A summary of

Clause as message
by Halliday M. A. K.
3.1 Theme and Rheme
A clause is a unit in which three meanings are combined to produce a single wording. We'll start
looking at them by the meaning that gives the clause its message character: thematic structure. In
all languages clauses constitute messages and make themselves recognizable as such by granting a
distinct status to the thematic structure. In English this is achieved through word order: it is placed
first and, following the terminology of the Prague School, we call it Theme. It is the starting point
for messages, and the rest of the message is used to develop it, this is what we call Rheme. A
clause, therefore, consists of Theme and Rheme.
Themes set the scene for the clause and position it in relation to the text. The speaker, then, selects
the desired Theme depending on his or her preference (+ indicates the boundary between Theme
and Rheme):

The duke + has given my aunt that teapot

My aunt + has been given that teapot by the duke
That teapot + the duke has given to my aunt

Of course, a Theme must not necessarily consist of a nominal group. As a kick-off, we may say the
Theme is the first group with a function in the structure of the clause, and that the most common
one is that of a participant realized by a nominal group. Sometimes these are focused on by
announcing them with a formula like with regard to, as for, or about... Themes may also be marked
through intonation when theyre realized by adverbial groups, or when the nominal group is not the
object, or any time when word order is unexpected.
3.2 Group or phrase complexes as Theme; thematic equatives
So far we made two assumptions: themes consist of only one structural element, and that element is
represented by just one unit or group. Actually, structural elements can be formed with a complex
of two or more groups like:

The Walrus and the Carpenter + were walking close at hand

On the ground or in the air + small creatures live and breathe

Still, these Themes are simple because they constitute a single element in the clause.
There is a special thematic resource whereby different structures are grouped into one Theme +
Rheme structure: thematic equatives. In these, all elements of the clause are grouped into two
constituents, linked by an 'equals sign' realized by verb be:

What the duke gave to my aunt |was,=| that teapot

The one who gave my aunt that teapot |was,=| the duke

The first example represents the feature of nominalization, a group of elements is made to function
as a nominal group in the clause. In the examples, nominalizations act as Themes. As usual in
language, there is also a marked form in which nominalization goes last and becomes Rheme:

That |is,=| the one I like

A thematic equative (or pseudo-cleft) is a clause with a thematic nominalization in it, and expresses
the Theme-Rheme structure so as the Theme can consist of any set of elements. It identifies
(specifies) what the Theme is and identifies (equates) it with the Rheme.
3.3 Theme and mood
Mood determines the elements typically chosen as Theme in English clauses. Clauses can be
imperative or indicative in mood; the latter can be declarative or interrogative, and these yes/nointerrogatives or WH-interrogatives.
3.3.1 Theme in declarative clauses
The typical pattern is a Theme = Subject structure: the unmarked Theme. Most often this is realized
by personal pronoun I; then come the rest of pronouns you, we, he, she, it and they; the most usual
after that are impersonal pronouns it and there; last come other nominal groups with common or
proper nouns as head, and nominalizations.
A Theme which is not subject we call marked Theme: adverbial groups, prepositional phrases
(Today, at night...) or any elements functioning as Adjunct. The most marked Theme in
declaratives is a Complement: a nominal element which could have, but has not, been selected as
subject, and that has been foregrounded to Theme position:

This responsibility we accept wholly

That I could do without

A special case of thematic structure is that of exclamatives, they normally have a WH-element as
Theme:

How dreadful she sounds!

3.3.2 Theme in interrogative clauses

The typical function of interrogatives is requesting information, either through the indication of
polarity 'yes/no', or expecting the hearer to come back with some piece of information depending
on the thematic element chosen: who means the speaker expects to hear a person's name, when a
point in time, and so on. This mechanism has become part of the English language system:

Who + wants a glass of white wine?

Where + did you get that from?

