BLACKSMITH

PRACTICE
EM862
WarDepartmentEducationManual
CHAPTERXVIII__BLACKSMITHINGEQUIPMENTFORGEFIRES
CHAPTERXIX__FUNDAMENTALFORGINGOPERATIONS
CHAPTERXX__FORGINGANDTEMPERINGTOOLSTEEL
CHAPTERXXI__WELDINGPLOWSHARPENINGKINDSOFIRONANDSTEEL

CHAPTERXVIII
BLACKSMITHINGEQUIPMENTFORGEFIRES
Whetherafarmercanaffordaforgeandanvilwilldependuponthedistancetoa
blacksmithshop,theamountofmachineryrepairworkheneedstodoorhavedone,and
hisabilityasamechanic.Althoughnoteveryfarmercanprofitablyownblacksmithing
equipment,manyfarmerscan.Ifafarmercannot,heshouldrememberthatagreatdealof
repairworkcanbedonewithcoldmetal,ifhehasafewsimpletoolslikeavise,ahack
saw,files,coldchisels,anddrills.
Althoughblacksmithingundermanyconditionsshouldoccupyaminorplaceinafarm
shopcourse,nosuchcoursecanbeconsideredcompletewithoutatleastsomeinstructionin
thiswork.Blacksmithingisgenerallymoredifficultthanwoodwork.Almostanyhigh
schoolboywithaveragemechanicalability,however,cansoonlearntodosimple
blacksmithingandfeelwellrepaidforhisefforts,ifhewillsethimselfdiligentlytothetask.
Inallmechanicalwork,muchmorerapidandsatisfactoryprogresscanbemadeifthe
studentwillcarefullystudythetheoryandprinciplesalongwithhispractice.Thisis
particularlytrueofblacksmithing.
276.TheForge.Theforgeforthefarmshopshouldhaveageardrivenbloweroperated
byacrank,anditshouldhaveahearthatleast18in.wide,preferablysomewhatlarger.
Probablythecheapestwayofprovidingagoodforgeistobuyagoodblowerandtuyere
(thatpartinthebottomofthehearththroughwhichtheblastcomes)andmakeahearthand
standofconcrete,brick,orothermasonry.Theforgeshouldbeprovidedwithahoodand

pipeconnectionfortakingawaythesmoke.
277.TheAnvil.Anvilsareoftwogeneralgrades:castironandsteel.Steelanvilsaremuch
betterandshouldbeusediftheycanbeafforded,Thetwokindscanbedistinguishedby
strikingwithahammer.Acastanvilhasadeadsoundwhileasteelonehasaclearring.
Anvilsarecommonlyavailableinsizesrangingfrom50to200lb.Ananvilweighing100
or125lb.wouldbequitesatisfactoryfortheaveragefarmshop.Apieceofrailroadiron20
to30in.long,mountedonasuitableblockorstand,willservefairlywellforlight
hammeringandriveting,althoughamuchgreatervarietyofworkcanbedoneonaregular
anvil.

UseofDifferentPartsofAnvil.Thehornoftheanvilisusedformakingbendsand
shapingcurvedpiecesandtheflatfaceisusedforgeneralhammering.Theflatdepressed
surfacenearthehornisthechippingblock,andhereallcuttingwithcoldchiselsandsimilar
toolsshouldbedone,ratherthanonthefaceoftheanvil.Thechippingblockissoftand
willnotdamagethechiselifitcutsthrough.Thefaceishardenedandcuttingintoitwitha
chiselwoulddamageboththechiselandtheface,whichshouldbekeptsmoothforgood
blacksmithing.
Thebetteranvilshaveacomerofthefacenexttothehornslightlyrounded,sothatsharp
bendsmaybemadeinrodsandbarswithoutundulymarringorgallingtheiron.Theround
holeinthefaceoftheanvilisusedforpunchingholes.Itiscalledthepritchelhole,taking
itsnamefromthesharppunchusedbysmithsinpunchingnailholesinhorseshoes.The
squareholeinthefaceiscalledthehardyholeandisusedforholdingthehardyandother
tools,suchasswagesandfullers.

Fig.244.Theanvilshouldbemountedonasolidblockandat
suchaheightthatthefaceoftheanvilcanjustbereachedwiththe
knucklesoftheclenchedfistwhenstandingerect.
MountingtheAnvil.Theanvilshouldbemountedonasolidblock,preferablyofwood.
Itshouldbesolocatedinfrontoftheforgethattheworkmancantaketheironsfromthe
fireandplacethemontheanvilbymakingashortturnandwithoutthenecessityoftaking
evenafullstep.Thehornshouldbetotheworkman'sleft(unlessheislefthanded,in
whichcaseitshouldbetohisright).Thefaceoftheanvilshouldbeatsuchaheightthatit
canbetouchedwiththeknucklesoftheclenchedfistwhenstandingerectandswingingthe
armstraightdown.
278.Tongs.Atleastoneortwopairsoftongswillbeneeded.Varioustypesareavailable,
butthehollowbit,curvedlipbolttongsareprobablythemostuseful.Flatbarsaswellas
roundrodsandboltscanbeheldinthem,andthecurvedpartbackofthetipmakesit
possibletoreshapethemeasilytofitdifferentsizesofstock.Bygrinding,filing,orsawing
agroovecrosswiseineachofthelips,thetongscanbemadetoholdlinkspracticallyas
wellasregularlinktongs(seeFig.245).Tongs18to20in.longareagoodsizefor
averagework.

Fig.245.Typesoftongs.(A).Flatjawedhollowbittongs.(B).
Hollowbitcurvedliptongs.Thisstyleisverygoodforthefarm
shop.Flatbarsaswellasroundrodsandboltscanbeheldin
them.
279.Hammers.Ablacksmith'shandhammerweighing11/2or2lb.andanother
weighing3or31/2lb.willhandleallordinaryworkverysatisfactorily.
280.Hardy,Chisels,Punches.Thereshouldbeahardytofittheholeintheanvil,and
thereshouldbeafairassortmentofhandcoldchiselsandpunches.Thechiselsandpunches
maybemadeintheshop.Ifconsiderableblacksmithingistobedone,itwouldbewellto
haveahotcutterandacoldcutter(simplylargechiselswithhandlesonthem)forheavy
cuttingwithasledgehammer.Itwouldbewell,alsotohaveoneortwolargepuncheswith
handlesonthemforpunchingholesinhotmetal.Punchesformakingholes3/8in.and1/2
in.indiameterareprobablymostuseful.
281.Vise.Onevisecanwellserveforallmetalworkinthefarmshop,including
blacksmithingifitisheavyandstrongenough.Aheavyblacksmith'ssteellegvisewith
jaws4to5in.wideisgenerallypreferredasanallpurposeviseinthefarmshop.Aleg
viseisonethathasonelegextendingdowntobeanchoredorfastenedintothefloor.Such
avisecanbeusedforheavyhammeringandbendingbetterthanothertypes.Ifthereisa
strongsteelmachinist'sboxviseintheshop,itcanbeusedforblacksmithingworkifcareis
usednottodotooheavyhammeringorbendingwithit.

