Ancient Roman architecture

Roman architecture redirects here. For the architec- lishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about
ture of the city, see Architecture of Rome.
the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassied
Ancient Roman architecture developed dierent as- as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture. Most of the
many surviving examples are from the later imperial period. Roman architectural style continued to inuence
building in the former empire for many centuries, and
the style used in Western Europe beginning about 1000
is called Romanesque architecture to reect this dependence on basic Roman forms.
The Ancient Romans were responsible for signicant developments in housing and public hygiene, for example
their public and private baths and latrines, under-oor
heating in the form of the hypocaust, mica glazing (examples in Ostia Antica), and piped hot and cold water
(examples in Pompeii and Ostia).

The Colosseum in Rome, Italy

1 History
1.1 Background
Factors such as wealth and high population densities in
cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and
arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes
in the construction of imposing structures for public use.
Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of
Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and
Colosseum. These were reproduced at smaller scale in
An area at the Ostia Antica archaeological site: at one time, shops most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the town
were located here
walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, now northern
pects of Ancient Greek architecture and newer tech- Spain.
nologies such as the arch and the dome to create a The Ancient Romans intended that public buildings
new architectural style. Roman architecture ourished should be made to impress, as well as perform a public
throughout the Empire during the Pax Romana. Its use function. The Romans did not feel restricted by Greek
of new materials, particularly concrete, was an important aesthetic axioms alone in achieving these objectives. The
feature.
Pantheon is an example of this, particularly in the version
Roman Architecture covers the period from the estab- rebuilt by Hadrian, which remains perfectly preserved,
1

2
and which over the centuries has served, particularly in
the Western Hemisphere, as the inspiration for countless
public buildings.[1] The same emperor left his mark on
the landscape of northern Britain when he built a wall
to mark the limits of the empire, and after further conquests in Scotland, the Antonine Wall was built to replace
Hadrians Wall.

1.2 Inuences
The Romans were indebted to their Etruscan neighbors
and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of
knowledge essential for future architectural solutions,
such as the use of hydraulics and the construction of
arches. The Romans absorbed Greek Architectural inuence both directly (e.g. Magna Graecia) and indirectly
(e.g. Etruscan Architecture was itself inuenced by the
Greeks). The inuence is evident in many ways; for example, in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in
Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. The Romans were also known to employ Greek craftsmen and
engineers to construct Roman buildings.

1.3 Roman Architectural Revolution

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

in history, their potential was fully exploited in the construction of a wide range of civil engineering structures,
public buildings, and military facilities. These included
amphitheatres, aqueducts, baths, bridges, circuses, dams,
domes, harbours, and temples.
A crucial factor in this development, which saw a trend
toward monumental architecture, was the invention of
Roman concrete (opus caementicium), which led to the
liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional
materials of stone and brick.[7]

2 Architectural features
The Roman use of the arch and their improvements in
the use of concrete and bricks facilitated the building
of the many aqueducts throughout the empire, such as
the Aqueduct of Segovia and the eleven aqueducts in
Rome itself, including the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus.
The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of
which are still in daily use, for example the Puente Romano at Mrida in Spain, and the Pont Julien and the
bridge at Vaison-la-Romaine, both in Provence, France.
The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings
without crossbeams and made possible large covered
public space such as public baths and basilicas. The Romans based much of their architecture on the dome, such
as Hadrians Pantheon in the city of Rome, the Baths of
Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla.
The use of arches that spring directly from the tops of
columns was a Roman development, seen from the 1st
century AD, that was very widely adopted in medieval
Western, Byzantine and Islamic architecture.

Art historians such as Gottfried Richter in the 1920s have

identied the most important Roman architectural innovation as the Triumphal Arch. This symbol of power was
transformed and utilised within the Christian basilicas
when the Roman Empire of the West was on its last legs.
The arch was set before the altar to symbolize the triumph
The Roman Pantheon was the largest dome in the world for more of Christ and the afterlife. The arch is seen in aqueducts,
than a millennium.[2] It is the largest unreinforced solid concrete especially in the many surviving examples, such as the
Pont du Gard, the aqueduct at Segovia and the remains
dome to this day[3]
of the Aqueducts of Rome itself. Their survival is testiThe Roman Architectural Revolution, also known as the mony to the durability of their materials and design.
Concrete Revolution,[4][5][6] was the widespread use in Ro- The Romans rst adopted the arch from the Etruscans,
man architecture of the previously little-used architec- and implemented it in their own building. An arch transtural forms of the arch, vault, and dome. For the rst time mits load evenly and is still commonly used in architec-

2.3

Roman roofs

ture today.

2.1

Mosaics

On his return from campaigns in Greece, the general

Sulla brought back what is probably the most well-known
element of the early imperial period, the mosaic, a decoration made of colourful chips of stone inserted into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the
late rst century and the second century and in the Roman
home joined the well known mural in decorating oors,
walls, and grottoes with geometric and pictorial designs.
There were two main techniques in Greco-Roman mosaic: opus vermiculatum used tiny tesserae, typically
cubes of 4 millimeters or less, and was produced in
workshops in relatively small panels which were transported to the site glued to some temporary support. The
tiny tesserae allowed very ne detail, and an approach
to the illusionism of painting. Often small panels called
emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights
of larger oor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal
technique, however, was opus tessellatum, using larger
tesserae, which were laid on site.[8] There was a distinct
native Italian style using black on a white background,
which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work[9]
(see the dog at the upper left).

3
the walls so that hot air and smoke from the furnace would
pass through these enclosed areas and out of ues in the
roof, thereby heating but not polluting the interior of the
room.

