Chapter 6

BASIC CONTROL THEORY

The Control Loop

Control loops in the

process control
industry work in the
same way, requiring
three tasks to occur:
Measurement
Comparison
Adjustment

Open and Closed Control Loops

An open control loop exists where the process variable is not

compared, and action is taken not in response to feedback on the
condition of the process variable, but is instead taken without regard
to process variable conditions.

Open loop control has no information or feedback about the

measured value.

The position of the correcting element is fixed.

It is unable to compensate for any disturbances in the process.

A closed control loop exists where a process variable is

measured, compared to a setpoint, and action is taken to correct
any deviation from setpoint.

In a closed loop control system the output of the measuring

element is fed into the loop controller where it is compared with
the set point.
point An error signal is generated when the measured
value is not equal to the set point. Subsequently, the controller
adjusts the position of the control valve until the measured
value fed into the controller is equal to the set point.

Closed loop control has information and feedback about the

measured value.

The position of the correcting element is variable.

variable

It is able to compensate for any disturbances in the process.

COMPONENTS OF CONTROL LOOPS

This section describes the instruments, technologies, and equipment

used to develop and maintain process control loops.

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

The basic elements of control as measurement, comparison, and

j
In p
practice,, there are instruments and strategies
g
to
adjustment.
accomplish each of these essential tasks.

Signals: There are three kinds of signals that exist for the process
industry to transmit the process variable measurement from
f
the
instrument to a centralized control system.
1 Pne
1.
Pneumatic
matic signal
signal: are
e signals
ign l produced
p od ed by
b changing
h nging the air
i
pressure in a signal pipe in proportion to the measured change in a
process variable. The common industry standard pneumatic signal
range is 315 psig.
2. Analog signal: The most common standard electrical signal is the 4
20 mA current signal. With this signal, a transmitter sends a small
current through a set of wires.
3 Di
3.
Digital
i l signal:
i
l are discrete
di
levels
l
l or values
l
that
h are combined
bi d in
i
specific ways to represent process variables and also carry other
information,, such as diagnostic
g
information. The methodology
gy used to
combine the digital signals is referred to as protocol.

Controller Algorithms
g
The

actions of controllers can be divided into

groups based upon the functions of their
control mechanism.

Each
E h

ttype off controller

t ll has
h advantages
d
t
and
d
disadvantages and will meet the needs of
diff
different
t applications.
li ti

The

Controllers are g
grouped
p
as:

Discrete

controllers (On/ Off)

Continuous

controllers

Discrete controllers (ON/ OFF): These controllers

have only two modes or positions: on and off (twostep). This type of control doesnt actually hold the
variable at setpoint, but keeps the variable within
proximity of setpoint in what is known as a dead
zone.

Two-step
Two
step is the simplest of all the control modes. The
output from the controller is either on or off with the
controller's output changing from one extreme to the
other regardless
g
of the size of the error.

Summary of "On"
On "Off"
Off Control
Two-position control can only be in one of two positions, either
0% or 100%.
100% A switch
it h iis an example
l off On/Off
O /Off control.
t l

Advantages:

On/Off control makes "troubleshooting" very easy and requires

only basic types of instruments.

Disadvantages:

The process oscillates.

Th
The fi
finall control
t l element
l
t (usually
(
ll a control
t l valve)
l ) is
i always
l
opening and closing and this cause excessive wear.
There is no fixed operating point.
point

Discrete (On/ Off) Control Reaction Curve

Continuous Control

1.
2.
3.

There are three basic control actions that

are often applied to continuous control:
Proportional (P)
Integral (I)
Derivative (D)
( )
It is also necessary to consider these in
combination such as P + II, P + D,
D P + I + D.
D
Although it is possible to combine the
different actions, and all help to produce the
required response, it is important to
remember that both the integral and
derivative actions are usually corrective
functions of a basic proportional control
act o
action.

Continuous Controllers

Controllers automatically compare the value of the PV to the SP to determine if

an error exists. If there is an error, the controller adjusts
j
its output
p according
g to
the parameters that have been set in the controller.

Th ttuning
The
i
parameters
t
essentially
ti ll d
determine:
t
i
How much correction should be made? The magnitude of
the correction (change in controller output) is determined by
the p
proportional
p
mode of the controller.
How long the correction should be applied? The duration
off the adjustment to the controller output is determined by
the integral mode of the controller
How fast should the correction be applied? The speed at
which a correction is made is determined by the derivative
mode of the controller.

