 2
Class
Cellulosic (C)
Composition of Covering
Organic material containing
cellulose with some titanium
oxide. Hydrogen releasing.
Basic (B)
Basic high
efficiency (BB)
Rutile (R)
Acid (A)
Oxidizing (O)
Characteristics
Thin, easily removable slag. Rather
high splatter loss. Considerable
envelope of shielding gas. Coarse
ripple on weld surface, deeply
penetrating arc with rapid burn-off
rate.
Brown slag easy to remove.
Medium ripple on weld metal,
medium penetration. Fillet profile
flat or convex. Deposited metal has
high resistance to cold cracking
because there is a low hydrogen
content in the weld. Electrodes
must be stored under warm dry
conditions and dried before use.
Uses
All classes of mild steel
welding in all positions:
a.c. or d.c. electrode
positive.
Table 3
1.5
10
Table 4
ISO
Symbol
C Max%
Cr %
Ni %
13
17
30
19.9
19.9 L
19.9 Nb
19.9 L Nb
19.12.2
19.12.2 L
19.12.2
Nb
19.13.4
19.13.4 L
23.12
23.12 L
23.12 Nb
23.12.2
18.8 Mn
25.20
25.20 L
25.20 Nb
25.20.2
25.20 C
20.9 Nb
0.12
0.10
0.10
0.08
0.04
0.08
0.04
0.08
0.04
0.08
11-14
15-18
17-30
18-21
18-21
18-21
18-21
17-20
17-20
17-20
8-11
8-11
8-11
8-11
11-14
11-14
11-14
0.08
0.04
0.15
0.04
0.12
0.12
0.20
0.20
0.04
0.12
0.12
0.25/0.45
0.13
17-21
22-26
22-26
22-26
22-25
22-25
17-20
24-28
24-28
24-28
25-28
24-28
18-21
11-15
11-15
11-15
11-15
11-15
11-15
7-10
18-22
18-22
18-22
18-22
18-22
8-10
29.9
18.36
0.15
0.25
28-32
14-19
8-12
33-38
(1)
(2)
Similar
AWS (2)
standard
Other
elements
E 410
E 430
Nb (1)
Nb (1)
2-2.5
2-2.5
2-2.5
Nb (1)
3.5-5.5
3.5-5.5
E 308
E 308L
E 347
E 316
E 316L
E 318
E 317
Nb
(1)
E 309
2-3
Mn 5-8
E 310
Nb (1)
2-3
0.350.65
Nb (1)
E 349
E 312
11
1.6
2.5
3.25
30-50A
50-110A
Arc Length
The arc length is the distance from the molten tip of the electrode core wire
to the surface of the molten weld pool. Proper arc length is important in
obtaining a sound welded joint. Metal transfer from the tip of the electrode to
the weld pool is not a smooth, uniform action, and instantaneous arc voltage
varies as droplets of molten metal are transferred across the arc, even with
constant arc length.
However, any variation in voltage will be minimal when welding is done with
the proper amperage and arc length. The latter requires constant and
consistent electrode feed.
The correct length varies according to the electrode classification, diameter,
and covering composition; it also varies with amperage and welding position.
Arc length increases with increasing electrode diameter and amperage and
as a general rule, it should not exceed the diameter of the core wire of the
electrode. The arc usually is shorter than this for electrodes with thick
coverings, such as iron powder or drag electrodes.
Too short an arc will be erratic and may short circuit during metal transfer.
Too long an arc will lack direction and intensity, which will tend to spatter the
molten metal as it moves from the electrode to the weld. The spatter may be
heavy and deposition efficiency low. Also, the gas and flux generated by the
covering are not as effective in shielding the arc and the weld metal from air.
The poor shielding can cause porosity and contamination of the weld metal
by oxygen or nitrogen, or both and the quality of the weld will be poor.