2.3 Roman roofs

Further information: List of ancient Greek and Roman
roofs
In Sicily truss roofs presumably appeared as early as 550
BC.[11] Their potential was fully realized in the Roman period, which saw trussed roofs over 30 m wide spanning
the rectangular spaces of monumental public buildings
such as temples, basilicas, and later churches. Such spans
were thrice as wide as the widest prop-and-lintel roofs
and only surpassed by the largest Roman domes.[12]

The largest truss roof by span of Ancient Rome covered

the Aula Regia (throne room) built for emperor Domitian
(8196 AD) on the Palatine Hill, Rome. The timber truss
roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the postulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tiebeam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older
prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting. Nine
out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman architecture were bridged this way, the only exception being
A specic genre of Roman mosaic obtained the name the groin vaulted Basilica of Maxentius.[12]
asaroton (Greek unswept oor). It represented an optical illusion of the leftovers from a feast on the oor of
reach houses.[10]
2.4 Spiral stairs

2.2

Hypocaust

A hypocaust was an ancient Roman system of underoor

heating, used to heat houses with hot air. The Roman architect Vitruvius, writing about the end of the 1st century
B.C., attributes their invention to Sergius Orata. Many
remains of Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. The
hypocaust was an invention which improved the hygiene
and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of
modern central heating.
Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths (thermae),
houses and other buildings, whether public or private.
The oor was raised above the ground by pillars, called
pilae stacks, with a layer of tiles, then a layer of concrete,
then another of tiles on top; and spaces were left inside

Further information: List of ancient spiral stairs

The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its
complex helical structure, was introduced relatively late
into architecture. Although the oldest example dates
back to the 5th century BC,[13] it was only in the wake
of the inuential design of Trajans Column that this
space-saving new type permanently caught hold in Roman architecture.[14]
Apart from the triumphal columns in the imperial cities
of Rome and Constantinople, other types of buildings
such as temples, thermae, basilicas and tombs were also
tted with spiral stairways.[14] Their notable absence in
the towers of the Aurelian Wall indicates that although
used in medieval castles, they did not yet gure prominently in Roman military engineering.[14] By late antiq-

MATERIALS

uity, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to

the main buildings, as in the Basilica of San Vitale.
The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to
Christian and Islamic architecture.

3 Modern inuences
See also: Romanesque architecture, Late Antique and
Byzantine architecture
During the Baroque and the Renaissance periods, Roman Frigidarium of Baths of Diocletian, today Santa Maria degli Anand Greek architectural styles again became fashionable, geli
not only in Italy, but all over Europe.
Roman inuences may be found around us today, in
banks, government buildings, great houses, and even
small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric
columns and a pediment or in a replace or a mosaic
shower oor copied from an original in Pompeii or Herculaneum. The mighty pillars, domes and arches of Rome
echo in the New World too, where in Washington DC
we see them in the Capitol Building, the White House,
the Lincoln Memorial and other government buildings.
All across the US the seats of regional government were
normally built in the grand traditions of Rome, with vast
ights of stone steps sweeping up to towering pillared
porticoes, with huge domes gilded or decorated inside
with the same or similar themes that were popular in
Rome.

and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspending at architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative
columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale
architecture, concretes strength freed the oor plan from
rectangular cells to a more free-owing environment.
Most of these developments are described by Vitruvius,
writing in the rst century AD in his work De Architectura.

4.1

Roman brick

Main article: Roman brick

The Romans made red clay bricks, and the Roman le-

In wealthy provincial parts of the US such as the great

plantations of 18th and 19th century Louisiana, there too
are the pillars and porticoes, the symmetrical faades with
their pilasters, the domes and statuary that would have
seemed familiar to Caesar and Augustus.
In Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construction of thousands of neo-Classical buildings over the last
ve centuries, both civic and domestic, and many of the
grandest country houses and mansions are purely Classical in style, an obvious example being Buckingham
Palace.

4 Materials
Close-up view of the wall of the Roman shore fort at Burgh Cas-

Tile covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as the tle, Norfolk, showing alternating courses of int and brickwork.
primary building material, and more daring buildings
soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches gions, which operated mobile kilns, introduced bricks

5
to many parts of the empire. Roman bricks are often
stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised their
production. The use of bricks in southern and western
Germany, for example, can be traced back to traditions
already described by the Roman architect Vitruvius.

surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive

stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones
called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be
more exible and less costly than building solid stone
buildings. The materials were readily available and not
Roman brick was almost invariably of a lesser height than dicult to transport. The wooden frames could be used
modern brick, but was made in a variety of dierent more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and
shapes and sizes.[15] Shapes included square, rectangu- eciently.
lar, triangular and round, and the largest bricks found Though most would consider concrete the Roman contrihave measured over three feet in length.[16] Ancient Ro- bution most relevant to the modern world, the Empires
man bricks had a general size of 1 Roman feet by 1 style of architecture can still be seen throughout Europe
Roman foot, but common variations up to 15 inches ex- and North America in the arches and domes of many
isted. Other brick sizes in Ancient Rome included 24 governmental and religious buildings .
x 12 x 4, and 15 x 8 x 10. Ancient Roman bricks
found in France measured 8 x 8 x 3. The Constantine
Basilica in Trier is constructed from Roman bricks 15
5 City design
square by 1 extquotedbl thick.[17] There is often little
obvious dierence (particularly when only fragments survive) between Roman bricks used for walls on the one Further information: Centuriation, Decumanus Maxhand, and tiles used for roong or ooring on the other, imus and Cardo
so archaeologists sometimes prefer to employ the generic
term ceramic building material (or CBM).
The ancient Romans employed regular orthogonal struc[18][19] [20]
They
The Romans perfected brick-making during the rst cen- tures on which they molded their colonies.
probably
were
inspired
by
Greek
and
Hellenic
examples,
tury of their empire and used it ubiquitously, in public and
private construction alike. The Romans took their brick- as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by
[21]
making skills everywhere they went, introducing the craft the Etruscans in Italy. (see Marzabotto)
to the local populations.[17] In the British Isles, the intro- The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planduction of Roman brick by the ancient Romans was fol- ning, developed for military defense and civil convelowed by a 600700 year gap in major brick production. nience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with
city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid
of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square
4.2 Roman concrete
grid, passing through the central square. A river usually
owed through the city, providing water, transport, and
Main article: Roman concrete
sewage disposal.[22] Hundreds of towns and cities were
built by the Romans throughout their empire. Many EuAlthough concrete had been used on a minor scale in ropean towns, such as Turin, preserve the remains of
Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected Roman con- these schemes, which show the very logical way the Rocrete and used it in buildings where it could stand on its mans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets
own and support a great deal of weight. The rst use of at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads
concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa some- were equal in width and length, except for two, which
time after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete was a mix- were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran
ture of lime mortar, sand with stone rubble, pozzolana, eastwest, the other, northsouth, and they intersected
water, and stones, and stronger than previously-used con- in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads
crete. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in were made of carefully tted ag stones and lled in with
wooden frames where they hardened and bonded to a fac- smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were
ing of stones or (more frequently) bricks.
constructed where needed. Each square marked o by
When the framework was removed, the new wall was very four roads was called an insula, the Roman equivalent of
strong, with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This a modern city block.