Proportional Control (Mode)

With proportional control,

the
h correcting element
l
is adjusted
d
d In proportion to the
h change
h
in the measured value from the set point.

The largest movement is made to the correcting element when

tthe
e deviation
de at o between
bet ee measured
easu ed value
a ue and
a d set point
po t is
s
greatest.

Usually, the set point and measured value are equal when the
output is midway of the controller output signal range.

Proportional Band (PB):

The simplest and most common form of control action to be found on
a controller is proportional. With this form of control the output
from the controller is directly proportional to the input error signal
signal,
i.e. the larger the input error the larger the output response from
the controller.
The
Th actual
t l size
i off the
th output
t t depends
d
d on another
th factor,
f t the
th
controller's proportional band or gain (the controller's sensitivity).
The setting for the proportional mode may be expressed as either:
Proportional Band (PB) is another way of representing the
same information and answers this question: "What percentage

of change of the controller input span will cause a 100%

change in controller output? PB = Input (% Span) For 100%
Output.

Proportional Gain (Kc) answers the question: "What is the

percentage change of the controller output relative to the

percentage change in controller input?
input? Proportional Gain is
expressed as: Gain, (Kc) = Output% / Input %

Proportional Controller Equation:

Where,
m = Controller output
e = Error ((difference between PV and SP))
Kp = Proportional gain
b = Bias

Proportional band and gain

Gain is just the inverse of PB multiplied by 100 or gain = 100/PB
PB = 100/Gain
Also recall that: Gain = 100% / PB
Gain (Kc) = Output% / Input %
PB= Input (%Span) For 100% Output

PB 200% = Gain 0.5

PB 100% = Gain 1

PB 50% = Gain 2

PB 150% = Gain 0.67

If the gain is set too high,

high there
will be oscillations as the PV
converges on a new setpoint
t i t
value:

If the gain is set too low, the process

response will be stable under steadystate conditions, but sluggish to
changes in setpoint because the
controller does not take aggressive
enough action to cause quick changes
in the process:

With proportional-only control, the only way to obtain fast-acting

response to setpoint changes or upsets in the process is to set
the g
gain constant high
g enough
g that some overshoot results:

Summary of Proportional control

With Proportional Control:

Narrow PB%

Fast to respond,
Large overshoot,
overshoot
Long settling time,
Small offset

Wide PB%

Controller Output = (Change in Error)(Gain)

Proportional
p
Mode Responds
p
only
y to a change
g in error
Proportional mode alone will not return the PV to SP.
Stable control
Suffers from offset due to load changes.
g

Slow to respond,
Quick to settle
Large offset

Proportional control used in process where load changes are

small and the offset can be tolerated.

Integral Control (Mode)

Integral Action
Another component of error is the duration of the
error, i.e., how long has the error existed?. The
controller output from the integral or reset mode is a
function of the duration of the error.
Integral
I t
l action
ti is
i used
d iin conjunction
j
ti with
ith
proportional action to eliminate offset problem
resulting
lti ffrom P control.
t l
This is accomplished by repeating the action of the
proportional mode as long as an error exists.

If we add an integral term to the controller equation, we get

something that looks like this:

Where:
m = Controller Output
e = Error (difference
(d ff
between
b
PV and
d SP))
Kp = Proportional gain
i = Integral time constant (minutes)
t = Time
b = Bias

Integral Action Effect

Integral Saturation or Reset Wind-up

Summary of integral action (Reset)

Integral (Reset) Summary - Output is a repeat of the

proportional action as long as error exists. The units are in terms
of repeats per minute or minutes per repeat.

Advantages - Eliminates error

Disadvantages: Makes the process less stable and take longer

to settle down.
Can suffer from integral saturation or wind-up on batch
processes.
Fast
ast Reset
eset ((Large
a ge Repeats/Min.,
epeats/
, Small
S a Min./Repeat)
/ epeat)

High Gain
Fast Return to Setpoint
Possible Cycling

Slow Reset (Small Repeats/Min., Large Min./Repeats)

Low Gain
Slow
Sl
Return
R t
to
t S
Setpoint
t i t
Stable Loop

P + I controller is used when offset must be eliminated

automatically and integral saturation due to a sustained offset is
not a problem.

P+ I Controller Reaction at Optimum

p
Settings
g

Derivative Mode
Wh D
Why
Derivative
i ti
Mode?
M d ?