Fig.246.Aheavyblacksmith'ssteellegviseisagoodtypeof
viseforthefarmshop.
282.FireTools.Asmallshovelandpokerorrakewillbeneededforuseontheforgefire.
Thesecaneasilybemadeintheshop.Aflatpieceofheavysheetironabout3or4in.wide
by4or5in.long,rivetedtoabarorrodforahandle,makesagoodshovel.A1/2in.
roundrod,withanoblongeyeinoneendtoserveasahandleandtheotherendflattened
andcurved,makesagoodcombinationpokerandrake.

Fig.247.Homemadeforgefiretools.A,shovelB,poker.
283.MeasuringTools.Somekindofmetalrulewillbeneededformeasuringand
checkingpiecesbeingforged.Asmallsteelsquareisverygoodforbothmeasuringlengths
andcheckinganglesandbends.Awoodenruleshouldnotbeusedtomeasurehotiron.A
caliper,oracaliperrule,formeasuringdiameterofrodsandthicknessofparts,althoughnot
anecessity,willbefoundveryconvenient.

Fig.248.Metalmeasuringtoolsshouldbeusedinblacksmithing.
(A).Thesmallsteelsquareisveryusefulforcheckingbendsand
anglesaswellasformeasuring.(B).Thecaliperruleisespecially
goodformeasuringthediameterorthicknessofbolts,rods,and
barsaswellasforgeneralmeasuring.
THEFORGEFIRE
Agoodfireisthefirstrequirementforgoodblacksmithing.Manybeginnersdopoorwork
simplybecausetheydonotrecognizetheimportanceofagoodfire.
Agoodforgefirehasthreecharacteristics.Itisclean,thatis,freefromclinkers,cinders,
etc.Itisdeep,withabigcenterofliveburningcoke.Anditiscompact,beingwell
bankedwithdampenedcoal.
284.FuelfortheForgeFire.Blacksmithingcoalisusedintheforge.Itisahighquality
softcoalthatispracticallyfreefromsulphur,phosphorus,andotherobjectionable
impurities.Whendampenedandpackeddownaroundthefire,itreadilycakesandchanges
tocoke,whichisalightweightmaterialthatburnswithaclean,intenseflame.Ordinary
stoveorfurnacecoalwillnotworksatisfactorilyinaforge.
285.BuildingtheFire.Tostartafire,firstcleanthefirebowlwiththehands,pushingall
coalandcokebackonthehearthandthrowingoutallclinkers.Clinkersareheavyand
metallicandhavesharp,hardcornersorprojectionsandarethereforeeasilydistinguished
fromthecoke,whichislightinweightandeasilycrumbled.Finecindersandashesare
easilyshakenthroughthegrateintotheashpit.
Aftercleaningthefirebowl,dumptheashpitbelowthetuyereandthentrytheblowerand
makesureagoodstrongblastcomesthrough.Sometimesashesworkbackintotheblower
pipeandobstructtheblast.

Fig.249.Theforgefireshouldbecleanedbypushingtheshovel
alongthebottomofthehearthtothecenterofthefire,asatA,
andthenliftingitstraightup,asatB.Theclinkerandashes,if
any,willbeexposedandcanbeeasilyremoved.
Nextlightasmallhandfulofshavingsorkindlingfromthebottomanddropontothe
tuyere.Givethebloweragentleturnandrakefuel,preferablycokeleftfromtheprevious
fire,ontotheburningkindling.Oncethefireisburningwell,rakemorecokeontoit,and
bankthefireonbothsidesandonthebackwithdampenedcoal.Thisformsamoundwith
burningcokeatthecenter,andtheheatisconcentratedinthecenterbythedampenedcoal
ontheoutside.Inalittlewhilethisdampenedcoal,sometimescalledgreencoal,hasgases
drivenoffanditchangestocoke.
286.MaintainingtheFire.Whenthecokeatthecenterofthefireburnsup,additional
cokefromthehearthortheundersideofthemoundisforcedintothecenter,andfromtime
totimegreencoalisaddedtotheouterpartsofthemoundtokeepthefirewellbanked.Do
Dotcontinuallypokeatthefiresimplykeepthecenterwellsuppliedwithcokeandthe
outsidepackeddownwithdampenedcoal.

Ifthefiretendstospreadtoomuchorbecomesopenandloose,throworsprinklewateron
theedgesandpackitdownwiththeshovel.Onlyagentleblastofairshouldbeused.
Excessiveairmakesanoxidizingfireandcausestheirontoscalebadly.
287.CleaningtheFire.Fromtimetotimeusuallyeveryhalfhourwhenweldingthe
clinkersandcindersthataccumulateoverthetuyereshouldberemoved.Thiscanbedone
bypassingtheshovelalongthebottomofthehearthtothecenterofthefireandthen
raisingitstraightupthroughthefire.Theclinkerscanthenbeeasilyseenandremoved.
Mostofthemwillstayontheshovel.Theburningcokeisthenrakedbackintothecenter
andtheoutsidepackeddown,usinggreencoalontheouteredgesifneeded.

Fig.250.Inheatingironsintheforge,theyshouldbeplaced
levelneverpointeddown.Thereshouldbeburningcokebelow
them,ontopofthem,andonallsidesofthem.
288.HeatingtheIrons.Toheatironsinaforge,theyshouldbeplacedinthefireina
horizontalposition,notpointingdown.Thereshouldbeburningcokebelowtheirons,
onbothsidesofthem,andontopofthem.Ironsheatedinadeep,compactfireheat
muchmorerapidlyandoxidizeorscaleofflessthanwhenheatedinashallow,burnedout
fire.Somescalewillforminspiteofagoodfire,butitshouldbekepttoaminimum.A
goodblacksmithkeepsthescalebrushedfromthefaceoftheanvilwithhishands.
Smallthinpartsheatmuchmorerapidlythanheavierandthickerparts.Topreventburning
thethinnerparts,theymaybepushedonthroughthefiretoacoolerplace,ortheposition
oftheironsotherwisechangedtomakeallpartsheatuniformly.Mildsteelshouldbeheated
toagood,brightredheatforforging.Itshouldnotbeallowedtogetwhitehotandsparkle,
asitisthenburning.
289.FittingTongsHoldingtheWork.Iftongscannotbefoundtofitthework,apair
shouldbereshapedbyheatingandhammeringthejawsoverthepiecetobeheld.Poorly
fittingtongsareasourceofcontinualtroubleandshouldnotbeused.