6 BUILDING TYPES

Each insula was 80 yards (73 m) square, with the land

within it divided. As the city developed, each insula would eventually be lled with buildings of various
shapes and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys. Most insulae were given to the rst settlers of a Roman city, but each person had to pay to construct his own
house.
The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from invaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland. At the end of each main
road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A portcullis
covered the opening when the city was under siege, and
additional watchtowers were constructed along the city
walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls.
The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is
relatively well-known, as there are relatively many written
sources, and there has been much attention to the subject,
since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as
the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should
not be forgotten, though, that there were also other cultures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, primarily of Celtic origin.[23] Among these, there are also
some that appear to have been newly planned, such as
the Lusatian town of Biskupin in Poland.

Roman theatre of Aspendos, Turkey

out the Roman empire; the largest could accommodate

40,00060,000 spectators, and the most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded faades and were elaborately decorated with marble, stucco and statuary.[26] After the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and
of animal killings in the sixth, most amphitheatres fell
into disrepair, and their materials were mined or recycled. Some were razed, and others converted into fortications. A few continued as convenient open meeting
places; in some of these, churches were sited.[27]

6 Building types
6.1 Amphitheatre

6.2

Basilica

Main article: Roman amphitheatre

Further information: List of Roman amphitheatres
Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the
amphitheatres, over 220 being known and many of which
are well preserved, such as that at Arles, as well as its
progenitor, the Colosseum in Rome. They were used for
gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and
bullghts, the tradition of which still survives in Spain.
Their typical shape, functions and name distinguish them
from Roman theatres, which are more or less semicircular
in shape; from the circuses (akin to hippodromes) whose
much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or
chariot racing events; and from the smaller stadia, which Northern aisle of the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome
were primarily designed for athletics and footraces.[24]
The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle
of the rst century BC, but most were built under Imperial rule, from the Augustan period (27 BC14 AD)
onwards.[25] Imperial amphitheatres were built through-

The Roman basilica was a large public building where

business or legal matters could be transacted. The rst
basilicas had no religious function at all. As early as the
time of Augustus, a public basilica for transacting busi-

6.5

Forum

ness had been part of any settlement that considered itself

a city, used in the same way as the late medieval covered
market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting
room, for lack of urban space, was set above the arcades,
however. Although their form was variable, basilicas often contained interior colonnades that divided the space,
giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with
an apse at one end (or less often at each end), where the
magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central
aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the anking
aisles, so that light could penetrate through the clerestory
windows.
The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built
in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time he
was Censor. Other early examples include the basilica at Dome of the Pantheon, inner view
Pompeii (late 2nd century BC).

6.3

Circus

The Roman circus was a large open-air venue used for

public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses
were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although
circuses served varying purposes and diered in design
and construction. Along with theatres and amphitheatres,
Circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the
time. Circuses were venues for chariot races, horse races,
and performances that commemorated important events
of the empire were performed there. For events that
involved re-enactments of naval battles, the circus was
ooded with water.
The performance space of the Roman circus was normally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of race track, separated by a median strip
running along the length of about two thirds the track,
joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the
other end with an undivided section of track closed (in
most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the
carceres, thereby creating a circuit for the races.

also churches. Half-domes also became a favoured architectural element and were adopted as apses in Christian
sacred architecture.
Monumental domes began to appear in the 1st century
BC in Rome and the provinces around the Mediterranean
Sea. Along with vaults, they gradually replaced the traditional post and lintel construction which makes use of the
column and architrave. The construction of domes was
greatly facilitated by the invention of concrete, a process
which has been termed the Roman Architectural Revolution.[29] Their enormous dimensions remained unsurpassed until the introduction of structural steel frames
in the late 19th century (see List of the worlds largest
domes).[28][30][31]

6.5 Forum

Further information: Roman Forum and List of monuments of the Roman Forum
A forum was a public square in a Roman municipium, or
any civitas, reserved primarily for the vending of goods;
i.e., a marketplace, along with the buildings used for
shops and the stoas used for open stalls. Many forums
were constructed at remote locations along a road by the
6.4 Domes
magistrate responsible for the road, in which case the forum was the only settlement at the site and had its own
Further information: List of Roman domes
[32]
The Romans were the rst builders in the history of ar- name, such as Forum Popili or Forum Livi.
chitecture to realize the potential of domes for the cre- Every city had a forum of varying size. In addition to its
ation of large and well-dened interior spaces.[28] Domes standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gatherwere introduced in a number of Roman building types ing place of great social signicance, and often the scene
such as temples, thermae, palaces, mausolea and later of diverse activities, including political discussions and

6 BUILDING TYPES
ten used to refer to granaries, Roman horrea were used to
store many other types of consumables; the giant Horrea
Galbae in Rome were used not only to store grain but also
olive oil, wine, foodstus, clothing and even marble.[34]
By the end of the imperial period, the city of Rome had
nearly 300 horrea to supply its demands.[35] The biggest
were enormous, even by modern standards; the Horrea
Galbae contained 140 rooms on the ground oor alone,
covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (21,000
m).[36]

The Roman Forum

debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. The best known example is probably in Rome, Italy,[33] and is the site of the
earliest forum of the empire.