Control of arc length is largely a matter of welder skill, involving the welder's
knowledge, experience, visual perception and manual dexterity. Although the
arc length does change to some extent with changing conditions certain
fundamental principles can be given as a guide to the proper arc length for a
given set of conditions.
For downhand welding, particularly with heavy electrode coverings, the tip of
the electrode can be dragged lightly along the joint. The arc length, in this
case, is automatically determined by the depth of the cup at the tip of the
electrode and the melting rate of the electrode. For vertical or overhead
welding, the arc length is always gauged by the welder. The proper arc
length, in such cases, is the one that permits the welder to control the size
and motion of the molten weld pool. The same is true for the root passes in
groove and fillet welds.
The various classifications of electrodes have widely different operating
characteristics, including arc length. It is important, therefore, for the welder
to be familiar with the operating characteristics of the types of electrodes he
uses in order to recognise the proper arc length and to know the effect of
13
different arc lengths. The effect of a long and a short arc on bead
appearance with a mild steel electrode is illustrated (see Figure 4).
Figure 4 Effects of varying current, arc length (arc voltage) and travel
speed illustrated by surfaces and cross-sectional views of shielded
metal-arc welds: left to right - current, arc length and travel speed
normal; current too low; current too high; arc length too short; arc
length too long; travel speed too slow; travel speed too high
Table 6
Short
Arc Type
C
0.085
N2
0.009
Mn
0.72
Si
0.53
S
0.018
P
0.016
Normal
0.080
0.015
0.71
0.54
0.017
0.027
0.075
0.048
0.64
0.39
0.018
0.025
0.055
0.069
0.63
0.15
0.018
0.018
Cellulosic
Rutile
Basic - Dried 100-150C
Basic - Dried 350-450C
A Basic slag is relatively thick and viscous which makes the electrodes
comparatively difficult to use. They can however be employed for welding in
all positions and the weld metal has excellent mechanical properties. Such
electrodes are often used for welding structures exposed to high stresses
and are usually specified when there are requirements for impact values at
low temperatures. Basic, low hydrogen coatings are used for electrodes to
deposit high strength steel weld metal.
1.9
1.10
Hard Facing
MMA welding is a often used for applying surface layers to metals to
improve the resistance to abrasion, impact, corrosion and heat. The
advantage of the method is that the surface can be deposited on a cheaper
base metal to give wear resistance or other qualities, exactly where required,
with great financial savings. Also worn parts can be built up with substantial
reductions in time and replacement costs. Very hard surfaces are normally
required for good abrasion resistance but high hardness values are usually
accompanied by poor resistance to impact. Conversely good impact
resistance is not allied to extreme hardness and it is therefore necessary to
determine which quality is of greater importance.
15
Gravity Welding
This is a simple method for economically welding long fillets in the flat
position using gravity to feed the electrode and to traverse the weld pool
along the joint. An operator can look after two or more machines at any one
time, for example, one on each side of a plate, giving symmetrical welds and
reducing stress and distortion. The electrode holder is mounted on a ballbearing carriage and slides smoothly down a guide bar, the angle of which
can be adjusted to give faster or slower traverse and thus vary the length of
deposit of the electrode and the leg length of the weld (see Figure 5).
16
17
2.
2.1
The Process
Abbreviated as SAW, this is a welding process where an arc is struck
between a continuous bare wire and the parent plate. The arc, electrode
end and the molten pool are submerged in an agglomerated or fused
powdered flux which turns into a slag in its lower layers when subjected to
the heat of the arc, thus protecting the weld from contamination. The wire
electrode is fed continuously by a feed unit of motor-driven rollers which
usually are voltage-controlled to ensure an arc of constant length. The flux
is fed from a hopper fixed to the welding head, and a tube from the hopper
spreads the flux in a continuous elongated mound in front of the arc along
the line of the intended weld and of sufficient depth to submerge the arc
completely so that there is no spatter, the weld is shielded from the
atmosphere, and there are no ultra-violet or infra-red radiation effects (see
Figure 6). Unmelted flux is reclaimed for use. The use of powdered flux
restricts the process to the flat and horizontal-vertical welding positions.