Fig.251.Bycarefulplanning,manyblacksmithingjobscanbe
donealmost,ifnotaltogether,withouttheuseoftongs.
SomeWorkDonewithoutTongs.Aconsiderableamountofworkcanbedonewithout
tongs.Aneyebolt,forinstance,canbemadeontheendofarod20or30in.longandthen
cutoffwhenfinished.
Questions
276.(a)Whatisthecheapestwayofprovidingagoodforgeforthefarmshop?(b)What
kindofblowerwouldyourecommend?(c)Howlargeahearthshouldthefarmforgehave?
277.(a)Whatdifferentkindsofanvilsareavailable?(b)Whatkindisbest,andhowmay
thedifferentkindsbereadilydistinguished?(c)Whatsizeofanvilisbestforthefarmshop?
(d)Canapieceofrailroadironorrailbeusedsatisfactorilyinthefarmshop?(e)Whatis
thechippingblockandwhatisitfor?(f)Whyisonecorneroftheanvilfacerounded?(g)
Whatisthepurposeoftheholesintheface?(h)Inwhatpositionshouldtheanvilbe
mountedwithrespecttotheforge?(i)Howhighshoulditbemounted?
278.(a)Whatkindorkindsoftongswouldyourecommendforthefarmshop?(b)What
size?
279.Whatsizesofhandhammerswouldyourecommendforblacksmithing?
280.Whatothertools,likehardies,chisels,andpunches,wouldbeneeded?
281.Whatkindandtypeofviseisbestforblacksmithing?
282.(a)Whatfiretoolswillbeneeded?(b)Whatmaterialswouldbeneededtomakethese
intheshop?I
283.(a)Whatmeasuringtoolswouldyourecommendforblacksmithing?(b)Inwhat
respectsisasmallsteelsquarebetterthanarule?(c)Whyarewoodenrulesnot
satisfactory?
284.(a)Whatarethecharacteristicsofagoodforgefire?(b)Whatkindoffuelisusedin
theforge?(c)Whatareitscharacteristicsorproperties?
285.(a)Justhowwouldyougoaboutbuildingafireinaforge?(b)Whyshouldthefirebe

wellbankedwithgreencoal?
286.(a)Whatattentionshouldthefirehavetokeepitingoodcondition?(b)Howmayitbe
keptfromspreadingorbecomingopenandloose?
287.(a)Howoftenshouldthefirebecleaned?(b)Justhowisthefirecleaned?
288.(a)Justhowshouldtheironsbeplacedinthefire?Why?(b)Howmaylightorthin
partsbekeptfromoverheating?(c)Howhotshouldironsbeheatedforforging?
289.(a)Howmaytongsbereshapedtofitthework?(b)Underwhatconditionsmaywork
bedonewithouttongs?
References
SCHWARZKOPF:"PlainandOrnamentalForging."
RADEBAUGH:"RepairingFarmMachinery."
FRIESE:"FarmBlacksmithing."
HARCOURT:"ElementaryForgePractice."
Boss,DENT,andWRITE:"MechanicalTraining."
CHAPTERXVIII__BLACKSMITHINGEQUIPMENTFORGEFIRES
CHAPTERXIX__FUNDAMENTALFORGINGOPERATIONS
CHAPTERXX__FORGINGANDTEMPERINGTOOLSTEEL
CHAPTERXXI__WELDINGPLOWSHARPENINGKINDSOFIRONANDSTEEL

CHAPTERXIX
FUNDAMENTALFORGINGOPERATIONS
Forgingmaybedefinedaschangingtheshapeofapieceofmetalbyheating
andhammering.Allthevariousoperationsthatablacksmithperformsin
forgingironmaybeclassifiedintoasurprisinglysmallnumberoffundamental
orbasicprocesses.Oncethesearemastered,thebeginneriswellonhiswayto
success,andhecandopracticallyanyordinarypieceofforgework.These
fundamentaloperationsare(1)bendingandstraightening(2)drawing,or
makingapiecelongerandthinner(3)upsetting,theoppositeofdrawing,or
makingapieceshorterandthicker(4)twistingand(5)punching.Other
operationscommonlydonebyablacksmith,butwhicharenotstrictlyforging,
arewelding,tempering,drilling,threading,filing,etc.
290.BendingandStraightening.Inbendingattheanvil,twothingsare

mostimportant:
1.Heattheirontoagoodbrightredheat,almostbutnotquite
whitehot,throughoutthesectiontobebent.
2.Usebendingorleverageblowsnotmashingblows.
Theironshouldbesoplacedontheanvilandsostruckthatitcanbenddown
underthehammerblowwithoutbeingforcedagainsttheanvilandmashed.If
theironisstruckataplacewhereitisrestingfirmlyontheanvil,itwillbe
mashedinsteadofbent.Afewmoderatelysharpblowsarebetterthanseveral
lighterblows.
Abruptsquarebendscanbemadeoverthefaceoftheanvilnearthechipping
blockwherethecorneroftheanvilisroundedtopreventmarringorgallingthe
iron.
Careshouldbetakentokeeptheironattheproperbendingheat.Ifitgets
belowaredheat,itshouldbeputbackinthefireandheatedagain.Tobenda
pieceatacertainpoint,withoutbendingtheadjacentsection,thepiecemaybe
heatedtoahighredheatandthenquicklycooleduptothepointofbendingby
dippinginwater.Bendingisthendonequicklybyhammering,orother
suitablemethods.
Bendingmaybeaccomplishedinseveralwaysbesideshammeringoverthe
anvil.Theironmaybeheatedandthenputinthepritchelorhardyholeand
bentbypullingoritmaybeclampedinaviseandbent.
Straighteningcanusuallybestbedoneonthefaceoftheanvil.Thestock
shouldalwaysbefirmlyheldandthenstruckwiththehammeratpointswhere
itdoesnottouchtheface.Sightingisthebestwaytotestforstraightnessand
tolocatethehighpointsthatneedstriking.

