Long Term Evolution

Part 2: Network architecture and DL

physical layer
J. Hmlinen, 2015
Department of Communications and Networking

Long Term Evolution (LTE)

1 Introduction
1.1 Requirements and targets for LTE and LTE-Advanced
1.2 Overview of LTE and LTE-Advanced
1.3 After LTE?

2 System Architecture Evolution (SAE)

3 LTE downlink physical layer
3.1 Basic principles of OFDM
3.2 Implementation of OFDM by using IFFT/FFT processing
3.3 OFDMA for LTE downlink
3.4 Modulation
3.5 Downlink reference signals

Long Term Evolution (LTE)

4 LTE uplink physical layer
5 Radio protocols, transport and physical channels
5.1 Radio protocols
5.2 Transport and physical channels

6 LTE Radio Resource Management

2 System Architecture Evolution (SAE)

Background
The general reason to start architecture evolution was the drive towards flat
Packet Switched (PS) optimized networks.
The design goals of LTE such as removal of soft handover also opened new
opportunities for an enhanced architecture design. HSPA had also indicated
that all radio functionalities can be efficiently located in the NodeB
The list of targets that shaped the architecture evolution:
optimization for PS services without need to support the circuit switched mode of
operation
optimized support for higher throughput and smaller packet delays
improvement in the response times for activation and bearer set-up
overall simplification of the system compared to the 3G cellular systems
optimized inter-working with other wireless access networks

Basic LTE system architecture

Architecture is divided into four main domains:

User Equipment (UE),
Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN),
Evolved Packet Core Network (EPC),
Services domain.

S1-U: User Plane interface

between eNB and S-GW
S1-MME: Control Plane
interface between eNB and MME
X2: Interface between eNBs
Uu: Radio Interface between UEs
and eNB
SAE GW

UE

EPC

E-UTRAN
S1-U

S-GW

P-GW

eNode B
X2

S11

PCRF

eNode B
S1-MME

MME

HSS

External networks,
operator IMS

Uu

Services

Basic LTE system architecture: Domains

Three domains: UE, E-UTRAN and EPC form the so-called Internet
Protocol (IP) Connectivity Layer. This part of the system is also called as
Evolved Packet System (EPS).
The main function of EPS is to provide IP based connectivity
All services will be offered on top of IP

Maybe the biggest architectural change is that EPC does not contain a
circuit switched domain.
Main functionalities of the EPC are equivalent to the packet switched
domain of the existing 3GPP networks.

Basic LTE system architecture: Domains

As a logical element the SAE GW is a combination of the two gateways,
Serving Gateway (S-GW) and Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW)
Since interfaces between S-GW and P-GW are defined in standards, it is
possible that S-GW and P-GW are implemented either separately or together.
E-UTRAN contains only one element type: Evolved Node B (eNode B).
All radio functionalities are controlled by eNode B. All radio related protocols
are terminated in eNode B.
E-UTRAN network is just a mesh of eNodeBs connected to neighboring
eNodeBs through the X2 interface.
Functionally eNodeB acts as a layer 2 bridge between UE and the EPC, by
being the termination point of all the radio protocols towards the UE.
From functionality point of view the UE is similar like in 3G.

UE and eNodeB
eNode B performs
Ciphering/deciphering of the User Plane data
IP header compression/decompression
Radio Resource Management (resource allocation, prioritizing, scheduling,
resource usage monitoring)

eNode B is also involved with Mobility Management (MM).

The eNode B controls and analyses radio signal measurements carried out by
the UE,
eNode B also makes signal measurements itself
Based on measurement information eNode B makes decisions to handover
UEs between cells.

