Laboratory 1 : Soil Plasticity Test Liquid limit and plastic limit test

Introduction
The liquid limit (LL) is conceptually defined as the water content at which the behaviour of a
clayey soil changes from plastic to liquid. However, the transition from plastic to liquid
behaviour is gradual over a range of water contents, and the shear strength of the soil is not
actually zero at the liquid limit. The plastic limit (PL) is determined by rolling out a thread of
the fine portion of a soil on a flat, non-porous surface. The procedure is defined in ASTM
Standard D 4318. If the soil is at a moisture content where its behaviour is plastic, this thread
will retain its shape down to a very narrow diameter. The sample can then be remoulded and
the test repeated. As the moisture content falls due to evaporation, the thread will begin to
break apart at larger diameters. The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content where the
thread breaks apart at a diameter of 3.2 mm. A soil is considered non-plastic if a thread
cannot be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at any moisture.

Apparatus and procedure

Apparatus

Porcelain evaporating dishes or similar mixing dishes

Pulverizing apparatus - mortar and rubber-covered pestle.
U.S. No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve.
Spatula, about 75 mm long and approximately 19 mm wide.
Balance sensitive to 0.01 g.
Watering bottle, with distilled, demineralized or tap water.
Grooving tool and gauge
Drying oven
Desiccator

Procedure liquid limit test

1. 3/4 of the soil that is 300 grams was roughly chosen and placed it into the porcelain
dish. Assumed that the soil was previously passed through a No. 40 sieve, air-dried,
and then pulverized.
2. The soil was thoroughly mixed with a small amount of distilled water until it appears
as a smooth uniform paste. Covered the dish with cellophane to prevent moisture from
escaping.
3. Weighed four of the empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective
weights and can numbers on the data sheet.
4. The liquid limit apparatus was adjusted by checking the height of drop of the cup. The
point on the cup that comes in contact with the base should rise to a height of 10 mm.
The block on the end of the grooving tool is 10 mm high and should be used as a
gage.
5. Practiced using the cup and determined the correct rate to rotate the crank so that the
cup drops approximately two times per second.
6. Placed a portion of the previously mixed soil into the cup of the liquid limit apparatus
at the point where the cup rests on the base. Squeezed the soil down to eliminate air
pockets and spread it into the cup to a depth of about 10 mm at its deepest point. The
soil pat should form an approximately horizontal surface.
7. The grooving tool used carefully to cut a clean straight groove down the centre of the
cup. The tool should remain perpendicular to the surface of the cup as groove is being
made. Use extreme care to prevent sliding the soil relative to the surface of the cup.
8. Determined that the base of the apparatus below the cup and the underside of the cup
is clean of soil.
9. The crank of the apparatus at a rate of approximately turned two drops per second and
counted the number of drops, it takes to make the two halves of the soil pat come into
contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm.
10. A sample was taken using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil pat. The sample
included the soil on both sides of where the groove came into contact.
11. Placed the soil into a moisture can and covered it. Immediately weighed the moisture
can containing the soil, recorded its mass, removed the lid, and placed the can into the
oven.
12. Leaved the moisture can in the oven for at least 24 hours. Placed the soil remaining in
the cup into the porcelain dish. The cup on the apparatus and the grooving tool was
cleaned and dried.
13. Mixed the entire soil specimen in the porcelain dish. Added a small amount of
distilled water to increase the water content so that the number of drops required to
closed the groove decrease.

14. Steps six, seven, and eight repeated for at least two additional trials producing
successively lower numbers of drops to close the groove.

Procedure for plastic limit test

1. The remaining empty moisture cans was weighed with their lids, and recorded the
respective weights and can numbers on the data sheet.
2. A sample of about 20g is taken from the soil paste prepared and placed on the glass
plate.
3. Added distilled water until the soil is at a consistency where it can be rolled without
sticking to the hands.
4. The soil formed into an ellipsoidal mass. The mass rolled between the palm and the
glass plate. Sufficient pressure used to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter.
5. Once the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, the thread was broke
into several pieces. The pieces reformed and kneaded into ellipsoidal masses and rerolled. The process continued.
6. The portions of the crumbled thread gathered together and the soil placed into a
moisture can then covered. Moisture contained soil weighed and the mass was

recorded. The lid removed and placed into the oven. The moisture leaved in the oven
for 24 hours.
7. Same step repeated few times. The water contained from each trial was determined by
using same method in the laboratory.