Submerged arc welding is noted for its ability to employ high weld currents
owing to the properties and functions of the flux. Such currents give deep
penetration and high dilution where twice as much parent metal as wire
electrode is melted. Generally a DC positive current is employed up to
about 1000 amps. At higher currents, AC is often preferred to avoid the
problem of arc blow. Difficulties sometimes arise in ensuring conformity of
the weld with a predetermined line owing to the obscuring effect of the flux.
Where possible, a guide wheel to run in the joint preparation is positioned in
front of the welding head and flux hoppers.
Submerged arc welding is widely used in the fabrication of ships, pressure
vessels, line pipe, railway wagons and anywhere long welds are required. It
can be used to weld thicknesses from 1.5 mm upwards.
18
2.2
Materials Joined
Submerged arc welding may be used for joining many ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys and to apply cladding to base metals to improve
wear and corrosion resistance. Electrodes are available producing weld
metal suitable for use with plain carbon steel, special alloy steel, stainless
steel, non-ferrous alloys, mainly Nickel based, and special alloys for
surfacing applications. Combinations of carbon steel electrodes and fluxes
are specified to give the desired properties to the resulting weld metal. Alloy
steels can be welded with alloy steel electrodes using neutral fluxes or with
carbon steel electrodes using fluxes containing the alloying elements.
2.3
Fluxes
The fluxes may be defined as granular mineral compounds mixed to various
formulations. The so called fused fluxes are produced when the constituents
are dry mixed and melted in an electric furnace and thereafter granulated by
pouring the molten mixture into water. Subsequently, these particles are
crushed and screened to yield a uniform glass-like product. Such fluxes
have the advantages of homogeneity and they are less hygroscopic than
other types. They allow fines (fine powders) to be removed without changes
in composition and they can easily be recycled through the system. There
are however limitations in composition as some components such as basic
carbonates would be unable to withstand the melting process.
Alternatively, the powdered flux constituents may be bonded by mixing the
dry constituents with Potassium or Sodium Silicate. This wet mixture is then
pelletised, dried, crushed and screened to size. This method has the
advantage that deoxidisers and alloying elements can easily be added to the
flux to adjust the weld metal composition. It will allow a thicker flux layer
when welding and it can be identified by colour coding. Its disadvantages
are that it is generally more hygroscopic, that gas may be evolved from the
slag as it is melted, and there may be changes in weld metal chemical
composition from the segregation of fine particles produced by the
mechanical handling of the granulated flux.
2.4
19
2.5
Operating Variables
Knowledge and control of the operating variables in submerged arc welding
are essential if high production rates and welds of good quality are to be
obtained consistently (see Figure 7).
These variables, in the approximate order of their importance, are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
2.5.1
Welding current
Type of flux and particle distribution
Welding voltage
Welding speed
Electrode size
Electrode extension
Type of electrode
Width and depth of the layer of flux
Welding Current
Welding current is the most influential variable because it controls the rate at
which the electrode is melted, the depth of penetration, and the amount of
base metal melted. If the current is too high at a given travel speed, the
depth of fusion or penetration will be too great. The resulting weld may have
a tendency to melt through the metal being joined. High current also leads
to waste of electrodes in the form of excess weld metal. This over welding
increases weld shrinkage and usually causes greater distortion. If the current
is too low, inadequate penetration or incomplete fusion may result.
Some rules to remember concerning welding current are:
1.
2.
3.
2.5.2
Arc Voltage
Arc voltage adjustment varies the length of the arc between the electrode
and the molten weld metal. If the arc voltage increases, the arc length
increases; if the arc voltage decreases, the arc length decreases.
The arc voltage has little effect on the electrode deposition rate which is
determined mainly by the welding current.
The voltage principally
determines the shape of the weld bead cross section and its external
appearance.