Mobility Management Entity (MME) and

its functions
MME is the main control element in the EPC. It is typically a server in a
secure location in the operators premises.
MME operates only in the control plane and is not involved with the user
plane data.
MME also has a direct logical control plane connection to the UE.
Connection is a primary control channel between the UE and the network.
Main functions of MME:
Authentication and Security:
When a UE registers to the network for the first time, the MME initiates the
authentication with the aid from the Home Subscription Server (HSS)

Mobility Management Entity (MME) and

its functions
Main functions of MME (cont):
Mobility Management:
The MME keeps track of the location of all UEs in its service area. When a UE
register to the network, the MME signals the UE location to the HSS in the UEs
home network.
The MME requests the appropriate resources from eNode B and S-GW which it
selects for the UE.
The MME keep tracking the UEs location either on the level of eNode B, if the UE
remains connected or at the level of Tracking Area (TA) in case the UE goes to idle
mode. An idle UE will report its location either periodically, or when it moves to
another TA.
The MME also participates in control signaling between eNode Bs, S-GWs or
MMEs in case of handover of an active mode UE.

Managing Subscription Profile and Service Connectivity:

MME is responsible for retrieving UE subscription profile from its home network
when UE registers.

Serving Gateway (S-GW)

S-GW takes care of user plane tunnel management and switching, and
relays data between eNodeB and P-GW.
The S-GW has a small role in control functions. When bearers for UEs are
set up, cleared or modified the S-GW allocates its resources based on
requests from MME, P-GW or PCRF.

Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW)

P-GW is the edge router between the EPS and external packet data networks.
P-GW is the highest level mobility anchor in the system, and usually it acts as
the IP point of attachment for the UE.
Thus, typically the P-GW allocates the IP address to the UE, and the UE uses that to
communicate with other IP hosts in external networks, e.g. the internet.
During mobility between eNodeBs, the S-GW acts as the local mobility anchor. The
MME commands the S-GW to switch the tunnel from one eNodeB to another.

P-GW performs traffic gating and filtering functions as required by the service
in question.
Both S-GW and P-GW are part of the network infrastructure maintained
centrally in operator premises. They also provide means for lawful interception

Policy and Charging Resource Function

(PCRF), Home Subscription Server (HSS)
PCRF is the network element that is responsible for Policy and Charging
Control (PCC).
HSS is the data repository for all permanent subscription data. Hence, HSS
has the master copy of the subscriber profile

Main interfaces
X2 interface: This interface is used in mobility between the eNodeBs, and it
includes functions for handover preparation, and overall maintenance of the
relation between neighbouring eNodeBs.
X2 is especially important interface because it connects logically eNodeB to
each other and E-UTRAN is basically just a mesh of eNodeBs connected via X2.

S1-MME interface: Reference point for the control plane protocol between
E-UTRAN and MME.
S1-U interface: Reference point between E-UTRAN and Serving GW for
the user plane tunnelling and inter eNodeB path switching during handover.

3 LTE Downlink physical layer

3.1 Basic principles of OFDM

The OFDM Subcarrier spectrum

Tu = per-subcarrier modulation-symbol time
f = subcarrier spacing
1/ Tu = per-subcarrier modulation rate

Tu = 1 / f
Time domain

sin ( f / f )

f / f

2f f 0 f 2f
Frequency domain

OFDM principle
OFDM divides spectrum into large
number of tightly packed narrow
subcarriers
At the peak of each subcarrier, all
other subcarriers have amplitude zero
=> avoids subcarrier interference
In e.g. 10 MHz bandwidth there can
be 1024 subcarriers (LTE)
OFDMA has been recently adopted by
many access technologies like LTE,
WiMAX and WLAN.
OFDM is applied together with time
division multiplexing

f = 1 / Tu

OFDM: Multicarrier system with narrow

tightly packed subcarriers
Conventional multicarrier approach

OFDM

OFDM subcarriers have a frequency response resulting in overlap in the

frequency domain. This overlap does however not cause interference due to the
orthogonality of the subcarriers.

OFDM: The use of DFT/FFT

The OFDM receiver uses a time and
frequency synchronized DFT/FFT to
convert the OFDM time waveform
back into the frequency domain.
In this process the DFT/FFT picks up
discrete frequency samples,
corresponding to just the peaks of the
carriers. At these frequencies, all other
carriers pass through zero amplitude
eliminating any interference between
the subcarriers.
Even small frequency synchronization
error can be critical for OFDM

Sampling points

In the next slides we consider in more details the OFDM

implementation using IFFT/FFT processing

OFDM: frequency offset

No frequency offset (error)

OFDM: frequency offset

Frequency offset (error) that is
causing Inter Carrier Interference

3.2 Implementation of OFDM by using

IFFT/FFT processing

The digital part of the OFDM

transmission
The OFDM transmission includes the following digital
phases:
1. OFDM modulation of complex modulation symbols

Here sequence of Nc complex modulation symbols (BPSK, QPSK, QAM

symbols) are modulated to form a single OFDM symbol of length N.
During the process N-Nc zeros can be added to the original symbol
sequence.

2. Cyclic Prefix (CP) insertation

NCP last symbols of OFDM symbol are copied in front of OFDM

symbol.
After this operation the length of the OFDM symbol is N + NCP samples.

 the analog phase and impact of the

mobile channel
The analog phases of the transmission/reception chain are omitted
but the impact of mobile channel is taken into account:
x (t )
3. The OFDM symbol is converted in DAC into analog signal ~

Details are omitted

4. Analog signal is transmitted through a mobile channel.

Resulting signal is of the form

~
r (t ) = ~
x (t ) h(t ) + z (t )
where h(t) is the continuous-time impulse response, * is the
convolution operation and z(t) represents the additive noise.

5. After ADC the received OFDM signal samples are passed to the
digital part of the receiver.

 the OFDM reception

The OFDM reception includes the following digital phases:
6. Cyclic Prefix (CP) removal

Here first NCP samples are removed and remaining N samples are
passed to the OFDM demodulation.

7. OFDM demodulation

After size N FFT Last N - Nc samples are ignored. These samples are
related to zeros that were added in the OFDM modulation.
Remaining Nc complex demodulation outputs are obtained.

8. Signal equalization

Usually only one-tap equalization is needed.

OFDM transmission/reception
OFDM transmitter

Mobile channel
Noise z(t)

( m) Nc 1
n
n =0

(a )

OFDM
modulation
(IFFT)

( m) N 1
n
n =0

(x )

Cyclic
Prefix
insertion

(~x )

~
x (t )

( m) N + NCP 1
n
n =0

DAC

Channel
h(t)

~
x (t ) h(t ) + z (t )

OFDM receiver
~
r (t ) = ~
x (t ) h(t ) + z (t )

ADC

(~r )

( m) N + NCP 1
n
n =0

Cyclic
prefix
removal

( m ) N 1
n
n =0

(r )

OFDM
demod.
(FFT)

( m ) N c 1
n
n =0

(b )

OFDM modulation by using IFFT

OFDM modulation

a0( m) , a1( m) ,, aN( mc ) 1

SP

a0( m )

x0( m )

a1( m )

x1( m )

(m)
N c 1

Size N
IFFT

x N( m)1

PS

x0( m ) , x1( m ) , , x N( m)1

Insertation of the cyclic prefix

Copy and insert CP

Tu

TCP

Copy and insert CP

TCP

Tu
Cyclic Prefix (CP)

a0( m) , a1( m) ,, aN( mc ) 1

OFDM
modulation
(IFFT)

x0( m ) , x1( m ) , , x N( m)1

Cyclic
prefix
insertion

N samples
(modulation symbol time Tu)

xn( m)
xN( m)NCP ,, xN( m)1 , x0( m) ,, xN( m)1 = ~

N + NCP 1

( )

N+NCP samples
(time Tu+ TCP)

n =0

Removal of the cyclic prefix

(~r )

( m ) N + N CP 1
n
n =0

= rN( m )NCP ,, rN( m1) , r0( m) ,, rN( m1)

N+NCP samples
(time Tu+ TCP)

Cyclic
prefix
removal

( m) N 1
n
n =0

(r )

= r0( m) ,, rN( m1)

N samples
(modulation symbol time Tu)

OFDM
demod.
(FFT)

Matrix formulation of the received digital

signal 1/4
After receiver ADC and removal of the CP we can write
samples related to mth OFDM symbol in the matrix form

We note that matrix x(m) here is not in a feasible form for FFT
based demodulation.

Matrix formulation of the received digital

signal 2/4
To achieve a suitable matrix formulation we add zeros to
channel vector and columns into matrix x(m).
New columns of the matrix x(m) are permutations of the same
vector such that extended matrix is circulant and of size NxN.
Thus, we obtain equation

Now we can effectively use FFT!

OFDM demodulation by using FFT

OFDM demodulation

r0( m ) , r1( m ) , , rN( m1)

SP

r0( m )

b0( m )

r1( m )

b1( m )

( m)

rN c 1

Size N
bN( mc ) 1
FFT

rN(mc )

bN(mc )

(m)
N 1

(m)
N 1

PS

Not used

b0( m) , b1( m) ,, bN( mc ) 1

Matrix formulation of the received digital

signal 3/4
Since matrix x is circulant we can use FFT to write the
received signal in the following form:

r ( m ) = x ( m ) h ( m ) + z ( m ) = F H Dx F h ( m ) + z ( m )
where F is the Fourier transform matrix with elements

Fn ,k

1
=
N

N 1

2 j n k / N
e

k =0

and D x = diag (X 0( m ) , X 1( m ) ,, X N( m)1 ) contains the eigenvalues of

matrix x(m). We note that

X n( m)

1
=
N

N 1

( m ) 2 j nk / N
x
k e
k =0

an( m) , 0 n N c 1
=
otherwise
0,

Matrix formulation of the received digital

signal 4/4
Now, after using the FFT to vector r(m) we obtain the
formulation

b ( m) = Fr ( m) = Dx Fh ( m) + Fz ( m) = Dx H ( m) + Z( m)
where

H n( m)

1
=
N

N 1

( m ) 2 j nk / N
h
k e
k =0

1
=
N

N CP 1

( m ) 2 j nk / N
h
k e
k =0

Thus, the OFDM converts the transmission over a frequency

selective (multipath) channel into a transmission over Nc
parallel flat fading channels:

bn( m ) = H n( m ) an( m ) + Z n( m )

0 n Nc 1

Signal equalization
To equalize the output we simply multiply it by complex
conjugate of H:
(*)

( m)
n

= H

)b

( m) ( m)
n
n

=H

( m) 2
n

( m)
n

+ H

)Z

( m)
n

( m)
n

0 n Nc 1

After this scaling the output can be passed to the detector and
decoder.
This simple frequency domain representation of the received
OFDM signal simplify the receiver implementation.
Note: Channel response H n(m ) needs to be estimated before
operation (*) can be carried out.

Frequency domain OFDM signal model

Frequency domain channel

H 0( m )

Z 0( m )

a0( m )

a N( mc ) 1

H N( mc ) 1 Z N( mc ) 1

Receiver

( H 0( m ) )
b0( m )

a 0( m )

bN( mc ) 1

( H N( mc ) 1 )
a N( mc ) 1

Illustration of the frequency domain

BW=5MHz
channel response
FFT size = 512
Used subcarriers = 300
CP = 40 samples

10

Power Delay Profile:

Exponential PDP
RMS delay spread = 0.5us
Maximum delay = 4.7us

0
-5
-10
2

-15
1.8
1.6

-20

1.4

-25
-30

50

100
150
200
Number of the subcarrier

250

Power [dB]

Channel power response [dB]

1.2
1

300
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.5

1.5

2
2.5
3
Time delay [us]

3.5

4.5

3.3 OFDMA for LTE downlink

OFDM parameters for LTE

In LTE the following OFDM parameter selections has been
done:
The subcarrier spacing:
f =15kHz

The cyclic prefix length:

Normal CP = 5.2s or 4.7s (see next slide)
Extended CP = 16.7s

The number of subcarriers:

Nc depends on the used bandwidth, between 72 and 1200
The size of FFT is power of two and depends on the used
bandwidth, between 128 and 2048

On the selection of the Cyclic Prefix

length 1/2
The CP length should be longer than the maximum channel
delay spread
Channel delay spread depends on the cell size and e.g. BS antenna
height and transmission power
If CP is too short, it may limit the cell size, BS transmission power
and antenna configuration.
Effective channel impulse response

CP

OFDM symbol

TCP = NCP Ts

Tu = N Ts (=1/f )

Ts = Sampling time

On the selection of the Cyclic Prefix

length 2/2
The longer the CP the larger is the rate loss:
The relative rate loss due to CP is given by

CP = TCP /(Tu + TCP)

Due to these constraints, in LTE two CP lengths are used:
Normal CP for small and medium size cells
Extended CP for large cells and/or extreme radio environments with
long channel spreads

On the selection of the subcarrier

spacing
Constraints for the OFDM subcarrier spacing are:
The subcarrier spacing should be as small as possible. Then Tu =1/f
is large and CP overhead is small
The smaller the subcarrier spacing is, the more sensitive the system is
for frequency errors

Frequency errors can be due to

Channel Doppler spread: High mobile speed => large Doppler spread
=> intercarrier interference
Inaccurate frequency synchronization: This can result from transmitter
and receiver inaccuracies

LTE subcarrier spacing (15kHz) represent the best found

trade-off

LTE bandwidth options

Bandwidth

1.4MHz 3 MHz

5MHz

10MHz

15MHz

20MHz

Subcarriers

72

180

300

600

900

1200

FFT (DFT) size

128

256

512

1024

1536

2048

Sampling rate [MHz]

1.92

3.84

7.68

15.36

23.04

30.72

Samples per slot

960

1920

3840

7680

11520

15360

Narrowband options to
be used for refarming of
e.g. GSM bands

Compatible with
WCDMA/HSPA

High data rate

options

LTE provides very good frequency flexibility => effective

refarming of frequency bands is easier.

LTE time slot structure: Normal CP

LTE time slot: 0.5 ms, 15360 samples (20MHz bandwidth)
Slot structure for normal CP, seven OFDM symbols:
160 samples (5.2 s)
CP OFDM symbol CP OFDM symbol CP OFDM symbol

2048 samples (66.7 s)

CP OFDM symbol CP OFDM symbol

144 samples (4.7 s)

LTE baseline configuration (7 symbols/time slot)

The CP time duration for the first symbol is 5.2 us.
For other symbols the CP time duration is 4.7 us
The OFDM symbol time duration is always 66.7 us
Number of samples depends on the sampling frequency. Here sampling
frequency is 30.72MHz related to the 20MHz bandwidth

LTE time slot structure: Extended CP

LTE time slot: 0.5 ms, 15360 samples (20MHz bandwidth)
Slot structure for extended CP, six OFDM symbols:
512 samples (16.7 s)
CP

OFDM symbol

CP

OFDM symbol

2048 samples (66.7 s)

CP

OFDM symbol

CP

OFDM symbol

This configuration is used in large cells where long signal delay spreads
occur (6 symbols/time slot)
The CP time durations for all symbols are 16.7 us
The OFDM symbol time duration is always 66.7 us
Number of samples depends on the sampling frequency. Here sampling
frequency is 30.72MHz related to the 20MHz bandwidth

LTE time frame structure

LTE frame:

Contains 10 subframes of 1ms

Each subframe contains 2 time slots (0.5ms)
Time slot contains 6-7 OFDM symbols
Frame length is 10ms

LTE time-frequency structure 1/4

Resources are grouped into two dimensional Resources Blocks (RBs). A
pair of Resource Blocks is the minimum unit a scheduler can allocate.
RB contains 12 subcarriers (180kHz in total) and 7 consecutive symbols
(normal CP) or 6 symbols (extended CP)

Frequency

2*7 symbols (1ms in total)

2 RBs form a resource

block pair

12 subcarriers

Time

Here channels of 12 adjacent subcarriers are strongly correlating in frequency

and almost constant in time unless receiver moves really fast.

LTE time-frequency structure 2/4

In downlink LTE supports the so-called localized OFDMA where adjacent
symbols and subcarriers are scheduled together.
Subcarriers within RB are strongly correlated in frequency and temporal
channel changes are small during RB time duration. This decreases reference
signal overhead that is needed for channel estimation.
Distributed OFDMA was not taken into LTE specifications. There subcarriers
from different parts of the frequency spectrum could be allocated to the user.
Then, reference symbols would be needed in each subcarrier => high reference
signal overhead.

Number of resource blocks attached to a user defines the user data rate
This number varies depending on the service, data rate, scheduler buffer status
and channel conditions.

LTE time-frequency structure 3/4

52

LTE time-frequency structure 4/4

Bandwidth

1.4MHz 3 MHz

5MHz

10MHz

15MHz

20MHz

Subcarriers

72

180

300

600

900

1200

FFT (DFT) size

128

256

512

1024

1536

2048

Sampling rate [MHz]

1.92

3.84

7.68

15.36

23.04

30.72

Samples per slot

960

1920

3840

7680

11520

15360

Resource Blocks

15

25

50

75

100

Narrowband options to
be used for refarming of
e.g. GSM bands

Compatible with
WCDMA/HSPA

High data rate

options

In performance studies it is usually assumed

that 2 RBs are used for control purposes

WCDMA/HSPA vs LTE: OFDMA benefit

WCDMA/HSPA spectrum allocation dont allow wider carrier
bandwidth than 5 MHz
HSPA receiver with equalizer shows good performance at 5 MHz
When selecting 4G radio access method WCDMA for bandwidths
wider than 5MHz were investigated. However, if carrier bandwidth is
increased to e.g. 10-20MHz, then WCDMA performance suffers due to
increased multipath components and complexity of required equalizer
in the receiver grows rapidly with bandwidh.

OFDMA used in LTE is feasible for wide bandwidths

If carrier bandwidth is increased, then OFDMA time frequency
resources remain orthogonal => OFDMA gives very good scaling
property for LTE.
Even carrier bandwidths 40MHz or wider could be introduced for LTE
but it has not seen reasonable due to implementation reasons.

3.4 Modulation

LTE Modulation (DL and UL)

Available modulations for user data transmission are QPSK (2bits/symbol),
16QAM (4bits/symbol) and 64QAM (6bits/symbol)
In uplink 64QAM is not mandatory capability for UE.
When using 16QAM or 64QAM the UE applies lower TX power than in case of
using QPSK due to increased peak-to-average power ratio
BPSK is used on some control channels

3.5 Downlink reference signals

LTE downlink reference signals

Mobile radio channel is subject to multipath fading which causes InterSymbol Interference (ISI).
OFDM is robust against ISI due to use of CP. Yet, practical mobile systems
apply coherent detection where channel knowledge is exploited.
Thus, for efficient detection of information the amplitude and phase of the
complex channel should be known as accurately as possible.
Most common way to arrange the channel estimation is to use reference
signals (RS)
Reference signals carry symbols that are known for both transmitter and
receiver
Let us briefly consider LTE reference signals in more details.

LTE downlink reference signals

In LTE downlink 5 different RS types has been defined. In the following
discussion we focus on cell specific RSs while other RS types are omitted
Cell specific RSs (also called as common RSs): These RSs are available (and
the same) for all users in the cell.

In LTE reference symbols are placed in time-frequency domain in

predefined locations
Location of RSs depend on the number of TX antennas (called as antenna
ports) and CP type (normal/extended). See examples on the next slides

RSs are QPSK modulated and formed using length-31 Gold Codes
In LTE Rel8 cell specific RSs are available for up to 4 antenna ports
In 3GPP terminology antenna port can be implemented using one or more
physical antenna elements.

Cell specific reference signals: one

antenna port

Frequency

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

Time
Cell specific reference signal locations in a resource element
when using one antenna port and normal CP.

Cell specific reference signals: two

Cell specific reference signal locations in
antenna ports
resource elements when using two antenna
Antenna port 0

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

Remark:
Illustrated REs are transmitted at the same
time and frequency from separate antenna ports.

ports and normal CP.

E refers to empty RE. Use of empty REs
prevent interference towards reference
symbols
Antenna port 1

R1

R1

R1

R1

R1

R1

R1

R1

Remark: Cell specific RSs for 4 antenna ports

are omitted in this presentation

Cell specific RS design principles

Notes on cell specific RSs:
UE can use cell specific RSs to estimate the
channel.
Cell specific RS are equidistant in timefrequency domain =>
Optimal estimation of the channel in between
RSs locations

Density of RSs has been selected based on

Expected Doppler spread (terminal speed)
Channel frequency selectivity (radio
environment)

UE uses cell specific RSs also to define

Channel State Information (CSI) feedback.