The rst horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the
2nd century BC,[37] with the rst known public horreum
being constructed by the ill-fated tribune Gaius Gracchus
in 123 BC.[38] The word came to be applied any place
designated for the preservation of goods; thus it was often used refer to cellars (horrea subterranea), but it could
also be applied to a place where artworks were stored,[39]
or even to a library.[40] Some public horrea functioned
somewhat like banks, where valuables could be stored,
but the most important class of horrea were those where
foodstus such as grain and olive oil were stored and distributed by the state.[41]

In new Roman towns the Forum was usually located at,

or just o, the intersection of the main north-south and
east-west streets (the Cardo and Decumanus). All forums
would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and
would also contain other temples, as well as the Basilica; 6.7
a public weights and measures table, so customers at the
market could ensure they were not being sold short measures; and would often have the baths nearby.

Insula

Insula in Ostia Antica

A panoramic view of the Forum Trajanum, with the

Trajans Column on the far left.

Main article: Insula (building)

Multi-story apartment blocks called insulae catered to a

range of residential needs. The cheapest rooms were at
the top owing to the inability to escape in the event of a
A horreum was a type of public warehouse used during re and the lack of piped water. Windows were mostly
the ancient Roman period. Although the Latin term is of- small, facing the street, with iron security bars. Insulae

6.6 Horreum

6.8

Light houses

were often dangerous, unhealthy, and prone to res be- gage in other communal activities.
cause of overcrowding and haphazard cooking arrangements. There are examples in the Roman port town of
Ostia, that date back to the reign of Trajan. External 6.8 Light houses
walls were in Opus Reticulatum and interiors in Opus
Incertum, which would then be plastered and sometimes Main article: Roman lighthouse
Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean
painted.
To lighten up the small dark rooms, tenants able to aord
a degree of luxury painted colourful murals on the walls.
Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild
animals and exotic plants. Imitation windows (trompe
l'oeil) were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem
less conned.
Ancient Rome is known to have had elaborated, massive and beautiful houses and buildings. These houses
and buildings belonged to those in higher social status.
The average house of a commoner or Plebe did not contain many luxuries. There were members of the upper
class that attended to ash their wealth into their design and architecture of their house. Many Romans perceived this morally wrong and considered to be luxuria or
vice to makes people squander their money (wealth).They
showed more regard towards convenience than expense.
Domus, or single-family residences, were rare, with most
having a layout of the closed unit, consisting of one or
two rooms. Between 312 to 315 A.D. Rome had from
1781 domus and 44,850 of insulae.[42]
Insula has been the subject of great debate for historians
of Roman culture, as they argued over the various meanings of the word.[43] Insula was a word used to describe
apartment buildings, or the apartments themselves,[44]
meaning apartment, or inhabitable room, demonstrating
just how small apartments for Plebes were. Urban divisions were originally street blocks, and later began to
divide into smaller divisions, the word insula referring
to both blocks and smaller divisions. The insula contained cenacula, tabernae, storage rooms under the stairs,
and lower oor shops. Another type of housing unit
for Plebes was a cenaculum, an apartment, divided into
three individual rooms: cubiculum, exedra, and medianum . Common Roman apartments were mainly masses
of smaller and larger structures, many with narrow balconies that present mysteries as to their use, having no
doors to access them, and they lacked the excessive decoration and display of wealth that aristocrats houses contained. Luxury in houses was not common, as the life
of the average person did not consist of being in their
houses, as they instead would go to public baths, and en-

The Tower of Hercules

and the coasts of the empire, including the Tower of Hercules at A Corua in northern Spain, a structure which
survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at Dover, England also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would have been provided by a re at the
top of the structure.

6.9 Thermae
Main article: Thermae
Further information: List of Roman public baths
All Roman cities had at least one Thermae, a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weight-lifting, as well

10

6 BUILDING TYPES

as swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low
cost subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans
were often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment,
guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end of
the session, applying olive oil to their masters bodies
which was then scraped o with a strigil, a scraper made
of wood or bone. Romans did not wash with soap and
water as we do now.

vide sucient background for the actors. Eventually, it

became a part of the edice itself, made out of concrete.
The theatre itself was divided into the stage (orchestra)
and the seating section (auditorium). Vomitoria or entrances and exits were made available to the audience.[46]

depending on the region in which they were constructed.

The scaenae frons was a high back wall of the stage oor,
supported by columns. The proscaenium was a wall that
supported the front edge of the stage with ornately decorated niches o to the sides. The Hellenistic inuence is
seen through the use of the proscaenium. The Roman theatre also had a podium, which sometimes supported the
columns of the scaenae frons. The scaenae was originally
not part of the building itself, constructed only to pro-

A third type of villa provided the organizational center

of the large holdings called latifundia, that produced and
exported agricultural produce; such villas might be lacking in luxuries. By the 4th century, villa could simply
connote an agricultural holding: Jerome translated the
Gospel of Mark (xiv, 32) chorion, describing the olive
grove of Gethsemane, with villa, without an inference
that there were any dwellings there at all (Catholic Encyclopedia Gethsemane).