Fig.252.Tomakeauniformbendintheendofa
rod,strikethePartthatprojectsbeyondthehornand
keepfeedingtherodforwardwiththetongsasthe
bendingprogresses.Keeptheironatagoodworking
heatanddonotstriketherodwhereitrestsonthe
horn.
BendingFlatBarsEdgeways.Aflatbarcanusuallybeeasilybent
edgewaysbyheatingandplacingoverthehornandbendingthetwoends
downslowly,usingthehandsifthepieceislongenough,ortwopairsoftongs
inthecaseofshortpieces(seeFig.253).Sometimesthebendingcanbedone
easilybyputtingoneendofthepieceinthehardyholeandpullingonthe
otherend(seeFig.254).Ifthestockstartstobuckle,itshouldbelaidflaton
theanvilandstraightened.Hammeringtheoutsideedgeoftheironwhenlaid
flatwilltendtostretchitandthereforehelpwiththebeading.Oncethebendis
wellstarted,hammeringthepieceonedgearoundthehornisnotsodifficult.
Thestockshouldalwaysbefirmlyheld,eitherbyhandsorwithtongs,andthe
partstobebentshouldbeatahighredheat.Placesnottobebentshouldbe
comparativelycold.

Fig.253.Flatironmaybebentedgewisebyheating
tonearlyawhiteheatandbendingslowlywithtongs.
Thismethodisgoodinmakingflatchainhooks.

Fig.254.Bendingofheavypiecescansometimesbe
bestaccomplishedinthehardyhole.
291.BendingandForminganEye.Oneofthemostcommonbendingjobs
intheblacksmithshopisthatofforminganeyeontheendofarod.The
followingisagoodmethodofmakingsuchaneye:
1.Heattherodtoagoodredheatbackforadistanceofabout5to
8in.,dependingonthesizeoftheeye.

2.Quicklyplacetherodacrossthefaceoftheanvilwithjust
enoughoftheheatedendprojectingbeyondtheedgeoftheanvil
toformtheeye.Forexactworkthelengthofhotironthatisto
projectovermaybequicklymeasuredwithametalrule.Theiron
shouldbeplacedacrosstheanvilwellupnearthehornwherethe
edgeisrounded.
3.Bendtheenddown,formingasquarebend,withafewwell
directedblows.Workrapidlybeforetheironcools.
4.Heattheendofthestockandstartbendingthe.tipendaround
thehorn.Workfromthetipbacktowardthestem.Keeptheiron
hotthroughoutthepartbeingbentotherwisethebendingwillbe
slowanddifficult,andtheironwillnotbendatjusttheplaces
desired.Ifthesquarebendatthejunctureofthestemandeye
tendstostraightenout,itisanindicationthattheendofthestock
isnotbeingkepthotenoughwhilebeingbent.
5.Roundtheeyebydrivingitbackoverthepointofthehorn,
notingcarefullywhereitdoesnotrestagainstthehornand
strikingdownlightlyintheseplaces.Keeptheironwellheated.
6.Centertheeyeonthestem,ifnecessary,byplacingthestem
flatontheanvilfacewiththeeyeprojectingovertheedge,and
strikingthe.eye.Thestockshouldbewellheatedatthejuncture
ofthestemandeye,buttheeyeitselfshouldbepracticallycold.
Suchaconditioncanbeproducedbyheatingthewholeeyeand
thenquicklycoolingmostoftheroundedpartbydippingin
water.
292.Drawing.Drawingistheprocessofmakingapiecelongerandthinner.
Twoimportantpointsshouldbekeptinmindwhiledrawing:
1.Theironmustbekeptatagoodforgingheat,ahighredor
nearlywhite.
2.Heavy,straightdown,squareblowsshouldbestruck.
Manybeginnersmakethemistakeofstrikingacombinationdownand
forwardpushingblow,thinkingthatthepushinghelpstostretchthemetal.

Fig.255.Stepsinmakinganeye.
A.Placeawellheatedironacrosstheanvilwith.enoughstock
projectingovertoformtheeye.Wheretheeyemustbemade
accuratelytosize,useametalruleorsquareformeasuring.Work
rapidly.I
B.Bendtheprojectingportiondown,formingarightangle.
C.Finishtherightanglebendbystrikingalternatelyontopand
ontheside,keepingtheironatagoodworkingheatallthewhile.
D.Startbendingthetipendaroundthehorn,beingcarefulto
strike"overhanging"orbendingblows.

Fig.255a.Stepsinmakinganeye(continued).
E.Graduallyworkbackfromtheendtothesquarebend.
F.Turntheeyeoverandcloseitup.Exertconsiderablebackpull
onthetongstokeeptheupperpartoftheeyeupoffthehorn.In
thispositionthehammercanstrikebendingblowsinsteadof
flatteningormashingblows.
G.Roundtheeyebydrivingitbackoverthepointofthehorn.
Carefullynotewheretheeyedoesnottouchthehorn,andstrike
downlightlyintheseplaces.
H.Tostraightenthestemofaneye,placeitacrossthecornerof
theanvilfaceandstrikethehighpointswhiletheironisatagood
workingheat.
Drawingcanbedonemorerapidlyoverthehornthanonthefaceoftheanvil,
astheroundhornwedgesupintothemetalandlengthensit,andthereisless
tendencyforittostretchinalldirections.Ifapiecetendstogettoowideitmay
beplacedonedgeandhammered.
Hammeringaftertheredheatleavesishardworkandaccomplisheslittle.
Also,theironisapttosplitorcrackifhammeredtoocold.
DrawingRoundRods.Tomakearoundrodsmaller,thefollowingsteps
shouldbecarefullyfollowed.
1.Makeitfoursided,orsquareincrosssection.
2.Drawittoapproximatelythedesiredsizewhileitissquare.

3.Makeitdistinctlyeightsidedbyhammeringonthecorners
afteritisdrawnsufficiently.
4.Makeitroundagainbyrollingitslowlyontheanviland
hammeringrapidlywithlightblowsortaps.
Anattempttodrawroundrodswithoutfirstgoingtothesquaresectionnot
onlyrequiresalotofextraworkbutusuallyresultsinabadlydistortedand
misshapedpiece.
PointingaRod.Ifaroundpointisdesiredonarod,asquaretaperedpoint
shouldfirstbemade.Itistheneasytomakeiteightsidedandfinallyround.