20
Increasing the arc voltage with constant current and travel speed will:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Travel Speed
With any combination of welding current and voltage, the effects of changing
the travel speed conform to a general pattern.
If the travel speed is
increased:
1.
2.
3.
Electrode Size
Electrode size affects the weld bead shape and the depth of penetration at a
given current. Small electrodes are used with semi-automatic equipment to
provide flexibility of movement. They are also used for multiple electrode,
parallel power equipment.
21
Electrode size also influences the deposition rate. At any given amperage
setting, a small diameter electrode will have a higher current density and a
higher deposition rate of molten metal than a larger diameter electrode.
However, a larger diameter electrode can carry more current than a smaller
electrode, so the larger electrode can ultimately produce a higher deposition
rate at higher amperage. If a desired electrode feed rate is higher (or lower)
than the feed motor can maintain, changing to a larger (or smaller) size
electrode will permit the desired deposition rate.
For a given electrode size, a high current density results in a stiff' arc that
penetrates into the base metal. Conversely, a lower current density in the
same size electrode results in a soft arc that is less penetrating.
2.5.5
Electrode Extension
The electrode extension is the distance the continuous electrode protrudes
beyond the contact tip. At high current densities, resistance heating of the
electrode between the contact tip and the arc can be utilised to increase the
electrode melting rate. The longer the extension, the greater the amount of
heating and the higher the melting rate. This resistance heating is
commonly referred to as I2R heating which when increased will enhance
deposition rates by as much as 25-50%. Such adjustments will limit the
power available at the weld itself resulting in reduced penetration and bead
width. To counteract these effects increases in electrode extension should
be accompanied by appropriate increases in voltage.
2.5.6
Type of Electrode
An electrode with a low electrical conductivity, such as stainless steel, can
with a normal electrode extension experience greater resistance heating.
Thus for the same size electrode and current, the melting rate of a stainless
steel electrode will be higher than that of a carbon steel electrode.
2.5.7
22
23
24
3.
3.1
The Process
Known in the USA as Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) this process can be
further distinguished by the character of the shielding gas: inert or chemically
active. This results in the terms Metal-Arc Inert Gas (MIG) and Metal-Arc
Active Gas (MAG) welding. This process is now in common use having
displaced some of the more traditional manual welding techniques. In this
process, the arc, surrounded by a protective gas, is struck between a
consumable wire electrode and the work.
The process is suitable for welding aluminium, magnesium alloys, plain and
low-alloy steels, stainless and heat-resistant steels, copper and bronze, the
variations being filler wire and type of shielding gas.
The continuous consumable electrode wire is mechanically fed from a spool
to a manually or mechanically controlled gun through a flexible guide tube by
motor-driven rollers of adjustable speed. The rate of burn-off of the
electrode wire must be balanced by the rate of wire feed which determines
the current used.
In addition, a shielding gas or gas mixture is fed to the gun together with
welding current supply, cooling water flow and return (if the gun is water
cooled) and a control cable from the gun switch to control contactors (see
Figures 8 and 9).
25
Electrodes
The composition of the electrode and base metal should be as nearly alike
as practicable. In some cases this requirement can be met but in others, to
obtain satisfactory welding and weld metal characteristics, an appreciable
composition change is needed. Deoxidisers and other scavengers are
nearly always added to minimise porosity or to ensure that the presence of
oxygen, hydrogen or nitrogen is neutralised. These gases may be part of
the shielding gas or reach the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.
In steel electrodes, deoxidisers may be Mn, Si or Al, in Nickel alloys Ti or Si
and in Copper alloys Ti, Si or P. Their use is especially important with
shielding gases containing oxygen.
Manganese and silicon are used as deoxidisers in many cases in steel but
triple deoxidised wire using aluminium, titanium and zirconium gives highquality welds and is especially suitable for use with CO2 gas shield.
