The University of Hong Kong

Department of Civil Engineering

Theory and Design of Structures I
Deflections

Deflection of Beams

Consider a segment of a beam subjected to bending moment M. Assume that

1. The beam is prismatic, initially straight and has an axial plane of symmetry which is taken
as the x-y plane.
2. The material is homogeneous and obeys Hooke’s Law (i.e. it is linearly elastic and its
modulus of elasticity E in tension is the same as that in compression).
3. Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending.

As a result of deformation, fibres on the concave side are shortened slightly (because of
compression) while those on the convex side are elongated slightly (because of tension).
Somewhere between the top and bottom of the beam section, there is a layer of fibres, which
remains unchanged in length. That is called the neutral surface. Its intersection with any
cross-section is called the neutral axis of that section.

dθ
R Compression

M M x σ
dx
y dA y Tension
(a) Beam segment under (b) Beam section (c) Bending stress
pure bending
Figure 1. Beam under pure bending

Consider two adjacent cross-sections at a small distance dx apart. Before bending, they are
parallel to each other, but after bending they intersect at o and the angle between them is
denoted by dθ.

Let R = radius of curvature of the neutral surface

Then dθ = dx / R

At a depth y from the neutral axis,

the strain is ε = (y⋅dθ) / dx = y / R;

the stress is σ = E⋅ε = E⋅y / R;
the force on a small area dA is σ dA = (E/R)⋅y⋅dA

Since there must be no resultant normal force on the section under pure bending,

∫ σ dA = (E/R) ∫ y dA = A y = 0

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Therefore y must be equal to 0. Thus the neutral axis of a section in pure bending passes
through the centroid.

The moment of the elemental force about the neutral axis of the section is

dM = (σ dA) y

The total moment on the section is therefore

M = ∫ σ y dA = ∫ (E/R) y2 dA = (E/R) ∫ y2 dA

The integral ∫ y2 dA is the second moment of area of the section and is denoted by I.

M = (E/R) I or 1/R = M / (EI) = dθ/dx and hence σ = (M y) / I

For a symmetrical prismatic beam bent by transverse loads acting in a plane of symmetry, it
can be shown that the curvature of the neutral surface is given by

1 / R = M / EI

at each cross-section. Thus, the curvature 1/R is seen to vary along the beam as the bending
moment varies.

Consider any segment ds of the deflection curve (or elastic line). One has

ds =R dθ or

dθ 1
=
ds R

If the deflection is relatively small,

ds ≈ dx

dy
θ≈ and
dx

1 d2y
≈
R dx 2

Taking the sign convention and the direction of the coordinate axes into consideration, we get
the differential equation of the elastic line as

d2y M
2
=– or
dx EI

d2y
EI =–M
dx 2

2
By integrating once, we get dy/dx along the beam, i.e. the slope of the deflection curve. By
integrating twice, we get y along the beam, i.e. the shape of the deflection curve.

By differentiating with respect to x,

L
EI (d3y/dx3) = – dM/dx = – V (shear) P
x
EI (d4y/dx4) = – dV/dx = w (load/m)

w
y (a) Beam and loading
V
M + dM
x -PL
M

dx M
V + dV (b) Bending moment diagram

Figure 2. An element of a beam Figure 3. Cantilever under point load at tip

Double Integration Method

Example 1
Consider the prismatic cantilever under a point load at tip as shown in Figure 3.

At x, Mx = – P (L – x)

EI (d2y/dx2) = – Mx = P (L – x)

Integrating, EI (dy/dx) = PLx – Px2 / 2 + c1

From the boundary conditions at the clamped end, i.e. x = 0, dy/dx = 0,

c1 = 0

Integrating again, EI y = PLx2/2 – Px3/6 + c2

From the boundary condition at clamped end, i.e. x = 0, y = 0,

c2 = 0

Therefore the equations for the deflection curve and its slope are

y = (Px2 / 2EI) (L – x/3) and

θ = dy/dx = (Px / EI) (L – x/2) respectively.

At the free end x = L,

y = PL3/3EI and θ = PL2 / 2EI

3
Macaulay’s Method

In applying the Double Integration Method, normally a separate expression for bending
moment must be written for each section of the beam between adjacent concentrated loads or
reactions, each producing a different equation with its own constants of integration. The
Macaulay’s Method enables one continuous expression for bending moment to be obtained,
and provided that certain rules are followed, the constants of integration will be the same for all
sections of the beam. In this method, an expression within square brackets will be omitted if it
is evaluated to be negative.