Some large and/or slow process do not respond well to small

changes in controller output. For example, a large liquid level
process or a large
p
g thermal p
process ((a heat exchanger)
g ) may
y
react very slowly to a small change in controller output. To
improve response, a large initial change in controller output may
be applied. This action is the role of the derivative mode.

The derivative action is initiated whenever there is a change in

the rate of change of the error (the slope of the PV). The
magnitude of the derivative action is determined by the setting
of the derivative.

In operation, the controller first compares the current PV with the

last value of the PV. If there is a change in the slope of the PV, the
controller determines what its output would be at a future point in
time (the future point in time is determined by the value of the
derivative setting, in minutes). The derivative mode immediately
increases the output
p by
y that amount.

Summary of Derivative action (Rate)

Rate action is a function of the speed of change of the error. The units
are minutes. The action is to apply an immediate response that is
equal to the proportional plus reset action that would have occurred
some number of minutes in the future.

Advantages - Rapid output reduces the time that is required to return

PV to
t SP iin slow
l
process.

Disadvantage - Has no effect on offset. Dramatically amplifies noisy

signals;
g
; can cause cycling
y
g in fast processes.
p

Large (Minutes):

High Gain
L
Large
O
Output
t t Change
Ch
Possible Cycling

Small (Minutes):

Low Gain
Small Output Change
Stable Loop

Proportional, PI, and PID Control

By using all three control algorithms together

together, process operators
can:

Achieve rapid response to major disturbances with derivative control

Hold the process near setpoint without major fluctuations with

proportional control

Eliminate offset with integral control

Not every process requires a full PID control strategy. If a small

offset
ff
has
h no impact
i
on the
h process, then
h
proportional
i
l controll
alone may be sufficient.

P I,
P,
I and D Responses Graphed
A very helpful method for understanding the
operation of proportional, integral, and derivative
y their respective
p
responses
p
control terms is to analyze
to the same input conditions over time.
The following graphs showing P
P, II, and D responses
for several different input conditions. In each graph,
the controller is assumed to be direct-acting
direct acting (i.e.
(i e an
increase in process variable results in an increase in
output).
output)

Responses to a single step-change

Proportional action directly

mimics the shape of the input
change (a step)
step). Integral
action ramps at a rate
proportional to the magnitude
off the
h input
i
step. Since
Si
the
h
input step holds a constant
value, the integral action
ramps at a constant rate (a
constant slope). Derivative
action interprets
p
the step
p as
an infinite rate of change, and
so generates a spike driving
the output to saturation
saturation.
When combined into one PID
output, the three actions
produce this response:

Responses to a momentary step-and-return

Proportional action directly mimics
the shape of the input change (an
up-and-down
up
and down step)
step).
Integral action ramps at a rate
proportional to the magnitude of the
input step,
step for as long as the PV is
unequal to the SP. Once PV = SP
again, integral action stops ramping
and
d simply
i l holds
h ld the
th last
l t value.
l
Derivative action interprets both
steps as infinite rates of change,
and so generates a spike at the
leading and at the trailing edges of
the step.
p
Note how the leading (rising) edge
causes derivative action to saturate
high while the trailing (falling) edge
high,
causes it to saturate low.

Responses to a ramp-and-hold

Proportional action directly

mimics the ramp
ramp-and-hold
and hold
shape of the input.
Integral action ramps
slowly at first (when the
error is small)) but increases
ramping rate as error
increases. When error
stabilizes,
t bili
integral
i t
l rate
t
likewise stabilizes.
Derivative action offsets
the output according to the
inputs
p
ramping
p g rate.

Summary of Control modes and responses

Controller Tuning

Why Controllers Need Tuning?

Controllers are tuned to achieve two goals:

The
h system responds
d quickly
kl to errors.
The system remains stable (PV does not oscillate around the
SP)

Controller tuning is performed to adjust the manner in which a

control
co
t o valve
a e (or
(o other
ot e final
a control
co t o element)
e e e t) responds
espo ds to a
change in error.

In particular, we are interested in adjusting the controllers

modes (gain, Integral and derivative), such that a change in
controller input will result in a change in controller output that
will,, in turn,, cause sufficient change
g in valve position
p
to
eliminate error, but not so great a change as to cause
instability or cycling.

Before you tune . . .