Generally wire diameters are quite small compared with other types of
welding, ranging from 1.0 mm to 1.6 mm, although up to 3.0 mm or down to
0.5 mm may be used occasionally. The high currents employed in MIG and
MAG welding combined with the small diameter wire result in very high
melting rates varying from about 40 mm/sec up to 340 mm/sec. The wires
must therefore be supplied in long continuous strands, suitably hardened
(stiffened), for non-stop smooth feeding through the equipment. Ferrous
wires are usually coated with copper to provide some corrosion resistance
and to improve electrical contact in the welding equipment.
26
3.3
Transfer Modes
3.3.1
Spray Transfer
In manual metal arc welding, metal is transferred in globules or droplets from
the electrode to work. If the current is increased to the continuously fed,
gas-shielded wire, the rate at which such droplets are projected across the
arc increases and they become smaller in volume and the transfer is then in
the form of a fine spray (see Figure l0a).
The type of gas being used as a shield greatly affects the values of current
at which spray transfer occurs but they are usually more than 200 amps.
Much greater current densities are required with CO2 than with argon
mixtures to obtain the same droplet rate. The arc is continuous during
operation, arc energy output is high, the rate of deposition of metal is high,
penetration is deep and there is considerable dilution from the parent metal.
If current becomes excessively high, turbulence can be induced in the gas
shield, leading to oxidation, and oxide film entrapment in the weld metal
when welding aluminium. For spray transfer there is a high voltage drop
across the arc (30-45 V) and a high current density in the wire electrode
making the process suitable for thicker sections, mostly in the flat position.
The high currents used produce strong magnetic fields and a very directional
arc. With argon shielding the forces on the droplets are well balanced during
transfer so that they move smoothly from wire to work with little spatter.
With CO2 shielding the forces on the droplet are less balanced so that the
arc is less smooth and spatter tendency is greater.
27
(a)
Spray transfer: arc volts 27-45 V. Shielding gases: argon, argon- 1 or
2% oxygen, argon- 20% CO2, argon- 2% oxygen- 5% CO2. High current and
deposition rate, used for flat welding of thicker sections
(b)
Short-circuit or dip transfer: arc volts 15-22 V. Shielding gases as for
spray transfer. Lower heat output and lower deposition rate than spray transfer.
Minimises distortion, low dilution. Used for thinner sections and positional
welding of thicker sections
Figure 10 Types of arc transfer
28
3.3.2
but will be about 50 to 200 times per second. The heat output of this type of
arc is much less than that of the spray transfer type and makes the process
suitable for the welding of thinner sections and for all positional welding, in
addition to multi-run thicker sections, and it gives much greater welding
speed than metal-arc-welding with covered electrodes on light gauge steel,
for example. Dip transfer has the lowest weld metal dilution value of all the
arc processes. However, welds may be more prone to lack of fusion defects,
particularly when CO2 is used as the gas shield.
In order to keep stable welding conditions with a low voltage arc (17-20 V)
which is being rapidly short-circuited, the power source must have the right
characteristics. If the short-circuit current is low the electrode will freeze to
the plate when welding with low currents and voltages. If the short-circuit
current is too high a hole may be formed in the plate or excessive spatter
may occur due to scattering of the arc pool when the arc is re-established.
The power supply must fulfil the following conditions:
1.
During short-circuit the current must increase enough to melt the wire
tip but not so much that it causes spatter when the arc is reestablished.
2.
The inductance of the circuit must store enough energy during the
short-circuit to help to start the arc again and assist in maintaining it
during the decay of voltage and current
29
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.4
Shielding Gases
As oxygen and CO2 are not inert gases the term Metal-Arc Inert Gas (MIG)
is not applicable when either of these gases is mixed with Argon, or CO2 is
used on its own. The term Metal-Arc Active Gas (MAG) should be used in
these cases, if greater distinction is required than that provided by the
general term Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding.
Argon is used as a shielding gas because it is chemically inert and forms
no compounds. It is especially useful in welding non-ferrous metals and
alloys but in welding steel it exhibits an uneven negative pole at the work
piece, (the electrode being positive) to give an irregular weld profile.
Argon plus 1% or 2% oxygen gives a higher arc temperature and the
oxygen acts as a wetting agent to the molten pool making it more fluid
and stabilising the arc.
Helium is sometimes added to mixed gases. Its presence increases the
arc voltage and consequent heat input. Mixing it with Argon, Oxygen or
CO2 controls the pool temperature, increases wetting and stabilises the
arc.
Carbon Dioxide CO2 has the advantage of being the cheapest shielding
gas and it can be used for welding both alloy and plain carbon steels up
to 0.4%C. There is some dissociation of CO2 in the arc producing carbon
monoxide and oxygen which requires the filler wire to be adequately
deoxidised to prevent porosity. Some wires rely solely on Mn and Si for
this deoxidation. Others include the more efficient elements Al, Ti and Zr
in varying proportions. Generally the arc is less smooth with CO2 than
with Ar-CO2 and Ar-O2. The arc conditions are more critical and there is
more spatter.
30
Argon plus 5% CO2 or Argon + 20% CO2 for steel improves the wetting
action, reduces surface tension and makes the pool more fluid. Both
mixtures are excellent with spray or dip transfer, they give a smoother
less critical arc than pure CO2 and reduce spatter; but naturally they are
more expensive than pure CO2.
Recommended gases and gas mixture for various metals and alloys are
shown in Table 8 below:
Metal Type
Carbon and lowalloy steels
Gas Shield
CO2
Remarks
For dip transfer, and spray transfer spatter
problems. Use deoxidized wire.
For dip or spray transfer
Minimum spatter
Ar-15/20%CO2
Ar-5%CO2
Ar-5%O2
Stainless Steels
Ar-5%CO2 - 2%O2
Ar-1/2%O2
75%He 23.5%Ar
1.5%CO2
Spray transfer
High quality dip transfer. For thin sections
and positional work.
Good profile.
Argon
Helium
75% He - 25%Ar
Magnesium and
its alloys
Copper and its
alloys
Nickels
alloys
and
its
Cupronickel
Titanium,
Zirconium
and
alloys
Note:
Argon
75% He 25%Ar
Argon
Stable arc
Hotter arc. Less porosity.
For sections up to 9.5 mm thickness
Helium
75% He 25%Ar
Argon
70% Ar 30%He
25% Ar 75%He
Argon
70% Ar 30%He
High purity argon
31
3.5
Operating Variables
3.5.1
Arc Voltage
It is easier to set and maintain welding conditions with a constant voltage
power source (see Power Sources chapter) which will permit little variation
of voltage or arc length during welding. These are predetermined to a large
extent by the shielding gas and the metal to be welded. Such voltage
adjustments are usually incorporated into the welding machine in which the
amperage is controlled by the wire feed speed. Within the limits of these
conditions it may be expected that increase in voltage will tend to flatten the
weld bead and increase the width of the fusion zone. Decrease in voltage
will result in a narrower weld bead with a higher reinforcement and deeper
penetration. Excessively high voltage may cause porosity, spatter and
undercutting whereas excessively low voltage may cause porosity and
overlap at the weld edges.
3.5.2
Arc Length
An increase in arc length, that is the distance from the electrode tip to the
work, will cause an increase of arc voltage and vice-versa. In practice any
such changes would be instantly corrected by the constant voltage supply
system.
3.5.3
Current
If all other variables are held constant, welding current varies with the wire
speed or melting rate. At lower amperage ranges the relationship is nearly
linear but in the upper ranges this ceases to be so largely due to resistance
heating of the electrode stick out beyond the contact tube. Generally,
increase in welding current alone will (a)
(b)
(c)
3.5.4
Travel Speed
A decrease in speed will increase the deposit of the filler metal per unit
length producing a large shallow weld pool. The welding arc impinges on this
pool rather than the base metal as it advances. This limits penetration but
gives a wide weld bead. Increase in speed will reduce the thermal energy
transmitted to the base metal and melting is therefore slowed and restricted
to the surface. Thus both penetration and bead width are decreased.