6.12

Villa

Further information: Villa rustica

Roman bath-houses were also provided for private villas, See also: List of Roman villas in England and List of
town houses and forts. They were normally supplied with Roman villas in Belgium
water from an adjacent river or stream, or by aqueduct.
The design of thermae is discussed by Vitruvius in De
A Roman villa was a Roman country house built for the
Architectura.
upper class during the Roman republic and the Roman
Empire. The Empire contained many kinds of villas,
not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic oors and
6.10 Temples
frescoes. In the provinces, any country house with some
decorative features in the Roman style may be called
Main article: Roman temple
a villa by modern scholars.[47] Some were pleasure
houses such as those like Hadrians Villa at Tivoli
Roman architecture was often at its most beautiful and
that were sited in the cool hills within easy reach of Rome
impressive when adapted to the needs of Roman religion.
or like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum on
The Pantheon in Rome has survived structurally intact
picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples. Some
because it has been continuously used for worship since
villas were more like the country houses of England or
it was built, over 2000 years ago. Although its interiPoland, the visible seat of power of a local magnate,
ors were altered when worship changed from paganism
such as the famous palace rediscovered at Fishbourne in
to Christianity, it is the nest and largest example of a
Sussex.
dome built in antiquity still surviving.
Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known,
such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the Campus Martius, at that time on the edge
6.11 Theatres
of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city
Roman theatres were built in all areas of the empire from walls of Pompeii. These early suburban villas, such as
medieval-day Spain, to the Middle East. Because of the the one at Romes Auditorium site[48] or at Grottarossa
Romans ability to inuence local architecture, we see nu- in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the
merous theatres around the world with uniquely Roman villa suburbana in Central Italy. It is possible that these
attributes.[45]
early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power
These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain (maybe even palaces) of regional strongmen or heads of
inherent architectural structures, with minor dierences important families (gentes).

7.2

6.13

Aqueduct

11

Watermills

Further information: List of ancient watermills

The initial invention of the watermill appears to have
occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the
wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the
rise of Hellenistic science and technology.[49][50][51] In
the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was
diversied and dierent types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical
water wheel as well as the horizontal water wheel.[52][53]
Apart from its main use in grinding our, water-power
was also applied to pounding grain,[54][55][56] crushing
ore,[57] sawing stones[58] and possibly fulling and bellows The Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain
for iron furnaces.[59]
towns, supplying public baths, latrines, fountains and private households. Waste water was removed by complex
sewage systems and released into nearby bodies of water,
keeping the towns clean and free from euent. Aque7.1 Roads
ducts also provided water for mining operations, milling,
Roman roads were vital to the maintenance and devel- farms and gardens.
opment of the Roman state, and were built from about Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, being con500 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the structed along a slight downward gradient within conduits
Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.[60] They pro- of stone, brick or concrete. Most were buried beneath the
vided ecient means for the overland movement of ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were
armies, ocials and civilians, and the inland carriage of circumvented or, less often, tunnelled through. Where
ocial communications and trade goods.[61] At the peak valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried
of Romes development, no fewer than 29 great military on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead,
highways radiated from the capital, and the Late Em- ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aquepires 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great duct systems included sedimentation tanks, sluices and
road links.[62][63] Roman road builders aimed at a reg- distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need.
ulation width (see Laws and standards above), but actual
Rome's rst aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at
widths have been measured at between 3.6 ft (1.1 m) and
the citys cattle market. By the third century AD, the city
more than 23 ft (7.0 m). Today, the concrete has worn
had eleven aqueducts, sustaining a population of over a
from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression
million in a water-extravagant economy; most of the waof a very bumpy road, but the original practice was to
ter supplied the citys many public baths. Cities and muproduce a surface that was no doubt much closer to being
nicipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this
at.
model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride, an expensive yet necessary luxury to
which all could, and did, aspire.[64]

7.2

Infrastructure

Aqueduct

Main article: Roman aqueduct

Further information: List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire
The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts in order
to bring water from distant sources into their cities and

Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable;

some were maintained into the early modern era, and a
few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are noted by Vitruvius in his work
De Architectura (1st century BC). The general Frontinus
gives more detail in his ocial report on the problems,

12

7 INFRASTRUCTURE

uses and abuses of Imperial Romes public water sup- 7.4 Canals
ply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include
the supporting piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia, and the Further information: List of Roman canals
aqueduct-fed cisterns of Constantinople.

7.3 Bridges
Main article: Roman bridge
Further information: List of Roman bridges

Roman canals were typically multi-purpose structures,

intended for irrigation, drainage, land reclamation, ood
control and navigation where feasible. Some navigational
canals were recorded by ancient geographers and are
still traceable by modern archaeology. Channels which
served the needs of urban water supply are covered at the
List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire.

7.5

Cisterns

Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the rst

large and lasting bridges built.[65] Roman bridges were Further information: List of Roman cisterns
built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure Freshwater reservoirs were commonly set up at the ter(see arch bridge). Most utilized concrete as well, which
the Romans were the rst to use for bridges.
Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular, although
a few were segmental (such as Alcontar Bridge). A segmental arch is an arch that is less than a semicircle.[66]
The advantages of the segmental arch bridge were that
it allowed great amounts of ood water to pass under
it, which would prevent the bridge from being swept
away during oods and the bridge itself could be more
lightweight. Generally, Roman bridges featured wedgeshaped primary arch stones (voussoirs) of the same in
size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and
lengthy multiple arch aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard
and Segovia Aqueduct. Their bridges featured from an
early time onwards ood openings in the piers, e.g. in the
Pons Fabricius in Rome (62 BC), one of the worlds oldest major bridges still standing. Roman engineers were
the rst and until the industrial revolution the only ones to
construct bridges with concrete, which they called Opus
caementicium. The outside was usually covered with
brick or ashlar, as in the Alcntara bridge.
The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into
bridge construction. The 330 m long Limyra Bridge
in southwestern Turkey features 26 segmental arches
with an average span-to-rise ratio of 5.3:1,[67] giving the
bridge an unusually at prole unsurpassed for more than
a millennium. Trajans bridge over the Danube featured
open-spandrel segmental arches made of wood (standing
on 40 m high concrete piers). This was to be the longest
arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall
and individual span length, while the longest extant Roman bridge is the 790 m long Puente Romano at Mrida.