The recommended considerations prior to making adjustments to
th tuning
the
t i
off a loop
l
controller:
t ll
Identifying operational needs (i.e. How do the operators want
the system to respond?)
Identifying process and system hazards before manipulating the
loop
Identifying whether it is a tuning problem, a field instrument
problem, and/or a design problem

PID tuning
PID tuning procedure is a step-by-step approach leading
directly to a set of numerical values to be used in a PID
controller.
A closed
l
d loop
l
tuning
i
procedure
d
is
i implemented
i
l
d with
i h the
h
controller in automatic mode: adjusting tuning parameters
to achieve an easily-defined
f
result, then using those PID
parameter values and information from a graph of the
process variable over time to calculate new PID parameters.

Ziegler-Nichols
Ziegler
Nichols Closed-Loop
Closed Loop (Ultimate
( Ultimate Gain
Gain))

The closed loop or ultimate method involves finding

the point where the system becomes unstable and
g this as a basis to calculate the optimum
p
using
settings.

The following steps may be used to determine ultimate

PB and ultimate periodic time:
1. Switch the controller to Manual and set the proportional band to
high
g value.
2. Turn off all integral and derivative action.
3. Switch the controller to automatic and reduce the proportional
band value to the point where the system becomes unstable and
oscillates with constant amplitude. Sometimes a small step
change
g is required
q
to force the system
y
into its unstable mode.

Look for curve B that represents the continuous oscillation

4 The proportional band that required causing

4.
continuous oscillation is the ultimate value Bu.
5. The ultimate periodic time is Pu.
6. From these two values the optimum setting can be
calculated as per the following procedures.

Optimum setting calculation

For proportional action only

Proportional + Integral

PB% = 2 Bu %
PB% = 2.2 Bu %
I t
Integral
l action
ti time
ti
= Pu
P / 1.2
1 2 minutes/repeat
i t /
t

Proportional
p
+ Integral
g + Derivative

PB%=1.67Bu
Integral action time = Pu / 2 minutes/repeat
Derivative action = Pu / 8 minutes

CONTROL LOOPS CATEGORIES

Control loops can be divided into two
categories:
Single variable loops,
loops and
Multi-variable loops
p

SINGLE LOOP CONTROL

This is the simplest control loop involving just one controlled

variable.

The controller compares the signal from the sensor to the set
point on the controller. If there is a difference, the controller
sends a signal to the actuator of the valve, which in turn moves
the valve to a new position.

Single control loops provide the vast majority of control for

heating systems and industrial processes.

The common terms used for single control loops include:

Feedback control.

Feedforward

Feedback control
Feedback control may be viewed as a sort of information loop,
from the transmitter, to the controller, to the final control element,
and through the process itself, back to the transmitter. Block
diagram
g
of feedback control looks like a loop:
p

Feedback Control loop measures a process variable

and
d sends
d the
h measurement to a controller
ll ffor
comparison to setpoint. If the process variable is not at
setpoint, control action is taken to return the process
variable to setpoint.

Feedback loops are commonly used in the process control

industry.

The advantage
g of feedback control is that it is a very
y simple
p
technique that directly controls the desired process variable
and compensates for all disturbances. Any disturbance affects
the controlled variable, and once this variable deviates from
set point, the controller changes its output in such a way as to
return the variable to set point.
point

The disadvantage of feedback control is that it can

compensate for a disturbance only after the controlled
variable has deviated from set point. That is, the disturbance
must p
propagate
p g
through
g the entire p
process before the
feedback control scheme can initiate action to compensate for
it.

Examples of feedback Control Loops

Feedforward Control
Feedforward control addresses this weakness by taking a fundamentally
different approach, basing final control decisions on the states of load
variables rather than the process variable. In other words, a feedforward
control system monitors all the factors influencing a process and decides how
to compensate for these factors ahead of time before they have the
opportunity to affect the process variable. If all loads are accurately measured,
and the control algorithm realistic enough to predict process response for
these known load values, the process variable does not even need to be
measured at all:

Feedforward control is a control system that anticipates

load disturbances and controls them before they can
impact the process variable. In the figure the flow
transmitter opens or closes a hot steam valve based on
how much cold fluid passes through the flow sensor.

An advantage of feedforward control is that error is

prevented, rather than corrected. However, it is difficult to
account for all possible load disturbances in a system
through feedforward control.

Factors such as outside temperature, buildup in pipes,

consistency of raw materials, humidity, and moisture
content can all become load disturbances and cannot
always be effectively accounted for in a feedforward
system.