Example 2 4 kN 10 kN
A simply supported beam of span 20 m carries 8m 4m
two point loads of 4 kN at 8 m and 10 kN at 12
B x
m from the left end. Calculate the deflection A
under each point load. Take E = 200000 N/mm2
and I = 109 mm4. y 20 m

Figure 4. A simply supported beam under

Reaction at A = (4 × 12 + 10 × 8) / 20 = 6.4 kN two point loads

– EI (d2y/dx2) = Mx
= 6.4 x – 4 [x – 8] – 10 [x – 12]

Integrating – EI (dy/dx) = 3.2 x2 – 2 [x – 8]2 – 5 [x –12]2 + A

Integrating again – EI y = (3.2/3) x3 – (2/3) [x – 8]3 – (5/3) [x –12]3 + Ax + B

When x = 0, y = 0, ∴B=0

When x = 20, y = (3.2/3) (20)3 – (2/3) (12)3 – (5/3) (8)3 + A (20) = 0

giving A = – (3.2/3) (20)2 + (2/3) (12)3 / 20 + (5/3) (8)3 / 20 = – 326.4 kN/m2

Deflection under the 4 kN point load (x = 8 m):

– EI y = (3.2/3) (8)3 + (– 326.4) (8) = – 2065 kNm3

y = (2065 × 103× 109) / (200000 × 109) = 10.3 mm (downwards)

Deflection under the 10 kN point load (x = 12 m):

– EI y = (3.2/3) (12)3 – (2/3) (4)3 + (– 326.4) (12) = – 2116 kNm3

y = (2116 × 103× 109) / (200000 × 109) = 10.6 mm (downwards)

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Moment-area Method Bending moment diagram
M

Figure 5 shows the bending moment

diagram and the shape of the deflected beam x

between two arbitrary points P and Q. The x

O
area of the bending moment diagram P Q
between P and Q is A, and its centroid is at a Deflected beam δθ
distance x from line Oy. The tangents at P R

and Q to the elastic line cut off an intercept z δθ

S
z δz θ
on Oy.

d2y/dx2 = – M / EI Figure 5. Relationship between bending

y moment diagram and deflected shape
Integrating between P and Q,
Q
 dy  Mdx
 dx  = − ∫ EI
P

 dy   dy  A
If EI is constant, θ =   −  =
 dx  P  dx  Q EI

Therefore the angle made by the tangents to two points on a beam is equal to the net area of the
bending moment diagram between those points divided by EI.

At an arbitrary point S between P and Q, the radius of curvature of the deflected beam is R.
The angle between the tangents at the ends of a short length δx is δθ, where δx = R⋅δθ. The
intercept of these tangents on Oy is δz, and because the slope is everywhere small,

δz = x⋅δθ = x⋅δx / R = Mx⋅δx / EI

Integrating between P and Q,

Mx dx
z=∫
EI
Ax
= if EI is constant
EI

Therefore the intercept on a given line between the tangents to the beam at any points P and Q
is equal to the net moment about that line of the bending moment diagram between P and Q
divided by EI.
b

It is convenient to break down the bending

moment diagram into a number of simple figures so
that the moment is obtained from Σ Ax . Account G2
should be taken of positive and negative areas. d x 2 = 3b/8
A1 = bd/3
G1
x 1 = 3b/4

Figure 6. Properties of common shapes

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Example 3
Obtain expressions for the maximum slope and deflection of a simply supported beam of span
L (a) with a concentrated load P at mid-span; and (b) with a uniformly distributed load w over
the whole span. Take the flexural rigidity EI as constant.

In both cases, the slope is zero at mid-span by symmetry, and the maximum slope and
deflection can be found from the area A of the bending moment diagram over half of the span,
i.e. point P at support and point Q at centre.
P
(a) Concentrated load P at mid-span L/2 L/2

A = (1/2) (PL/4) (L/2) = PL2/16

P/2 L
2
Slope at support = A/EI = PL /16EI
M (2/3)(L/2)
Deflection at mid-span PL/4
= deflection of support relative to centre
= Ax EI L/2
= (PL2/16) (L/3) / EI Figure 7. A simply supported beam under
= PL3/48EI a central point load

(b) Uniformly distributed load w over the whole span

w
A = (2/3) (wL2/8) (L/2) = wL3/24
wL/2 L
Slope at support = A/EI = wL3/24EI
M (5/8)(L/2)
Deflection at mid-span wL2/8
= deflection of support relative to centre
= Ax EI L/2
= (wL3/24) (5L/16) / EI Figure 8. A simply supported beam under
= 5wL4/384EI uniformly distributed load

Strain Energy Method

If an elastic body is deformed by external forces, these forces move through small distances
and hence do some work. Thus the energy of the elastic system has been increased by the work
done, and this work is recoverable. It is stored in the elastic body in the form of elastic
potential energy or strain energy. The energy concept can be used to find the deflections in a
structure.

Consider a prismatic bar of length L and cross-sectional area A under action of an axial
tensile force P.

It will elongate by δ = PL/EA.

The work done by P is P (δ/2) = P2L / 2EA, which is the strain energy stored in the bar.

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 Consider a prismatic beam of length L and second moment of area I under the action of
pure bending moment M.

It will bend such that the two ends form an angle of θ given by θ = ML / EI.

The work done by M is M (θ/2) = M2L/2EI, which is the strain energy in the beam.

Example 4
Consider the prismatic cantilever under a point load at tip as shown in Figure 9. For a small
segment dx at x from the free end, Mx = Px. The strain energy is
L
P
(Px) 2 dx x
∆U = ,
2EI
L
L P2x 2 P2  x 3  P 2 L3
U= ∫0 2EI
dx =
2EI  3  0
=
6EI
y
Figure 9. Cantilever under point load at tip

The work done by the load P in deflecting a distance δ is Pδ/2, which must be equal to the
energy stored P2L2 / 6EI, so δ = PL3 / 3EI.

Dummy Unit-load Method

The principle of virtual work states that when a complete system of forces, which is in
equilibrium, undergoes a pattern of geometrically consistent displacements such that the
magnitudes and directions of all of the forces are unchanged, the total virtual work done is zero.

Virtual work = Σ F.δ = 0

In structural analysis, virtual work is normally established in one of the following two
ways:
1. By considering the movements of the actual force system through some fictitious pattern of
displacements (i.e. virtual displacements)
2. By considering the movements of some fictitious system of forces (i.e. virtual forces)
through the actual displacement pattern.

The dummy unit-load method is a very important and versatile tool in the solution of
deflections of both beams and trusses. However, only one component of the deflection at a
point can be found in one application of the unit load.

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Example 5: Deflection of a Beam
Suppose it is required to find the deflection δD at D of the simply supported beam AB. Place a
dummy (virtual) unit-load at D. There will be bending moment m induced throughout the
structure. Assume that this system of loading is a virtual one. The displacement caused by this
unit load is insignificant. Now impose the applied loading system P (actual) on the structure.
Let M be the bending moment in the structure. Due to the actual loading system P, the
deflection at D will be δD and the relative rotation of any two sections dx apart will be dθ =
(M/EI) dx. Considering the bending energy only, the virtual internal work stored due to the
moment m rotated through an angle dθ is dU = m (M/EI) dx. The total virtual internal energy is

U ≈ ∫ (Mm/EI)dx

The external work done (virtual) by the dummy load is 1 × δD

Since external work done = internal energy stored (all virtual), so

1 × δD = ∫ (Mm/EI)dx or δD = ∫ (Mm/EI)dx
P
a b
x z
Member M m Limits A B
AD (Pb/L)x (b/L)x 0-a D
BD (Pa/L)z (a/L)z 0-b L
Figure 10. A simply supported beam with
flexural rigidity EI under a point load P at D

a b
δD = ∫0
(1/EI) (Pb/L) x (b/L) x dx + ∫
0
(1/EI) (Pa/L) z (a/L) z dz

= (1/EI) P (b2/L2) (a3/3) + (1/EI) P (a2/L2) (b3/3)

= P (a2b2) (a+b) / (3EI L2) = (Pa2b2) / (3EIL)

Example 6: Deflection of a Frame 6m 10kN

Find the horizontal deflection at the free end of a B x
C
cantilever bent ABC. (I0)

Apply a dummy unit-load horizontally at C.

(60)(10 − y)
10 Young's modulus = E
AB: ∫ (Mm/EI) dy = ∫ dy
0 2EI 0
10m (2I0)
= 1500/EI0

6 10(6 - x)(0)
BC: ∫ (Mm/EI) dx = ∫
0 EI 0
dx = 0
y
Figure 11. An “L”-frame
δHC = 1500/EI0 (in m) A
under a point load

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Deflection of Trusses

The procedures for calculation of deflection of trusses are:

1. With the actual applied loading, analyse the truss by the method of joints and/or the method
of sections and determine the actual force F in each member.
2. Apply a virtual force of one unit (unit dummy load) at the node and in the direction of the
displacement required to be determined, and calculate the internal virtual forces f in all
members.
3. The actual internal elongation or shortening caused by the actual applied loading in each
member = FL/EA.
4. Hence 1 × δ = Sum of {f × FL/EA}

Example 7: Deflection of a Truss

For the truss shown in Figure 12, calculate the vertical deflection at A and the horizontal
deflection at B. Take E = 100 × 106 kN/m2.

B
2m

4m
A

200kN

C D

2√2m

Figure 12. A truss under a point load

Length Area Force fHB

Member 2 fVA fVA (FL/A) fHB
L (m) A (cm ) F (kN) (FL/A)
AB 2 1 100√2 √2/2 200 0 0
AC 2 1 – 100√2 – √2/2 200 0 0
BC 2√2 √2 – 200 –1 400 1 – 400
CD 2√2 √2 – 100 – 1/2 100 0 0
BD 4 2 100√2 √2/2 200 – √2 – 400
1 cm2 = 0.0001 m2 1100 – 800
1/E = 1/100×106 0.11 m – 0.08 m