The Basilica Cistern in Constantinople provided water for the

Imperial Palace.

mini of aqueducts and their branch lines, supplying urban households, agricultural estates, imperial palaces,
thermae or naval bases of the Roman navy.[68]

7.6

Dams

Further information: List of Roman dams and reservoirs

Roman dam construction began in earnest in the early imperial period.[69] For the most part, it concentrated on the
semi-arid fringe of the empire, namely the provinces of
North Africa, the Near East, and Hispania.[70] [71][72] The
relative abundance of Spanish dams below is due partly to
more intensive eld work there; for Italy only the Subiaco

8.2

Obelisks

13

Dams, created by emperor Nero (5468 AD) for recre- 8.2 Obelisks
ational purposes, are attested.[73][69] These dams are noteworthy, though, for their extraordinary height, which re- Further information: List of obelisks in Rome
mained unsurpassed anywhere in the world until the Late An obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monMiddle Ages.[69]
ument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top.
The most frequent dam types were earth- or rock-lled These were originally called tekhenu by the builders,
embankment dams and masonry gravity dams.[74] These the Ancient Egyptians. The Greeks who saw them used
served a wide array of purposes, such as irrigation, ood the Greek 'obeliskos to describe them, and this word
[92]
control, river diversion, soil-retention, or a combina- passed into Latin and then English. The Romans comtion of these functions.[75] The impermeability of Ro- missioned obelisks in an ancient Egyptian style. Examman dams was increased by the introduction of water- ples include:
proof hydraulic mortar and especially opus caementicium
in the Concrete Revolution. These materials also allowed
for bigger structures to be built,[76] like the Lake Homs
Arles, France the Arles Obelisk, in Place de la
Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to date,[77] and the
Rpublique, a 4th-century obelisk of Roman origin
sturdy Harbaqa Dam, both of which consist of a concrete
core.
Roman builders were the rst to realize the stabilizing eect of arches and buttresses, which they integrated into their dam designs. Previously unknown
dam types introduced by the Romans include archgravity dams,[72][78] arch dams,;[79][80][81] [82][83] buttress
dams,[84] and multiple-arch buttress dams.[85][86][78][87]

8
8.1

Decorative structures
Monoliths

Benevento, Italy three Roman obelisks[93][94]

Munich obelisk of Titus Sextius Africanus,
Staatliches Museum gyptischer Kunst, Kunstareal,
1st century AD, 5.80 m

Rome there are ve ancient Roman obelisks in

Rome.

8.3 Roman gardens

Further information: List of ancient Greek and Roman

Roman gardens were inuenced by Egyptian, Persian,
monoliths
and Greek gardening techniques. In Ancient Latium, a
garden was part of every farm. According to Cato the ElIn architecture, a monolith is a structure which has been der, every garden should be close to the house and should
excavated as a unit from a surrounding matrix or outcrop- have ower beds and ornamental trees.[95] Horace wrote
ping of rock.[88] Monoliths are found in all types of Ro- that during his time ower gardens became a national
man buildings. They were either: quarried without be- indulgence.[96]
ing moved; or quarried and moved; or quarried, moved Gardens were not reserved for the extremely wealthy. Exand lifted clear o the ground into their position (e.g. cavations in Pompeii show that gardens attaching to resarchitraves); or quarried, moved and erected in an upright idences were scaled down to meet the space constraints
position (e.g. columns).
of the home of the average Roman. Modied versions
Transporting was done by land or water (or a combination of both), in the later case often by special-built ships
such as obelisk carriers.[89] For lifting operations, ancient
cranes were employed since ca. 515 BC,[90] such as in the
construction of Trajans Column.[91]

of Roman garden designs were adopted in Roman settlements in Africa, Gaul, and Britannia. As town houses
were replaced by tall insula (apartment buildings), these
urban gardens were replaced by window boxes or roof
gardens.

14

8 DECORATIVE STRUCTURES

Gardens in Conimbriga, Portugal

8.4

Triumphal arch

Further information: List of Roman triumphal arches

The Arch of Titus in Rome, an early Roman imperial

triumphal arch with a single archway

Obelisco Sallustiano in front of the church of Trinit dei Monti

in Rome

Titus' triumphal procession depicted on the Arch of

Titus, showing the loot captured from Jerusalem in 81
AD
A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape
of an archway with one or more arched passageways, of-

8.5

Victory columns

ten designed to span a road. The origins of the Roman

triumphal arch are unclear. There were precursors to
the triumphal arch within the Roman world; in Italy, the
Etruscans used elaborately decorated single bay arches as
gates or portals to their cities. Surviving examples of Etruscan arches can still be seen at Perugia and Volterra.[97]
The two key elements of the triumphal arch a roundtopped arch and a square entablature had long been in
use as separate architectural elements in ancient Greece.
The innovation of the Romans was to these elements in
a single free-standing structure. The columns became
purely decorative elements on the outer face of arch,
while the entablature, liberated from its role as a building support, became the frame for the civic and religious
messages that the arch builders wished to convey.[98] Little is known about how the Romans viewed triumphal
arches. Pliny the Elder, writing in the rst century AD,
was the only ancient author to discuss them.[99] He wrote
that they were intended to elevate above the ordinary
world an image of an honoured person usually depicted
in the form of a statue with a quadriga.[99]

15
time of Trajan (AD 98-117) but remained widespread in
the provinces during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD; they
were often erected to commemorate imperial visits.[101]
The ornamentation of an arch was intended to serve as a
constant visual reminder of the triumph and triumphator.
The faade was ornamented with marble columns, and
the piers and attics with decorative cornices. Sculpted
panels depicted victories and achievements, the deeds of
the triumphator, the captured weapons of the enemy or
the triumphal procession itself. The spandrels usually
depicted ying Victories, while the attic was often inscribed with a dedicatory inscription naming and praising the triumphator. The piers and internal passageways
were also decorated with reliefs and free-standing sculptures. The vault was ornamented with coers. Some triumphal arches were surmounted by a statue or a currus
triumphalis, a group of statues depicting the emperor or
general in a quadriga.[97][101] Inscriptions on Roman triumphal arches were works of art in themselves, with very
nely cut, sometimes gilded letters. The form of each letter and the spacing between them was carefully designed
for maximum clarity and simplicity, without any decorative ourishes, emphasizing the Roman taste for restraint
and order. This conception of what later became the art
of typography remains of fundamental importance down
to the present day.[102]

The rst recorded Roman triumphal arches were set up in

the time of the Roman Republic.[100] Generals who were
granted a triumph were termed triumphators and would
erect fornices or honoric arches bearing statues to commemorate their victories.[101] Roman triumphal practices
changed signicantly at the start of the imperial period
when the rst Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that
only emperors would be granted triumphs. The triumphal 8.5 Victory columns
arch changed from being a personal monument to being
an essentially propagandistic one, serving to announce Further information: List of Roman victory columns
and promote the presence of the ruler and the laws of the
state.[97] Arches were not necessarily built as entrances,
but unlike many modern triumphal arches they were
often erected across roads and were intended to be passed 9 Signicant buildings and areas
through, not round.[102] Most Roman triumphal arches
were built during the imperial period. By the fourth cen9.1 Public buildings
tury AD there were 36 such arches in Rome, of which
three have survived the Arch of Titus (AD 81), the Arch
Baths of Trajan these were a massive thermae, a
of Septimius Severus (203-205) and the Arch of Conbathing and leisure complex, built in ancient Rome
stantine (312). Numerous arches were built elsewhere
starting from 104 AD and dedicated during the
[100]
in the Roman Empire.
The single arch was the most
Kalends of July in 109.
common, but many triple arches were also built, of which
the Triumphal Arch of Orange (circa AD 21) is the earli Baths of Diocletian in ancient Rome, these were
est surviving example. From the 2nd century AD, many
the grandest of the public baths (thermae), built by
examples of the arcus quadrifrons a square triumphal
successive emperors
arch erected over a crossroads, with arched openings on
Baths of Caracalla
all four sides were built, especially in North Africa.
Arch-building in Rome and Italy diminished after the
Colosseum

16

11

9.4

REFERENCES

Military engineering

Antonine Wall, in Scotland

Hadrians Wall
Limes Germanicus

10 See also
Outline of ancient Rome
Outline of architecture
Hadrians Wall

Trajans Column, in Rome

Circus Maximus, in Rome
Curia Hostilia (Senate House), in Rome
Domus Aurea (former building)
Pantheon
Tower of Hercules
Tropaeum Traiani
Hadrians Villa
Verona Arena, in Verona

11 References
11.1

Footnotes

[1] Chin, Kaitlin. The Pantheon. Landscape Architecture

Study Tour. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
[2] BUILDING BIG: Pantheon.
September 2014.

[3] The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete. Roman Concrete. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
[4] DeLaine 1990, p. 407.
[5] Rook 1992, pp. 18f..
[6] Gardner 2005, p. 170.

9.2 Private architecture

Alyscamps a necropolis in Arles, France, one of
the most famous necropolises of the ancient world

[7] Ward-Perkins 1956.

[8] Smith 1983, pp. 116119.
[9] Smith 1983, pp. 121123.

Domus

[10] Miller 1972.

Catacombs of Rome

[11] Hodge 1960, p. 3844.

Roman villa

[12] Ulrich 2007, pp. 148f.

[13] Beckmann 2002.

9.3 Civil engineering

[14] Beckmann 2002, p. 353356.

Roman engineering Romans are famous for their [15] Juracek 1996, p. 310.
advanced engineering accomplishments, although
[16] Peet 1911, p. 3536.
some of their own inventions were improvements on
older ideas, concepts and inventions.
[17] Walters & Birch 1905, p. 33040.
Roman watermill

PBS. Retrieved 17

[18] Morris 1972, pp. 39-41, 51-60.

11.1

Footnotes

17

[19] Kolb 1984, pp. 169-238.

[47] Ward-Perkins 2000, p. 333.

[20] Benevolo 1993, pp. 256-267.

[48] Villa Romana dell'Auditorium

[21] Harris 1989, pp. 375-392: The Etruscans were, in their

turn, probably also inuenced in this respect by Greek and
Hellenic culture.

[49] Wikander 2000a, pp. 396f..

[22] Vitrivius 1914.

[51] Wilson 2002, pp. 7f..

[23] Demandt 1998: In fact, many sites where the Romans

created towns, such as Paris, Vienna and Bratislava, had
previously been Celtic settlements of more or less urban
character.

[52] Wikander 2000a, pp. 373378.

[24] Bomgardner 2000, p. 37.

[55] Wikander 2000b, p. 403.

[25] Bomgardner 2000, p. 59.

[56] Wilson 2002, p. 16.

[26] Bomgardner 2000, p. 62.

[57] Wikander 2000b, p. 407.

[27] Bomgardner 2000, p. 201223.

[58] Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007.

[28] Rasch 1985, p. 117.

[59] Wikander 2000b, pp. 406f..

[29] Lechtman & Hobbs 1986.

[60] Forbes 1993, p. 146.

[30] Mark & Hutchinson 1986, p. 24.

[61] Kaszynski 2000, p. 9.

[31] Heinle & Schlaich 1996, p. 27.

[62] Bunson 2009, p. 195.

[32] Abbott & Johnson 1926, p. 12.

[63] O'aherty 2002, p. 2.

[33] writer873. The Roman Forum. Ancient Encyclopedia

History. Web. 3/25/2012

[64] Gagarin & Fantham 2010, p. 145.

[50] Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 11.

[53] Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, pp. 1215.

[54] Wikander 1985, p. 158.

[65] O'Connor 1993, p. 1.

[34] Richardson 1992, p. 193.
[35] Lampe 2006, p. 61.

[66] Beall, Christine (1988). Designing the segmental arch.

ebuild.com. Retrieved 8 May 2010.

[36] Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 180.

[67] O'Connor 1993, p. 126.

[37] Patrich 1996, p. 149.

[68] Dring 2002, pp. 310319.

[38] Mtreaux 1998, p. 14-15.

[69] Hodge 1992, p. 87.

[39] Pliny, Epist. VIII.18

[70] Schnitter 1978, p. 28, g. 7.