Multi-Loop Control/ Multi-variable Loops

Multivariable loops are control loops in which

a primary controller controls one process
variable by sending signals to a controller of a
different loop that impacts the process variable
of the primary loop.

The following
Th
f ll i
are termed
t
d as multiple
lti l control
t l
loops: Feedback plus feedforward
Cascade Control
Ratio Control
Limit, Selector, and Override controls

Feedforward Plus Feedback

Because of the difficulty of accounting for every

possible load disturbance in a feedforward system,
y
are often combined with
feedforward systems
feedback systems.

Controllers with summing functions are used in

these combined systems to total the input from both
the feedforward loop and the feedback loop, and
send a unified signal to the final control element.

In the figure a feedforward-plus-feedback loop in which both a

flow transmitter and a temperature transmitter provide
information for controlling a hot steam valve.

Cascade Control

Cascade control is a technique Where two

independent
p
variables need to be controlled with
one valve.

Its purpose is to provide increased stability to

par-ticularly complex process control problems.

In cascade control the output from one controller

"called the MASTER" is the set point for another
controller "commonly
commonly referred to as the SLAVE
SLAVE".

The master will have an independent plant

measurement Only the slave controller has an
measurement.
output to the final control element.

The advantages:
Variations of the process variable measurement by
the master controller are corrected by
y the slave
control systems.
p
of response
p
of the master control loop
p is
Speed
increased.
Slave controller permits an exact manipulation of the
flow of mass or energy by the master (to maintain
the process variable, measured by the master
controller within the normal operating limits)

Disadvantage:
However, cascade control is more costly. Thus, it is
normally used when highly accurate control is
required and where random process disturbances are
expected.

Practical Consideration in Implementing Cascade Control

A necessary step in implementing cascade control is to ensure the
secondary (slave) controller is well-tuned before any attempt is
made to tune the primary ((master)
master ) controller.
The slave controller does not depend on good tuning in the master
controller in order to control the slave loop.
p
If the master controller were placed in manual, the slave controller
would simply control to a constant setpoint. However, the master
controller most definitely depends on the slave controller being welltuned in order to fulfill the masters expectations.
If the slave controller were placed in manual mode, the master
controller would not be able to exert any control over its process
variable whatsoever.
Clearly then, the slave controllers response is essential to the
g able to control its p
process variable, therefore
master controller being
the slave controller must be the first one to tune.

Ratio Control
Where the ratio of one flow rate to another is controlled for
some desired outcome
outcome. Many industrial processes also
require the precise mixing of two or more ingredients to
produce a desired product.
N t only
Not
l d
do th
these iingredients
di t need
d to
t be
b mixed
i d in
i proper
proportion, but it is usually desirable to have the total flow
rate subject to arbitrary increases and decreases so
production rate as a whole may be altered at will.
will

A simple example of ratio control is in the production of

paint,
i t where
h
a base
b
liquid
li id mustt be
b mixed
i d with
ith one or more
pigments to achieve a desired consistency and color.

All the human operator

p
needs to do now is move the
one link to increase or decrease mixed paint
production:

Mechanical link ratiocontroll systems are

commonly used to
manage simple
burners, proportioning
the flow rates of fuel
and air for clean,
efficient combustion.
A photograph of such
a system appears
here, showing how the
gas valve and air
fuel g
damper motions are
coordinated by a
single
i l rotary
t
actuator.
t t

A more automated approach to the general problem of ratio

control involves the installation of a flow control loop on one of
the lines, while keeping just a flow transmitter on the other line.
The signal coming from the uncontrolled flow transmitter becomes
the setpoint for
fo the flow
flo control
cont ol loop:
loop The ratio
atio of pigment to base
will be 1:1 (equal).

We may incorporate convenient ratio adjustment into this system by

adding another component (or function block) to the control scheme: a
device called a signal multiplying relay (or alternatively, a ratio station).
This device (or computer function) takes the flow signal from the base
(wild) flow transmitter and multiplies it by some constant value (k)
before sending the signal to the pigment (captive) flow controller as a
set point, the ratio will be 1:1 when k = 1; the ratio will be 2:1 when k =
2 etc.
2,
etc