3.3.3 Theme in imperative clauses

The basic meaning of imperatives is giving commands or advice. The subject can be made explicit,
but since that is not usual, doing so would render a marked sentence; curiously enough, the
predicator is here the unmarked Theme:

You + keep quiet! (marked)

As for you + keep quiet! (marked)
Keep + quiet! (marked)

In negative imperatives, the unmarked element is don't plus any element, and expressing a subject
renders a marked form:

Don't argue + with me (u)

Don't you + argue with me (m)

Imperatives are the only type of clause where the predicator is regularly the unmarked Theme.
Mood of clause | Typical 'unmarked' Theme
declarative | nominal group functioning as subject
interrogative 'yes/no' | 1st word of verbal group and nominal group as subject
interrogative 'WH-' | interrogative wh-element
imperative 'you' | predicator and preceding don't if negative
imperative 'you and me' | let's d preceding don't if negative
exclamative | nominal or adverbial group functioning as exclamative wh-element
If other element comes first, we are making a marked choice of Theme. In these cases the speaker
may want to express some kind of special setting for the clause or provide it with a feature of
contrast.
3.4 Textual, interpersonal and topical themes
The clause construes an expression of human experience: processes, participants and
circumstances. Themes contain one and only one of these elements, so the Theme of a clause ends
with the first constituent belonging to those categories, which is called topical Theme. There may
be other elements in the clause preceding the topical Theme which, in any case, play no
experiential role, and normally no more than one or two of them occur. To illustrate multiple
themes with several elements well use an example:
well but then surely Jean wouldnt the best idea be to join in.
1. Well, textual, continuative. Signals a move in discourse or a transition in the same speakers
turn.
2. but, textual, conjunction. Links or subordinates two clauses.
3. then, textual, conjunctive Adjunct. Adverbial or Prepositional groups that relate the clause
to previous text.
4. surely, interpersonal, modal comment Adjunct. Expressions of the speakers judgment on
the content of the message.
5. Jean, interpersonal, vocative. Typically personal names used to address.
6. wouldnt, interpersonal, Finite verbal operator. Auxiliary verbs that construe tense and
modality; also typical unmarked Themes of yes/no interrogatives.
Among these categories, the first two are inherently thematic and, if they appear, they do so at the
beginning of the clause. The rest can appear in any position. All these elements are typically
thematic because thats the natural way to express ideas. If the speaker wants to establish the clause
in a setting (textual function) or explain his attitude to it (interpersonal), such expressions are the
natural way to set up the expression: let me tell you how this fits in or let me tell you what I
think about this. The variations in word order inside clauses can be accounted for the following
way:

Initial position in the English clause is meaningful: it has a Thematic function.

Certain textual elements orient the caluse logically or rhetorically; they are inherently
thematic.
Other textual and interpersonal elements are used to relate semantically the clause with
preceding text or to express the speakers angle; they are characteristically thematic.
Another characteristically thematic category is wh-elements (also in subordinates); they
are definite or indefinite (what/whatever; where/wherever)

All deictic elements are typically thematic; this also applies to groups. The Theme-Rheme structure
is not a clearly cut configuration of constituents, but a movement running through the clause.
Another feature which creates clearer boundaries between constituents is that of information.
3.5 The information unit: Given and New
Textual resources to create discourse are of two kinds: structural and cohesive. Grammar provides
structural units up to the rank of the clause complex. From there on semantics provides other nonstructural resources for creating links that work equally within or across sentences. These are called
collectively cohesion.
Among structural means we have two systems working: Theme, which construes messages in the
form of Theme + Rheme; and Information, which does not belong to the clause but to the
information unit, a unit parallel to the clause and the rest of its rank scale. Since it is parallel, it is
length-variable and may extend over more than one or less than one clause; in unmarked cases, it is
co-extensive.
Information is the tension between what is already known or predictable and what is new or
unpredictable. Therefore, the information unit is made up of two functions: the New and the Given.
In the idealized form, each unit consists of a Given element followed by a New one, but discourse
has to start somewhere, so sometimes we have initiating elements that are completely New. Also,
Given elements tend to be phoric, i.e.: they point to some other element in discourse. So basically
information units have a New element plus an optional Given one. This structure is realized
naturally, i.e. non-arbitrarily:

Each information unit is realized as a tone which may be falling, rising or mixed, and
extends over the whole tone group. In this tone group, a foot carries the main pitch
movement, which is known as tonic prominence, a feature that marks the information
focus.

The tonic foot defines the culmination of what is New, the end of the New element.
Typically, this is the last functional element of the clause, therefore common units are
ordered as Given + New.

The unmarked position for New is at the end of the unit, but we may also find Given after the tonic
foot, a case that would be called marked information focus.
A number of elements in language is inherently Given, such as anaphoric and deictic elements,
which can only be retrieved from the situation where they appear. They dont normally carry
information focus, and when they do, it is contrastive:

You can go if you like // Im not going

3.6 Given + New and Theme + Rheme

Both the Information and Thematic systems are semantically very closely related. When they are
unmarked, the units of both systems are co-extensive with each other, i.e.: the Theme corresponds
with Given information and the Rheme with New information. Even though they are related, these
systems are not the same thing: the Theme is what the speaker chooses as point of departure,
whereas Given is what the hearer knows or has available. Theme + Rheme is speaker-oriented and
Given + New is hearer-oriented. Both are, in any case, speaker-selected, which means the speaker
relies on a rich verbal and non-verbal environment upon which he or she builds up what is to
follow, and this often leads away from the univocal one-to-one relationship of Theme/Given +
Rheme/New.
3.7 Predicated Themes
Theme predication is a special case of organization of the clause as a message because it involves
choices regarding both thematic and informational systems. Any element with a representational
function in the clause can be marked off by predication:

It was Jane that started it

It wasnt the job that was getting me down
It was eight years ago that you gave up smoking

This system identifies one element as exclusive at a point in the clause. Basically it relies on
equatives, but it features some differences as well. The cost of marking parts of the clause is that
they become strongly foregrounded information. The mapping of New and Theme gives predicated
themes this special flavor. Since tonicity is not reflected in writing, predication also helps to make
better interpretations; compare the following:

Johns father wanted him to give up the violin. His teacher persuaded him to continue.
Johns father wanted him to give up the violin. It was his teacher who persuaded him to
continue.

3.8 Theme in bound, minor and elliptical clauses

Although we have considered free clauses so far, thematic structure also has its place in dependent
structures, only the speaker has less freedom to choose Theme. In the case of subordinate clauses
and even more so in interrogatives, occurrences of Themes are predetermined. However, if the
Theme is fixed by grammar, the next item retains some thematic flavor. Consider If winter
comes. This clause shows an obligatory, fixed Theme, thus winter can be considered the topical
Theme. The significance of these patterns is remarkable because theyre a key to the development
of a text. And though main contributions come from free clauses, others need to be taken account
of.
3.8.1Dependent bound clauses

Finite. Their structural Theme is typically a conjunction followed by a topical Theme:

[I asked] whether / pigs // have wings
[He left] because / his work // was done

If the bound clause begins with a WH-element, it constitutes the topical Theme because it has a
function in the transitivity structure:

[I asked] why / pigs // have no wings

Non-finite. The scheme may be similar to finite clauses, but many have no structural nor
topical Theme, in which case they feature only Rheme:

For / that printer // to work off you machine

// to avoid delay

3.8.2 Embedded bound clauses

They function inside nominal groups (for example as defining relatives) and their thematic structure
equals that of dependent clauses, so that their contribution to discourse is minimal:

The day the dam broke

3.8.3 Minor clauses

They have no mood nor transitivity structure and are typically calls or greetings:

Mary!
Good night! Their thematic structure is .

3.8.4 Elliptical clauses

Anaphoric ellipsis. Here part of the clause is presupposed from previous utterances,
therefore theyre similar to minor clauses:
Yes.
No.
Of course.

Exophoric ellipsis. Here theres no presupposition from previous material, but from the
situation. They have a thematic structure, but it consists of Rheme only:

Thirsty? Are you thirsty?

Example text and commentary.

http://perso.wanadoo.es/filol