[40] Seneca, Epist. 45

[71] Hodge 1992, p. 80.

[41] Schmitz 1875, p. 618.

[72] Hodge 2000, p. 332.

[42] Hermansen 1970.

[73] Smith 1970, pp. 60f..

[43] Storey 2002.

[74] Hodge 2000, pp. 331f..

[44] Storey 2004.

[75] Hodge 1992, pp. 86f..

[45] Wilson Jones 2000.

[76] Smith 1971, p. 49.

[46] Ros 1996.

[77] Smith 1971, p. 42.

18

[78] James & Chanson 2002.

[79] Smith 1971, pp. 3335.
[80] Schnitter 1978, pp. 31f..
[81] Schnitter 1987a, p. 12.
[82] Schnitter 1987c, p. 80.
[83] Hodge 2000, p. 332, fn. 2.
[84] Schnitter 1987b, pp. 5962.
[85] Schnitter 1978, p. 29.
[86] Schnitter 1987b, pp. 60, table 1, 62.
[87] Arenillas & Castillo 2003.

11

11.2

REFERENCES

Works cited

Abbott, Frank Frost; Johnson, Allan Chester

(1926). Municipal Administration in the Roman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Arenillas, Miguel; Castillo, Juan C. (2003), Dams
from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of Design
Forms (with Appendix) extquotedbl, 1st International Congress on Construction History [20th24th
January] (Madrid)
Beckmann, Martin (2002), The 'Columnae
Coc(h)lides of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius,
Phoenix 56 (3/4): 348357, doi:10.2307/1192605,
JSTOR 1192605
Benevolo, Leonardo (1993). Die Geschichte der
Stadt. Frankfurt/Main New York: Campus-Verl.
ISBN 3-593-34906-X.

[88] Michael D. Gunther. Glossary and Index of (mostly)

Asian Art. Old Stones: The Monuments of Art History.
Retrieved 24 September 2014.

Bomgardner, David Lee (October 2000). The Story

of the Roman Amphitheatre. Routledge. ISBN 0415-16593-8.

[89] Wirsching 2000.

Coulton, J. J. (1974), Lifting in Early Greek Architecture, The Journal of Hellenic Studies 94: 119,
doi:10.2307/630416, JSTOR 630416

[90] Coulton 1974, pp. 7, 16.

[91] Lancaster 1999, pp. 419439.
[92] Baker & Baker 2001, p. 69.
[93] Museo del Sannio
[94] Three Obelisks in Benevento
[95] Semple 1929, pp. 435.

DeLaine,
Janet (1990),
Structural Experimentation:
The Lintel Arch, Corbel
and Tie in Western Roman Architecture,
World Archaeology 21 (3): 407424 (407),
doi:10.1080/00438243.1990.9980116
Peet, Stephen Denison (1911). The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal. Jameson & Morse.

[97] Zaho 2004, p. 1825.

Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002),

Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology, Anatolian Studies 52:
117, doi:10.2307/3643076, JSTOR 3643076

[98] Sullivan 2006, p. 133134.

Demandt, Alexander (1998). Die Kelten (in German). Mnchen: Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-43301-6.

[96] Semple 1929, pp. 436.

[99] Frst & Grundmann 1998, p. 43.

[100] Triumphal Arch at Encyclopdia Britannica
[101] F. B. Sear and Richard John. Triumphal arch. Grove
Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 30 Jul. 2010
[102] Honour & Fleming 2005.

Harris, W. (1989). Invisible Cities: the Beginning of Etruscan Urbanization. Atti del Secondo
Congresso Internazionale Etrusco. Roma, 1989. pp.
375392.
Gardner, Helen (2005), Gardners Art Through The
Ages: The Western Perspective, Wadsworth Publishing, p. 170, ISBN 978-0-495-00479-0

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aller Zeiten, aller Kulturen, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-42103062-6
Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-71562194-7
Hodge, A. Trevor (2000), Reservoirs and Dams,
in Wikander, rjan, Handbook of Ancient Water
Technology, Technology and Change in History 2,
Leiden: Brill, pp. 331339, ISBN 90-04-11123-9
James, Patrick; Chanson, Hubert (2002),
Historical Development of Arch Dams. From
Roman Arch Dams to Modern Concrete Designs,
Australian Civil Engineering Transactions CE43:
3956
Juracek, Judy A. (1996). Surfaces: Visual Research
for Artists, Architects, and Designers. W.W. Norton.
ISBN 978-0-393-73007-4.
Kolb, Frank (1984).
Die Stadt im Altertum.
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Hodge, A. Trevor (1960), The Woodwork of Greek
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Prehistory to the Renaissance. London: George
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19
O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4
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Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007),
A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on
a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications,
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Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), Rmische Talsperren,
Antike Welt 8 (2): 2532
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Niklaus (1987a),
Verzeichnis
geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17.
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12

Further reading

Adam, Jean-Pierre (2005). Roman Building: Materials and Techniques. Routledge. ISBN 1-13461870-0.
Fletcher, Banister (1996) [1896]. Cruickshank,
Dan, ed. Sir Banister Fletchers a History of Architecture (20th ed.). Architectural Press. ISBN 9780-7506-2267-7. Cf. Part Two, Chapter 10.

MacDonald, William Lloyd (1982). The Architecture of the Roman Empire: An introductory study 1.
Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-02819-5.

Vitruvius (1999). Rowland, Ingrid D.; Howe,

Thomas Noble, eds. Vitruvius : ten books on architecture. New York: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-00292-9.
Sear, Frank (2002). Roman Architecture. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-63578-8.
Weitzmann, Kurt (1979). Age of spirituality : late
antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
pp. 109123 and nos. 263268 350364. ISBN
978-0-87099-179-0.

13 External links
Traianus Technical investigation of Roman public
works
Housing and apartments in Rome A look at various aspects of housing in ancient Rome, apartments
and villas.
Rome Reborn A Video Tour through Ancient
Rome based on a digital model

22

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