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3.5.5
Electrode Extension
Electrode extension is the distance between the last point of electrical
contact and the tip of the electrode (see Figure 9). As this distance
increases so does the electrical resistance of the electrode extension and the
consequent increase in resistance heating causes the electrode temperature
to rise. Thus less welding current is required to melt the electrode at a given
feed rate.
3 5.6
Electrode Size
Each electrode diameter of a given composition has a usable current range.
The welding current range is limited by undesirable effects, such as the
absence of wetting at very low values, and also spatter, porosity, and poor
bead appearance with excessively high values.
The electrode melting rate is a function of current density. If two wires of
different diameters are operated at the same current, the smaller will have
the higher melting rate and deposit larger quantities of molten metal.
Penetration is also a function of current density. For example, a 1 mm
diameter electrode will produce deeper penetration than a 1.5 mm diameter
electrode when it is used at identical current. However, the weld bead profile
will be wider with the larger electrode. The reverse is also true when a small
weld bead profile is specified. Since smaller diameter wires are more costly
on a weight basis, for each application there is a wire size that will give
minimum cost welds. Cored wires give a greater deposition rate as a result
of increased current density.
3.6
2.
3.
33
Limitations:
1.
Welding equipment is more costly, complex and less portable than that
used for Manual Metal Arc welding.
2.
3.
4.
Weld metal cooling rates are higher owing to the absence of slag,
affecting the metallurgical and mechanical properties of the weld.
This GMAW process has not displaced Submerged Arc and electroslag
methods for welding thick steel sections but complements them. It offers the
most competitive method for repetition welding and thicknesses up to 75 mm
can be joined in steel using fully automatic heads.
3.7
34
35
The self-shielded method is used with long electrode extensions (20-95 mm)
which tend to produce shallow weld beads whereas the gas-shielded method
with electrode extensions 19-38 mm is suited to the production of narrow
deeply penetrating welds. The process may be used to weld plain carbon
and low alloy steels and stainless steels. Cored wires may contain
proportions of metal powder to improve deposition rates. Such wires may be
Argon/20% CO2 gas shielded with the electrode DC negative to give a
smooth arc with little spatter. Cored wires of all types can usually be applied
to welding in all positions.
A major advantage of cored over solid wires is the ability to change the weld
metal composition by alloy additions to the flux. This has therefore provided
a variety of consumable compositions on a scale similar to SMAW (MMA).
36
4.
37
(2)
(3)
For these reasons TIG welding is generally not competitive with other
methods for welding heavier gauges of metal.
TIG welding can be markedly affected by variations in current, voltage and
power source characteristics. The most important aspects are:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
38
5.
AUTOMATIC WELDING
There has been a great increase in the number of automatic processes
designed to speed up welding production. Automatic welding gives high
rates of metal deposition because high currents from 400 to more than 2000
amps can be used, compared with the normal limit of about 600 amps with
manual arc welding. Automatic arc control gives uniformly good weld quality
and finish and the high heat input reduces distortion and the number of runs
for a given plate thickness is reduced. Twin welding heads still further
reduce welding time and when used, for example, one on each side of a
plate being fillet welded, distortion is reduced. The welding head may be:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The processes, namely TIG, MIG and CO2 (gas shielded metal arc) with
their modifications, are extensively used fully automatically. Heads are now
available which, by changing simple components, enable one item of
equipment to be used for MIG (inert gas), CO2 and tubular wire, and
submerged arc processes.
39
6.
ELECTROSLAG WELDING
6.1
The Process
As the thickness of the metal to be welded increases, multi-pass techniques
become less economical. Even the use of automatic welding with high
current and large weld beads in the flat position, can give a weld pool so
large that it runs ahead of the electrode out of control resulting in inadequate
fusion. The difficulties with large weld beads can be overcome by turning
the plates into the vertical position and arranging the gap between them so
that the welding process becomes akin to continuous casting.
Developed in Russia, the Electroslag process is used for butt welding steel
sections usually above 60 mm in thickness although plates down to 10 mm
thick have been welded. The sections to be joined are fixed in the vertical
position and the part of the joint line where welding is to commence, is
enclosed with water-cooled copper plates or dams which serve to confine
the molten weld metal and slag between the edges of the plates (see Figure
14). The dams are pressed tightly against each side of the joint to prevent
leakage. There may be one or more electrode wires depending upon the
thickness of the section and they are fed continuously from spools. The selfadjusting arc is struck on to a starting plate beneath a coating of powder flux
which is melted in about half a minute. The arc becomes extinguished and
the current is then transferred, not as an arc but through the liquid slag,
which gives the same order of voltage drop as would occur across the arc.
Further melting results from resistance heating of the liquid slag.
During welding some slag is lost in forming a skin between the molten metal
and the copper dams, and a flow of flux powder, carefully metered to avoid
disturbing the welding conditions, is fed in to match the consumption. The
vertical traverse may be obtained by mounting the welding head on a
carriage which is motor-driven and travels up a rack on a vertical column in
alignment with the joint to be welded. The rate of travel is controlled so that
the electrode nozzle and copper dams are kept in the correct position
relative to the molten pool. Since the electrode is at right angles to the pool,
variations in fit-up are not troublesome. For thick sections the electrode is
oscillated across the molten pool, or more than one electrode is used. The
gap between the plates is generally between 20 and 40 mm. Welding
speeds are usually l metre per hour or faster. The welds produced are
generally free from slag inclusions, porosity and cracks, although too high a
welding speed can cause centre line cracking. The process is rapid,
preparation costs are reduced, and there is no de-slagging. Cored wires
containing deoxidizers and alloying elements can be used when required.
Preparation of the faces to be welded is not critical and a flame cut surface
is quite acceptable. The slag temperature is about 1900C internally.
An AC or DC positive power source in the range 300-750 A is suitable, such
as is used for automatic processes. Open circuit voltage is of the order of 70
-80 V, with arc voltages of 30-50 V, higher with AC than DC.
6.2.
41
42
7.
ELECTROGAS WELDING
In its mechanical aspects and its application to welding practice, electrogas
welding resembles conventional electroslag welding, from which it was
developed. Electrically, electrogas welding differs from electroslag welding
in two ways:
1.
2.
43
8.
44
Figure 17(a)
Ceramic tile backing may also be used for slag forming welded processes
and can be applied to vertical and horizontal vertical butt joints (see Figure
17b). The recess in the tile allows the slag to form below the under-bead
and it can be stripped off after removal of the adherent aluminium foil.
Figure 17(b)
45
46
9.1
47
Power Sources
In arc welding it is principally the current which determines the amount of
heat generated and this controls the melting of the electrode and parent
metal and also such factors as penetration and bead shape and size.
Voltage and arc length are however more or less interchangeable factors
with increasing voltage leading to increasing arc length and vice-versa.
There are two methods of automatic arc control (1)
(2)
Arc Blow
High currents such as those used in submerged arc welding may cause the
phenomenon known as arc blow. Direct current flowing in a circuit produces
a magnetic field around the conductors and such a field can cause deflection
of the arc. Arc blow becomes progressively more uncontrollable with a
noisy, wavering arc and heavy spatter especially when approaching the
edges of the work or welding in enclosed corners. Arc blow does not occur
with AC owing to the constant reversal of current cancelling out the effect.
Sometimes arc blow is very difficult to eliminate and possible remedies
include changing the angle of the electrode when deflection begins,
changing the position of the welding return connection, welding in a different
direction, wrapping the welding cable in a few turns around the work if
possible, or if particularly troublesome using smaller gauge electrodes and a
greater number of runs. A reduction of voltage may also relieve the
problem.
49