One way to achieve the proper ratio of hydrocarbon gas to steam flow is
t install
to
i t ll a normall flow
fl
control
t l loop
l
on one off these
th
two
t
reactant
t t feed
f d
lines, then use that process variable (flow) signal as a setpoint to a flow
controller installed on the other reactant feed line. This way, the second
controller will maintain a proper balance of flow to proportionately match
the flow rate of the other reactant. An example P&ID is shown here,
where the methane gas flow rate establishes the setpoint for steam flow
control:

We could add another layer of sophistication to this ratio control system

by installing a gas analyzer at the outlet of the reaction furnace designed
to measure the composition of the product stream. This analyzers signal
could be used to adjust the value of k so the ratio of steam to methane
would automatically vary to ensure optimum production quality even if the
feedstock composition (i.e. percentage concentration of methane in the
hydrocarbon gas input) changes:

A more common method of ratio control is using separate units

t provide
to
id the
th ratio
ti system.
t
In
I this
thi figure,
fi
the
th measurementt off
an uncontrolled flow transmitted to a ratio unit where it is
multiplied by a ratio factor, and the output of the ratio unit
becomes the set point of the secondary controller.

The ratio unit normally has a manually adjusted scale to adjust

the ratio between the two variables.
variables

Limit, Selector, and Override controls

Another
h category off controll strategies involves
l
the
h use off signall relays
l
or
function blocks with the ability to switch between different signal values,
or re-direct signals
g
to new p
pathways.
y Such functions are useful when we
need a control system to choose between multiple signals of differing
value in order to make the best control decisions.
The building blocks of such control strategies are special relays (or
function blocks in a digital control system) shown here:

Limit Controls
In the following example
example, a cascade control system regulates the
temperature of molten metal in a furnace, the output of the master
(metal temperature) controller becoming the setpoint of the slave (air
temperature) controller
controller. A high limit function limits the maximum value
this cascaded setpoint can attain, thereby protecting the refractory brick
of the furnace from being exposed to excessive air temperatures:

This same control strategy could have been implemented using a low
select function block rather than a high limit:

Selector Controls
Selector control strategy is where we must select a process variable signal
from multiple transmitters. For example, consider this chemical reactor,
where the control system must throttle the flow of coolant to keep the
hottest measured temperature at setpoint, since the reaction happens to
be exothermic (heat-releasing):

Another use of selector relays (or function blocks) is for the determination
of a median process measurement
measurement. This sort of strategy is often used on
triple-redundant measurement systems, where three transmitters are
installed to measure the exact same process variable, providing a valid
measurement even in the event of transmitter failure.
failure
The median select function may be implemented one of two ways using
high- and low
high
low-select
select function blocks:

Override Controls
An override control strategy involves a selection between
two or more controller output signals, where only one
controller at a time gets the opportunity to exert control
over a process. All other de-selected controllers are thus
overridden by the selected controller.
In process control systems it often becomes desirable to
limit a process variable to some low or high value to avoid
damage to process equipment or to the product. This is
accomplished by override devices. As long as the variable is
within the limits set by the override devices, normal
f
functioning
off the
h controll system continues; when
h
the
h set
limits
are
exceeded,
the
override
devices
take
predetermined
d t
i d actions.
ti

Consider this water pumping system, where a water pump is

d i
driven
b
by a variable-speed
i bl
d electric
l t i motor
t tto draw
d
water
t from
f
a
well and provide constant water pressure to a customer:

A potential
t ti l problem
bl
with
ith this
thi system
t
iis the
th pump running
i
dry if the water level in the well gets too low, as might
happen during summer months when rainfall is low and
customer demand is high.

One solution to this problem would be to install a level switch in

th well,
the
ll sensing
i
water
t
level
l
l and
d shutting
h tti
off
ff the
th electric
l t i motor
t
driving the pump if the water level ever gets too low:

We may create just such a control strategy by replacing the well water
level switch with a level transmitter,, connecting
g the level transmitter to a
level controller, and using a low-select relay or function block to select the
lowest-valued output between the pressure and level controllers. The level
controllers setpoint
p
will be set at some low level above the acceptable
p
limit for continuous pump operation:

Bear in mind that the concept of a low-level switch completely shutting

off the p
pump
p is not an entirely
y bad idea. In fact,, it might
g be prudent
p
to
integrate such a hard shutdown control in the override control
system, just in case something goes wrong with the level controller
(e.g. an improperly adjusted setpoint or poor tuning) or the low-select
function. With two layers of safety control for the pump, this system
provides both a soft constraint providing moderated action and a
hard constraint providing aggressive action to protect the pump from
dry operation: