R, L and C components in AC circuits

General I-V
dependencies

I-V dependencies
for sine-waveforms

Resistor

v = R i

Capacitor

d v (t )
i (t ) = C
dt

di(t )
v(t ) = L
dt

Inductor

v = R i

Objective:
to find the mathematical functions or transformations
replacing the time derivatives with algebraic actions,
like multiplication, division, etc.
Example:
if y(t)

= et, then:

dy
t
= e = y
dt
Issue: the actual electrical signals are sinusoidal, not et types;
there is no simple transformation from cos(t) or sin(t) type
waveforms into et function and back

Eulers formula
The fundamental relationship bridging complex numbers and
AC signals is provided by the Eulers formula:

e j = cos( ) + j sin( )

Eulers formula
Geometrical interpretation

e j = cos( ) + j sin( )
jy

ej

j*sin()

x
cos()

The modulus of a complex number N

(the length of the arrow)
If N = ej,

then using Eulers formula

2
1

2
1

N = y +x
N=

(sin ) + (cos )

=1

Eulers formula
Geometrical interpretation

e j = cos( ) + j sin( )
jy

ej
j*sin()

cos()

N=

ej

N=

(sin ) + (cos )

=1

Any complex number can be easily defined using

Eulers formula:

R e j = R cos( ) + jR sin( )
R

jy
T

ulus
d
o
he m

Rej
j*Rsin()

x
Rcos()

R is the modulus; is the argument

j is R
e
of R

The Eulers form describes a polar form of a

complex number and hence a phasor:
Phasor describing AC current or voltage: N = R L
Complex number in the Eulers form:
jy

j*Rsin()

Rej

Describes the complex

number with the modulus
R and the angle

Rcos()

( |N| L ) = N e j
Phasor of an AC
current or voltage

Complex number
in Eulers form

An important case of the Eulers formula: = /2

e j( / 2 ) = cos( / 2) + j sin( / 2 ) = 0 + j 1 = j

j = e j( / 2 )
j

Example: find

1/ 2

j= j

= e

j ( / 2 ) (1 / 2 )

= e j ( / 4 )

Multiplication and division of complex numbers

using Eulers formula:

N1 = R1 e j1 ;

N 2 = R2 e j 2 ;

Following regular algebraic rules,

N1 N 2 = R1 R2 e j1 e j 2 = R1 R2 e j (1 + 2 )
The modulus of the product = the product of the moduli;
The argument = the sum of the arguments

N1 / N 2 = R1 e

j1

R2 e

j 2

= (R1 R2 )e

j (1 2 )

The modulus of the quotient = the quotient of the moduli;

The argument = the difference of the arguments

Using Eulers formula to find time derivatives of

complex numbers:
Suppose the argument of a complex number N
is a linear function of time: = t:

N = R e j t

( )

d ex
= ex
dx

( )

the time derivative becomes

dN
= R j e j t
dt
or:

dN
= j N
dt

d ek x
= k ek x
dx

AC circuit analysis using complex numbers

The simplicity of time derivatives using complex numbers in the Eulers form
opens up a simple way to analyze AC circuits.
The approach:
1. Bridge the actual waveform to the complex variable in the Eulers form;
i.e. create a complex image of a real waveform.
2. Apply the KVL, KCL and the I-V relationships to the complex images of voltages
and currents in the AC circuit. (The math involved is much simpler than that required
to solve the actual circuit).
3. Find the actual current or voltage waveforms by taking the real part of the resulting
complex variable.

Complex images of resistor voltage and current

The voltage across the resistor:

v(t ) = VM cos(t )

1. The phasor corresponding to the resistor voltage

v(t) = VMe j t
Phasor design rules:
The phasor modulus = the real voltage amplitude.
The phasor argument = t

Phasors of resistor voltage and current (2)

2. Find the complex images corresponding to the current through
resistor. Use the same rules that apply to the actual voltage current
relationship:

VM j t
i R = v(t) / R =
e
R
3. Find the actual resistor current by taking the real part of the
complex current:

VM j t VM
VM
e
=
cos( t ) + j
sin( t )
R
R
R

VM
The resistor current iR (t ) =
cos(t )
R

Complex images of capacitor voltage and current

The voltage across the capacitor:

v(t ) = VM cos(t )

Note that the actual capacitor current can be found as:

dv
iC = C
= C VM sin(t ) =
dt
= C VM cos(t + / 2)
We will now find the current using the complex image technique.

Complex images of capacitor voltage and current (2)

1. Given the actual voltage

v(t ) = VM cos(t )

The complex voltage corresponding to the actual voltage v(t)

(shown as bold v):

v(t) = VMe j t

2. Find the complex capacitor current

using the same rules that apply to the actual voltage and current

v(t )
iC = C
= C jVM e j t
t
Using
j = e j/2
iC = j C VM e j t = C VM e j / 2 e j t =
= C VM e j ( t + / 2 )

Complex images of capacitor voltage and current (3)

3. Take the real part of the complex current :

iC = Re C VM e j ( t + / 2 ) = C VM cos( t + / 2)

Compare to the current found by taking the

time derivative of the capacitor voltage:

iC = C VM cos(t + / 2)

Complex images of inductor voltage and current

The current across the inductor:

i(t ) = I M cos(t )

Note that the actual inductor voltage can be found as:

di
vL = L = L I M sin(t ) =
dt
= L I M cos(t + / 2)
We will now find the voltage using the complex image
technique.

Complex images of inductor voltage and current (2)

1. Given the actual current

i(t ) = I M cos(t )

The complex current corresponding to the actual current i(t)

(shown as bold v):

i(t) = IMe j t

2. Find the complex inductor voltage

using the same rules that apply to the actual voltage and current

i(t )
vL = L
= L j I M e j t
t
Using
j = e j/2
vL = j L I M e j t = L I M e j / 2 e j t =
= L I M e j ( t + / 2 )

Complex images of inductor voltage and current (3)

3. Take the real part of the complex voltage:

vL = Re L I M e j ( t + / 2 ) = L I M cos( t + / 2)

Compare to the current found by taking the

time derivative of the capacitor voltage:

vL = L I M cos(t + / 2)

I-Vs in time-domain and on the complex plane

Assuming v(t) and i(t) are the sinusoidal signals with the angular frequency :

Time domain
(real variables)
Resistor

v(t ) = R i (t )

Complex plane
(rotating phasors)
VM = R IM eit

Capacitor

d v(t )
i (t ) = C
dt

IC = j C VM e jt

Inductor

di(t )
v(t ) = L
dt

VL = j L IM e jt

Differential
equations

Linear V-I dependencies

similar to the Ohms law

Note that the term ejt can be omitted: they simply remind you what the angular frequency is;
the remaning phasors are called the complex amplitudes.

R,C and L I-Vs on the complex plane

Complex amplitudes

Resistor

Capacitor

Inductor

VM = R IM
IC = j C VM

VC = (1 / j C ) IM

VL = j L IM

Complex plane
equivalent circuit
Resistor with the resistance R

Quazi-Ohmic (i.e. linear)

component with the complex
impedance ZC = 1/(j
C)

Quazi-Ohmic (i.e. linear)

component with the complex
impedance ZL = j
L