Readings and calculations

Test

M1

M2

M3

Penetration

Moisture

grams

grams

grams

content/

17

25

21.0

74

%
100.00

17

28

23.0

194

69.23

17

29

25.5

311

41.20

17

33

30.0

379

23.08

M1=mass of empty container

M2= Mass of container + wet soil
M3 = Mass of container + dry soil

moisturecontain

84
100%
4

Test1

wetsoil drysoil
100%
drysoil

Test 2

11 6
100%
8

100

Test 3

69.23
=

12 8.5
100%
8.5

Test 4

41.20

16 13
100%
13
23.08

Plastic Limit
averageofmoisturecontent

100 37.5 33.33 23.08

4
48.48

Comparison and discussion of results

The importance of the liquid limit test is to classify soils. Different soils have varying liquid
limits. Also to find the plasticity index of a soil you need to know the liquid limit and the
plastic limit. The values of these limits are used in a number of ways. There is also a close
relationship between the limits and properties of a soil such as compressibility, permeability,
and strength. This is thought to be very useful because as limit determination is relatively
simple, it is more difficult to determine these other properties. Different types of clays have

different specific surface areas which controls how much wetting is required to move a soil
from one phase to another such as across the liquid limit or the plastic limit. From this
activity, it can predict the dominant clay type present in a soil sample. High activity signifies
large volume change when wetted and large shrinkage when dried. Soils with high activity
are very reactive chemically. Normally the activity of clay is between 0.75 and 1.25, and in
this range clay is called normal. It is assumed that the plasticity index is approximately equal
to the clay fraction (A = 1). When A is less than 0.75, it is considered inactive. When it is
greater than 1.25, it is considered active.

Conclusions
The conclusion is, another method for measuring the liquid limit is the fall cone test. It is
based on the measurement of penetration into the soil of a standardized cone of specific mass.
The importance of the liquid limit test is to classify soils. Different soils have varying liquid
limits. Also to find the plasticity index of a soil need to know the liquid limit and the plastic
limit.

Laboratory 2 : Soil Compaction Test Standard Proctor Test

Introduction
Soil compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed together, reducing pore space between
them. Heavily compacted soils contain few large pores and have a reduced rate of both water
infiltration and drainage from the compacted layer. This occurs because large pores are the
most effective in moving water through the soil when it is saturated. Finally, while soil
compaction increases soil strength-the ability of soil to resist being moved by an applied
force-a compacted soil also means that roots must exert greater force to penetrate the
compacted layer. The Proctor compaction test is a laboratory method of experimentally
determining the optimal moisture content at which a given soil type will become most dense
and achieve its maximum dry density. The term Proctor is in honour of R. R. Proctor, who in
8

1933 showed that the dry density of a soil for a given compactive effort depends on the
amount of water the soil contains during soil compaction.

Apparatus and procedure

Apparatus

Compaction mold
No. 4 U.S sieve
Standard Proctor hammer
Balance sensitive up to 0.01 gram
Balance sensitive up to o.1 gram
Large flat pan
Jack
Steel straight edge
Moisture cans
Drying oven
Bottle with water

Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.

10 lb of air dried soil obtained and the soil lumps was broke.
The soil sieved on a No.4 U.S sieve.
All the minus 4 sieve materials about 6 lb was collected in a large pan.
Water added to the minus 4 sieved materials and mixed thoroughly to bring moisture

content to about 5%.

5. Proctor mould and base plate weight was determined. The extension to the top of the
mould attached.
6. Moist soil poured into three layers. Each layers compacted uniformly with the
Standard Proctor hammer 25 times for each additional layer of loose soil is poured.
7. At the end of the each layer compaction, the soil extended slightly above the top of
the rim of the compaction mould.
8. The extension removed carefully and excess soil trimmed with a straight edge.
9. The weight of the Proctor Mould, base plat and compacted moist soil weighed.
10. Base plate removed from the mould. The compacted moist soil extruded using a jack.
11. A moisture can were weighed. From the moist soil extruded in previous step, a moist
sample collected in the weighed moisture can. Weight of moisture can and soil
determined together.
12. Moisture can with soil in the oven placed to dry to a constant weight.
13. The rest of the soil cylinder broke by hand and mixed with the left over moist soil.
More water added mixed to raise moisture content by 2%.
9

14. Step 6 to 11 repeated. The weight of the mould, base plate and moist soil first
increased with the increase in moisture content and then decreased. The test continued
until at least two successive decreased readings are obtained.
15. After 24 hours, the mass of the moisture can and soil sample determined together.

10

11

Readings and calculations

12

Test
w 1 (g)

1
1074.6

2
1074.6

3
1074.6

W 2 (g)

3062.4

3423.4

3920.7

W 3 (g)

30.0

30.0

30.0

W 4 (g)

45.2

46.3

46.2

W 5 (g)

37.2

38.1

39.2

Water content ,w

1.11

1.01

0.76

(%)
d

0.374

0.443

0.537

mw md
100%
md

unitweight , d

weightofcompactedsoil
( w2 w1 )
volumeofmould

1 w

Comparison and discussion of results

From the graph, we know that the Optimum unit dry weight is 0.533 and the Optimum water
content is 0.766. This laboratory tests generally consist of compacting soil at known moisture
content into a cylindrical mould of standard dimensions using a comp active effort of
controlled magnitude. The soil is usually compacted into the mould to a certain amount of
equal layers, each receiving a number blows from a standard weighted hammer at a specified
height. This process is then repeated for various moisture contents and the dry densities are
determined for each. The graphical relationship of the dry density to moisture content is then
plotted to establish the compaction curve. The maximum dry density is finally obtained from
the peak point of the compaction curve and its corresponding moisture content, also known as
the optimal moisture content.

13

Conclusion
Compaction is the process by which the bulk density of an aggregate of matter is increased by
driving out air. For any soil, for a given amount of comp active effort, the density obtained
depends on the moisture content. At very high moisture contents, the maximum dry density is
achieved when the soil is compacted to nearly saturation, where (almost) all the air is driven
out. At low moisture contents, the soil particles interfere with each other; addition of some
moisture will allow greater bulk densities, with a peak density where this effect begins to be
counteracted by the saturation of the soil. Generally there are 13 steps on doing compaction
based on Malaysias methods and technologies. These steps must be carried out
professionally according to the highest specifications and international standards that
available without compromise. Developers, consultants, local authorities and the contractor
must aware the bad consequences that probably happen if neglecting any aspect in the
process and should be responsible to the scope of works that delegated to them by the users.

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Laboratory 3 : Permeability and Seepage Constant Head Test & Seepage Physical Model

Introduction
Permeability is a measure of the ease in which water can flow through a soil volume. It is
one of the most important geotechnical parameters. However, it is probably the most
difficult parameter to determine. The constant head permeability test involves flow of water
through a column of cylindrical soil sample under the constant pressure difference. The soil
sample has a cylindrical form with its diameter being large enough in order to be
representative of the tested soil. The usual size of the cell often used for testing common
sands is 75 mm diameter and 260 mm height between perforated plates. The testing apparatus
is equipped with an adjustable constant head reservoir and an outlet reservoir which allows
maintaining a constant head during the test.
Apparatus and procedure
Apparatus

Permeameter
Tamper
Balance
Scoop
1000 ml graduated cylinders
Stopwatch
Thermometer
Filter paper

15

Procedure
1. Initial mass of the pan along with the dry soil measured.
2. The cap and upper chamber of the permeameter removed by unscrewing the knurled
cap nuts and lifted them off the tie rods.
3. The inside diameter of upper and lower chambers are measured. The average inside
4.

diameter of the permeameter calculated.

One porous stone on the inner support ring in the base of the chamber placed then a

filter paper placed on the top of the porous stone.

5. The soil mixed with a sufficient quantity of distilled water to prevent the segregation
of particle sizes during placement into the permeameter. Enough water should be
added so that the mixture may flow freely.
6. A scoop used to pour the prepared soil into the lower chamber using a circular motion
to fill it to a depth of 1.5cm. A uniform layer formed.
7. The tamping device used to compact the layer of soil. Approximately ten rams of per
layer tamped and uniform coverage of the soil surface provided. The compaction
procedure repeated until the soil is within 2cm of the top of the lower chamber
section.
8. The upper chamber section released. The placement operation continued until the
level of the soil is about 2cm. The top surface of the soil levelled and a filter paper
placed then upper porous stone keep on it.
9. The compression spring placed on the porous stone and the chamber cap and its
sealing gasket replaced. The cap firmly secured with the cap nuts.
10. The sample length at four locations measured around the circumference of the
permeameter and the average length computed.
11. The pan with remaining soil kept in the drying oven.
12. Funnel level adjusted to allow the constant water level in it to remain a few inches
above the top of the soil.
13. Flexible tube connected from the tail of the funnel to the bottom outlet of the
permeameter and the valves on the top of the permeameter kept opened.
14. Tubing placed from the top outlet to the sink to collect any water that come out.
15. Bottom valve opened and the water allowed to flow into the permeameter.
16. Once the water start to flow out of the top control valve, then the control valve closed.
Water flow let out of the outlet for some time.
17. The bottom outlet valve closed and disconnected from the tubing at the bottom. Then
funnel tubing connected to the tubing from the top side port.
18. The bottom outlet valve opened and raised the funnel to a convenient height to get a
reasonable steady flow of water.
19. Adequate allowed time for the flow pattern to stabilize.

16

20. The time it takes to fill a volume of 750ml 1000ml measured using the graduated
cylinder and measured the temperature of the water. This process repeated three times
and the average time, average volume, and average temperature computed.
21. The vertical distance between the funnel head level and the chamber outflow level
measured and levelled. The distance recorded as h.
22. Step 18 and 19 repeated with different vertical distances.
23. The pan removed from drying oven and the final mass of the pan measured along with
the dry soil.

17

18

Calculations and readings

Initial dry mass of soil + pan = 1675.0g
Length of soil specimen, L = 17 cm
19

Diameter of the soil specimen, D = 6.4 cm

Final dry mass soil + Pan = 865.6g
Dry mass soil specimen = 809. 4g
Volume of the soil specimen = 846.9 cm3
Dry density of soil = 1.48g/cm3

Trial

Constant

Elapsed

Outflow

Water

number

head,h (cm)

time,t(s)

temp,T

1
2
3
4

30
50
60
70

84
55
48
38

volume,Q
(cm3)
750
750
750
750

Kt

QL
Ath

Kt(cm/sec)

K20
(cm/sec)

0.157
0.144
0.137
0.149

0.149
0.137
0.130
0.142

22
22
22
22
A

2
D
4

(6.4) 2
4

32.17cm 2

Kt

750 17
32.17 8.4 30

0.157cm / sec

0.00958

0.01005

K 20 (0.157)

0.149

g
.s
cm

Comparisons and discussions

The K value is 0.149 g/cm.s. The system proposed in this study is a constant head
permeameter. The measuring procedure of the method is almost same with the laboratory
20

constant-head test except the driving force to flow water through column filled with porous
materials. Water flow through the column in laboratory constant head test is driven by
gravity, while in the proposed permeameter by the induced hydraulic head difference between
the upper end and the lower end of the chamber. The hydraulic pressure distribution in the
chamber of the proposed permeameter can be finely controlled by adjusting the elevation of
the cylinder inlet to be placed at a lower position than the hydraulic head in the chamber. This
improves the accuracy of measurement of flow rate and hydraulic gradient with the
permeameter.
Conclusion
The new CP module enables K testing at low permeability geological material for various
applications, including measurements that would otherwise not possible. Instrumentation
developments that are currently in progress will enable real time monitoring of several
parameters including moisture content. Current research includes solute transport modelling
to evaluate the effect different influent chemical compositions have on the hydraulics
properties of different aquitard materials.

Comments on health and safety

Must use hand glove made of cloth because the oven knob become hot too once

switched on.
Use safety shoes when handling or conducting proctor compaction test because the

hammer is would injure legs.

Beware of slippery floor.
Should wear mask to avoid dust.

References

21

Prakash, K. and Sridharan, A. (2014). "Discussion of Atterberg Limits and Remolded

Shear StrengthWater Content Relationships." Geotechnical Testing Journal,
10.1520/GTJ20140008, 20140008.
http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131%3A3(402)

Seed, H.B. (1967). "Fundamental Aspects of the Atterberg Limits". Journal of Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Div., 92(SM4), Retrieved
from http://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=38900

Landon M. K., Rus D. L. & Harvey F. E. Comparison of instream methods for

measuring hydraulic conductivity in sandy streambeds. Ground Water 39, 870885
(2001).

Day, Robert W. (2001). Soil Testing Manual: Procedures, Classification Data, and
Sampling Practices. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. pp. 293312.

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