Fig.256.Inpointingaroddorbar,raisetheback
end,tiltthetoeofthehammerdown,andworkon
thefaredgeoftheanvil.Roundpointsshouldbe
madesquarefirst,theneightsided,andfinallyround.
Inmakingapointtherodshouldnotbeheldflatontheanvil,butthebackend
shouldberaisedsomewhat.Also,thehammeringshouldbedonewiththetoe
ofthehammerlowerthantheheel,sothatthedesiredangleforthepointis
formedbetweenthehammerfaceandtheanvil.Thehammeringshouldbe
doneonthefaredgeoftheanvil,sothatthetoeofthehammerwillnotleave
marksintheanvilface.

Fig.257.Rollingapunchorpointedroundrodona
flatsurfaceandwatchingthepointwilltellwhetherit
isstraightandthepointiscentered.Ifthepoint

wobbles,itisoffcenter.
293.Upsetting.Upsettingissimplythereverseofdrawing,ortheprocessof
makingapieceshorterandthicker.Itisdonewhenmoremetalisneededto
giveextrastrength,aswhenaholeistobepunchedforaneye.Therearetwo
mainpointstobeobservedinupsetting:
1.Heatthebarorrodtoahighredornearlywhiteheat
throughoutthesectiontobeupset.
2.Strikeextremelyheavywelldirectedblows.
Lightblowssimplyflattenandburrtheendinsteadofupsettingthepiece
throughouttheheatedsection.Theextraheavyblowsneededforupsettingcan
bestbestruckbyfirststrikingAlightblowortwotogetthedirectionof
strikingandthenfollowingwithanextrahardblow.

Fig.258.Toinsuresuccessinupsetting,workthe
ironjustunderawhiteheatandstriketremendously
heavyblows.Lightblowssimplyflaretheend
withoutupsettingveryfarbackfromtheend.
Probablythebestwaytoupsetashortpieceistoplacethehotenddownon
theanvilandstrikethecoldend.Thehotend,ofcourse,maybeup,butitis
usuallyeasiertoupsetwithoutbendingifthehotendisdown.Ifthebarstarts
tobenditshouldbestraightenedatonce.Furtherhammeringwillsimplybend
itmoreinsteadofupsettingit.
Inordertoheatthoroughlytheparttobeupset,andyetconfinetheheattothis
part,itissometimesbettertoheattheworksomewhatfurtherthanthe
upsettingistogoandthencoolitquicklybacktothelineofupsettingby
dippinginthewater.
Theendofalongbarmaybeupsetbylayingitontheanvilfacewiththehot
endprojectingbeyondtheedge,andstrikingheavyblowsendwayswiththe

hammer.Ifthebarislongandheavyenough,itmaybeupseteasilyby
rammingthehotendagainstthefaceorthesideoftheanvil.

Fig.259.Whenitisdesiredtoheatonlyasmall
portionofaniron,asinupsettingonlytheendofa
piece,itissometimesnecessarytoheatalarger
portion,andthencoolbacktothedesiredpointby
dippinginwater.
294.Twisting.Twistingisreallyaformofbending.Smallpiecesmaybe
twistedbyheatingthesectiontobetwistedtoauniformredheat,clampinga
pairoftongsateachendofthesectionandapplyingaturningortwisting
force.Ifthepieceistoolargetobetwistedthisway(saymorethanabout1/4
in.thickby1in.wide),itmaybeclampedinaviseandtwistedwithapairof
tongsoramonkeywrench,thejawsoftheviseandthewrenchbeingcarefully
placedattheendsofthesectiontobetwisted.Itisimportantthattheworkbe
donerapidlybeforetheironcoolstoomuch.Forauniformtwist,theironmust
beatauniformtemperature.
Ifthetwistmustbeconfinedtoaverydefinitesectionofthestock,itisagood
plantoplacecenterpunchmarksattheendsofthesectionbeforetheironis
heated.
Caremustbeexercisedintwistingsoasnottogetthepieceoutof,alignment.
Ifitbecomesnecessarytostraightenthebaraftertwisting,itmaybedoneby
strikingwithawoodenmallet,ratherthanahammer,inordertoprevent
marringthesharpcornersofthetwistedpart.

Fig.260.Heavybarsmaybetwistedbyheatingtoa
goodworkingheat,clampinginavise,andtwisting
withawrenchorpairoftongs.
295.PunchingHoles.Itissometimeseasiertopunchaholeinapieceofiron
thantodrillitandforsomepurposesapunchedholeisbetter.Forinstance,in
forminganeyeontheendofabarinmakingahookoraclevis,punching
makesastrongereye.Asmallormedium.sizeholeisfirstpunchedandthen
expandedbydrivingthetaperedpunchonfurtherthroughthehole,firstfrom
onesideandthentheother.Thuslessmaterialiswastedthaniftheholewere
drilled,andastrongereyeresults.
Thestepsinpunchingaholeinhotironareasfollows:
1.Heattheirontoagoodworkingtemperature,ahighredor
nearlywhiteheat.
2.Placethehotironquicklyontheflatfaceoftheanvilnotover
thepritchelholeorhardyhole.Punchingoveraholewould
stretchandbulgetheiron.
3.Carefullyplacethepunchwheretheholeistobeanddriveit
straightdownintothe,metalwithheavyblowsuntilitisabout
twothirdsofthewaythrough.
4.Turntheironoveranddrivethepunchbackthroughfromthe
otherside.Reheattheironandcoolthepunchifneeded.The
punchshouldbecarefullylocatedsoastolineupwiththehole
punchedontheotherside.
5.Justasthepunchisabouttogothrough,movethepieceover

thepritchelholeorhardyholetoallowthesmallpelletorslugto
bepunchedout.
6.Enlargetheholetothedesiredsizebydrivingthepunch
throughtheholefirstfromonesideandthentheother.Always
keepthemetalatagoodworkingtemperature,reheatingasmay
benecessary.

Fig.261Inpunchingholesinhotiron,workitjust
underawhiteheat.
A.Carefullylocatethepunchanddriveitabouttwothirdsofthe
waythrough.
B.Thenturntheironoveranddriveitbackthroughfromthe
otherside.
C.Finallymovethepieceoverthepritchelholeorhardyholeto
allowtheslugorpellettobedriventhrough.
Theendofthepunchshouldbedippedinwaterfrequentlytokeepitfrom
gettingtoohot.Alittlepowdereddrycoaldroppedintotheholewillhelpto
keepthepunchfromsticking.

Fig.262.Inpunchinghotiron,thepunchshouldbe
cooledfrequentlybydippingintowater.
Mostbeginnershavedifficultyinplacingthepunchsoastogetthehole
centeredinabar.If,inplacingthepunch,itisfoundtobeoffcenter,itmaybe
leanedandtwistedslightlyuntilitisinthecorrectposition.Inpunchinghot
iron,itismuchbettertouseapunchwithahandleinit,asitisuncomfortable
toholdashortpunchonaredhotbar.
296.FormingPunchedEyes.Usually,althoughnotalways,whenaholeis
tobepunchedforaneye,asinachainhookoraclevis,itisbesttoupsetthe
stockfirstsoastogivemoremetalandmakeastrongereye.
Afterupsetting,theendisshapedandthecornersareroundedbefore
punching.Thiscanbestbedonebyforminganeckorshoulderjustbackof
theeyebyhammeringoverthefaredgeoftheanvil,asshowninFig.263A.
Theendisthenfurthershapedandthecornersroundedbyworkingoverthe
anvilassuggestedinthevariousotherviewsofFig.263.Havingtheendthus
shaped,theholemaybepunchedintheusualfashion.
Inaclevis,theholesarepunchedwithstraightsidestofittheclevispin.For
holesinchainhooks,however,itisdesirabletohavetheedgesandcorners
rounded.Thiscanbedonebyplacingtheeyeatanangleontheendofthe
hornandmakingthestockapproximatelyeightsidedandthenfinallyroundby
rollingslowlywhilestrikinglight,rapidblows(seeFig.264).

Fig.263.Formingashoulderorneck,preparatorytopunchinga
holeforaneye.Theironisfirstdrivendownagainstacornerof
theanvil,asshownat(A).Theendofthepieceisthenshaped
androundedbyworkingoverthecornersandthehornofthe
anvil,assuggestedinthevariousotherviews.

Fig.264.Smoothingboththeinsideandtheoutsideedgesofa
punchedeye.Theeyeisplacedonthehornatanangleandthe
stockmadeapproximatelyeightsided.Itisthenroundedby
rollingitslowlyonthehornandstrikingfastlightblows.

297.CuttingwiththeHardy.Theblacksmithdoesmostofhiscuttingof
ironandsteelonthehardyratherthanwithahacksaw.Althoughthehardy
doesnotleavequitesosmoothacutasasaw,itisquitesatisfactoryformost
work.Itcutsfasterandeasierthanasawandislessexpensivetouse,asthere
arenobladestowearoutorbreak.

Fig.265.Ironmaybecuteithererhotorcoldonthe
hardy.Coldironmaybenickeddeeplyontwoor
threesidesandbrokenbybending.Incuttinghot
iron,cutallthewaythroughfromoneside,being
carefultostrikeoverhangingblowsatthelastto
preventthehammerfromstrikingthecuttingedge.
Touseahardy,therodorbartobecutissimplyplacedonitandhammered
downagainstthesharpedge.Hardiesmaybeusedforeitherhotorcold
cutting.Somesmithsprefertokeeptwohardies,onethatisthickandstocky
andtemperedforcuttingcoldironandonethatisthinfor,cuttinghotiron.The
hardy,likeanyotherCuttingtool,worksmuchbetterifkeptsharp.Itmaybe
groundlikeacoldchisel.
Incuttingcoldiron,thebarmaybedeeplynickedontwoormoresidesand
thenbrokenoffbybending.Incuttinghotiron,itiscommonpracticetocut
clearthroughfromoneside.Caremustbetaken,ofcourse,nottoletthe
hammerstrikethecuttingedgeofthehardy,orelseboththehammerandthe
hardymaybedamaged.Infinishingacut,thelasttwoorthreeblowsshould
bestruckjustbeyondthecuttingedgeandnotdirectlyoverit.
CuttingToolSteel.Noattemptshouldbemadetocuttoolsteelinthe
hardenedstate.Itshouldalwaysbeannealedorsoftened.Tocutitonthe
hardy,itshouldbecuthotnotcoldandhandledjustlikeotherironorsteel.
Whereitisimportanttohaveasmoothcut,abaroftoolsteelmaybesawed
aboutaquarterofthewaythroughandthenbrokenbyclampinginaviseat
thesawinglineandhammering(seeArt.212,page146).
298.EstimatingAmountofStockRequired.Toestimatetheamountof
stockrequiredforbendsandcurves,estimatethelengthofthecenterline.For

example,supposeitisdesiredtoknowhowmuchwillbeneededformakinga
ringof1/2inchroundstockandof3in.insidediameter.Thelengthneeded
willbethelengthofthemidline,halfwaybetweentheinsideandtheoutside
edges.Itslengthisequaltothemiddiameter,31/2in.times3.1416,or11in.
Todeterminethelengthrequiredforpiecesofirregularshape,smallwirecan
bebentintothedesiredshapeandthenstraightenedoutandmeasured.
299.StrikingwiththeHammer.Successinblacksmithingdependslargely
uponabilitytostrikeeffectivelywiththehammer.Mostblacksmithingrequires
heavy,welldirectedblows.Wherelightblowsarebetter,however,they
shouldbeused.
Lightblowsarestruckmostlywithmotionfromthewristwhileheavierblows
requirebothwristandelbowactionandveryheavyblowsrequireactionfrom
theshoulderinadditiontowristandelbowmotion.
Todirecthammerblowsaccurately,strikeoneortwo.lighttapsfirst,togetthe
properdirectionandfeelofthehammer,andthenfollowwithquick,sharp
blowsofappropriateforceorstrength.Itisalsoimportanttouseahammerof
appropriatesize.Aheavyhammeronlightworkisawkward,andblows
cannotbeaccuratelyplaced.Andusingalighthammeronheavyworkisvery
slowandtedious.
300.Blacking.Afterforgingapieceofironitisagoodplantoblackitby
heatingitslightlyandrubbingwithanoilyrag.Theironshouldnotbered,yet
itshouldbehotenoughtoburntheoiloffandpreventagreasyappearance.
Blackingthepiecegivesabetterappearanceandprovidessomeprotection
againstrusting.Temperedtools,ofcourse,shouldnotbeblackedinthis
manner,asheatingwilldrawthetemper.

Fig.266.Strikingwiththehammer.
A.Lightblowsarestrucklargelywithwristmotion.
B.Moderateblowsrequirebothelbowandwristaction.
C.Heavyblowsrequireshoulderactionaswellaswristand
elbowmotion.

Fig.267.Anironmaybeblackedbyheatingit
slightlyandrubbingIingitwithanoilyrag.Theiron
shouldbejusthotenoughtomaketheragsmoke.
Blackingimprovestheappearanceandaffordssome
protectionagainstrusting.

PointsonBlacksmithing
1.Aclean,deep,compactfireisthefirstrequirementforgoodblacksmithing.
2.Puttheironsinthefireinahorizontalpositionneverpointthemdowninto
thefire.
3.Usetongsthatfitthework.Iftheydonotfit,heatthemandreshapethejaws
overthepiecetobeheld.
4.Alwaysworktheironsatagoodforgingheatabrightredornearlywhite
heatformildsteel.
5.Neverallowtheironstogethotenoughtosparkle,exceptinwelding,and
eventhenverylittle.
6.Inbending,usebendingorleverageblowsnotmashingblows.
7.Indrawing,strikesquare,directblowsstraightdownnotforwardpushing,
orglancingblows.
8.Indrawingroundrods,alwaysmakethemsquarefirstanddothedrawing
whilesquare.Whendrawnsufficiently,makethemeightsidedandfinally
round.
9.Tosmoothuparoundrod,rollitslowlyontheanvilwhilestrikingaseries
oflight,quickblows.
10.Inpointingrods,workonthefaredgeoftheanvil.Raisethebackendof
therodandstrikewiththetoeofthehammertilteddown.
11.Inupsettinguseahighheat,andstrikeextraheavyblows.
12.Tomakeagoodtwist,havethesectiontobetwistedatauniform
temperature.
13.Topunchaholeinahotiron,startinontheflatfaceoftheanvil.Then
turnitoveranddrivethepunchbackfromtheotherside.Movetheironovera
holeintheanvilfaceforfinallydrivingoutthepellet.
14.Incuttingonthehardy,becarefulnottoletthehammerstrikethecutting
edge.
15.Usethechippingblockforcuttingwiththecoldchiselnottheflatfaceof
theanvil.
16.Toestimatetheamountofstockrequiredforcurvedpiecesestimatethe
lengthofthemidline.
17.Strikelighthammerblowswithwristmotiononlymediumblows'with
motionfromboththewristandtheelbowandheavyblowswithmotionfrom

theshoulder,wrist,andelbow.
18.Blackingaforginggivesitabetterappearanceandprovidessome
protectionagainstrust.Toblack,simplyrubthepiecewithanoilyragwhenit
isjusthotenoughtomaketheragsmoke.
Questions
290.(a)Whatarethemainfundamentalforgingoperations?(b)Whyisit
importanttomasterthemthoroughly?(c)Whatarethemainimportantpoints
toobserveinbendingironattheanvil?(d)Howmayironsbebentwithout
mashingthem?(e)Howmaysquarebendsbemadewithoutmarringorgalling
theiron?(f)Howmayironsbestraightened?(g)Whatprocedurewouldyou
useforbendingflatironsedgeways?
291.(a)Explainandbeabletodemonstratetheprocedureformakinganeye
ontheendofarod.(b)Ifaneyeissomewhatovalinshape,howmayitbest
berounded?(c)Whyisitimportanttokeeptheironatahighforgingheat?
292.(a)Whatisdrawing?(b)Whatarethemainimportantpointstobe
observedindrawing?(c)When,ifever,shouldforwardpushingblowsbe
usedindrawing?(d)Whatdifficultiesmayarisefromhammeringtheirontoo
cold?(e)Whatarethestepsintheprocessofdrawingroundrods?(f)In
makingataperedpoint,whyshouldtheironnotbelaidflatontheanvil?(g)
Whyshouldthehammeringbedoneonthefar.edgeoftheanvilface?(h)
Whyshouldthetoeofthehammerbelowerthantheheel?
293.(a)Whatisupsettingandforwhatpurposesisitdone?(b)Whyshould
veryheavyblowsbeusedinupsetting?(c)Howmayaveryhighheatbeused
andyetconfinedtoonlytheportiontobeupset?(d)Whatspecialwaysmay
beusedforupsettingtheendofalongheavybar?
294.(a)Howmayatwistbeneatlymadeinabarandconfinedtoadefinite
partofthebar?(b)Whyisauniformheatespeciallydesirablefortwisting?(c)
Whyisitimportanttoworkrapidlyintwisting?
295.(a)Whatadvantageistheretobegainedbypunchingaholeratherthan
drillingit?(b)Justwhatprocedureshouldbeusedinpunchingahole?(c)
Whyshouldtheholebestartedontheflatfaceoftheanvilratherthanoverthe
pritchelholeorhardyhole?(d)Howmaythepunchbekeptfromstickingin
thehole?(e)Howmayapunchbemaneuveredtogetitlocatedexactlyinthe
desiredpositionforpunching?
296.(a)Justhowcanaheadorshoulderbeformedontheendofabar
preparatorytomakingapunchedeye?(b)Howmaytheeyeforachainhook
havethecornersandedgesroundedaftertheholeispunched?
297.(a)Whatadvantagesdoescuttingwithahardyhaveoverhacksawing?
(b)Whatpointsshouldbeobservedincuttingwithahardy?(c)Cantoolsteel
becutonahardy?Ifso,justhow?

298.(a)Howmaytheamountofstockrequiredforaringbeclosely
estimated?(b)Howmaytheamountofstockrequiredforirregularbendsand
curvesbeestimated?
299.(a)Explainandbeabletodemonstratejusthowtoholdthehammerand
strikelightblowsalsomediumblowsandheavyblows.(b)Whatdifficulties
mayarisefromusingahammerthatistooheavyortoolightfortheworkat
hand?
300.(a)Howmayironsbeblackedafterforging?(b)Howhotshouldtheybe
forblacking?(c)Whatarethepurposesofblacking?(d)Maytemperedtools
beblackenedinthesame,mannerasordinarymildsteel?
References
SCHWARZKOPF:"PlainandOrnamentalForging."
RADEBAUGH:"RepairingFarmMachinery."
FRIESE"FarmBlacksmithing."
HARCOURT:"ElementaryForgePractice."
Boss,DENT,andWHITE:"MechanicalTraining."
SMITHROBERTH.:"AgriculturalMechanics."
SELVIDGF,andALLTON:Blacksmithing.
CHAPTERXVIII__BLACKSMITHINGEQUIPMENTFORGEFIRES
CHAPTERXIX__FUNDAMENTALFORGINGOPERATIONS
CHAPTERXX__FORGINGANDTEMPERINGTOOLSTEEL
CHAPTERXXI__WELDINGPLOWSHARPENINGKINDSOFIRONANDSTEEL

CHAPTERXX
FORGINGANDTEMPERINGTOOLSTEEL
Oneofthemainadvantagesofhavingaforgeinthefarmshopistobeabletoredressand
makeandtempertoolslikecoldchisels,punches,screwdrivers,picks,wreckingbars,etc.
Toolsteelformakingcoldchiselsandpunchesandsimilartoolsmaybeboughtfroma
blacksmithororderedthroughahardwarestoreoritmaybesecuredfrompartsofold
machines,suchashayraketeeth,pitchforktines,axlesanddriveshaftsfromold
automobiles.
301.NatureofToolSteel.Toolsteelcontainsmorecarbonthanmildsteel,anditis

granular,whilemildsteelisfibrousorstringy(seeArt.328,page242).Thesmallerthesize
ofthegrainsorparticlesintoolsteel,thetougherandstrongeritis.Whentoolsteelis
heatedaboveacertaintemperature,calledthecriticaltemperature,thegrainsize
increases.(Thecriticaltemperatureisusuallybetween1300and1600F.,dependingupon
thecarboncontent,andforpracticalpurposesisindicatedbyadarkredcolor.)Ifthesteelis
heatedonlyslightlyabovethecriticaltemperature,thefinegrainsizemayberestoredby
allowingittocoolslowlyandthenreheatingittojustthecriticaltemperature.Ifthesteelis
heatedtoawhiteheat,however,thegrainsizewillbepermanentlyenlargedandthesteel
damagedorpossiblyruined.Iftoolsteelishammeredwithheavyblowswhileitisjust
abovethecriticaltemperature,thegrainsizewillbemadesmaller,andthesteelthereby
refinedandimproved.Itisevident,therefore,thatapieceofsteelmaybeimprovedor
damagedorevenruined,dependinguponhowitisheatedandforged.
302.HeatingToolSteel.Toolsteelshouldbeheatedslowlyandevenlyinagood,clean,
deep,cokefire.Unevenheating,whichisusuallycausedbyheatinginpoorshallowfireor
bytoorapidheating,resultsinunequalexpansion,whichinturnmaycauseinternalcracks
andflaws.
Toolsteelshouldnotbeheatedaboveabrightredorloworangeheat,andtothis
temperatureonlyforheavyhammering.Heatinghigherislikelytoruinthegrainstructure.
Incaseapieceofsteelisaccidentallyheatedalittletoohot,thegrainsizemayberestored
by(1)allowingittocoolslowlyandthenreheating,beingcarefulnottooverheatitagain,
or(2)byheavyhammeringatabrightredorloworangeheat.Thedamagedoneby
overheatingwilldependuponthetemperaturetowhichitwasheated,howcarefullyitis
subsequentlyheatedandhandled.
303.ForgingToolSteel.Sincethemakingofasatisfactorytooldependssolargelyupon
theproperheatingandhandlingofthesteel,thefollowingpointsshouldbekeptinmind
whenforgingwithit.
1.Toolsteelhasamuchnarrowerrangeofforgingtemperaturesthanmild
steel.Hammeringbelowaredheatmaycausecrackingorsplitting,while
temperaturesaboveabrightredordarkorangemaydamagethegrain
structure.
2.Toolsteelshouldalwaysbeuniformlyheatedthroughoutbeforeitis
hammered.Otherwisetheoutsideparts,whicharehotter,maystretchaway
fromtheinsideparts,whicharecolder,andthuscauseinternalflaws.
3.Verylighthammeringshouldbeavoided,evenwhenthesteeliswell
heated,becausethismaylikewisedrawtheoutersurfacewithoutaffectingthe
innerparts.
4.Asmuchoftheforgingaspossibleshouldbedonebyheavyhammeringat
abrightredordarkorangeheatslightlyabovethecriticaltemperatureasthis
willmakethegrainsizesmallerandthusrefineandimprovethesteel.
5.Whenapieceisbeingfinishedandsmoothedbymoderateblows,itshould
notbeaboveadarkredheat.

304.AnnealingToolSteel.Afteratoolhasbeenforged,itisbesttoannealit,orsoftenit,
beforehardeningandtempering.Thisistorelieve'anystrainsthatmayhavebeensetupby
alternateheatingandcoolingandbyhammering.Annealingisdonebyheatingthetooltoa
uniformdarkredheatandplacingitsomewhereoutofdrafts,asindryashes,orlime,and
allowingittocoolveryslowly.(Copperandbrassmaybesoftenedbyheatingtoaredheat
andplungingquicklyintowater.)
305.HardeningandTemperingToolSteel.Iftoolsteelisheatedtoadarkred,orthe
criticaltemperature,andthenquenched(cooledquicklybydippinginwaterorother
solution),itwillbemadeveryhard,thedegreeofhardnessdependinguponthecarbon
contentofthesteelandtherapidityofcooling.Thehigherthecarboncontent,theharderit
willbeandthemorerapidthecooling,theharderitwillbe.
Atoolthushardenedistoohardandbrittleandmustbetempered,orsoftenedsomewhat.
Thisisdonebyreheatingthetooltoacertaintemperature(alwaysbelowthehardening
temperature)andquicklycoolingitagain.Theamountofsofteningaccomplishedwill
dependuponthetemperaturetowhichthetoolisreheated.Forpracticalpurposesthefarm
shop,thesetemperaturesarejudgedbythecoloroftheoxideorscaleonthesteelasitis
beingreheated.Astrawcolor,forexample,indicatesthatthetoolhasbeenreheatedtoa
comparativelylowtemperature,andifquenchedonastrawcolor,itwillberatherhard.A
bluecolor,ontheotherhand,indicatesthatthetoolhasbeenreheatedconsiderablyhigher,
and,ifquenchedonablue,itwillbesofter.
306.HardeningandTemperingaColdChisel.Afteracoldchiselisforgedand
annealed,itmaybehardenedandtemperedasfollows:
1.Heattheendtoadarkred,back2or3in.fromthecuttingedge.
2.Coolabouthalfofthisheatedpartbydippingincleanwaterandmovingit
aboutquicklyupanddownandsideways,untiltheendiscoldenoughtohold
inthehands.
3.Quicklypolishonesideofthecuttingendbyrubbingwithemerycloth,a
pieceofanoldgrindingwheel,apieceofbrick,oranoldfile.
4.Carefullywatchthecolorspasstowardthecuttingend.Thefirstcolorto
passdownwillbeyellow,followedinturnbystraw,brown,purple,darkblue,
andlightblue.
5.Whenthedarkbluereachesthecuttingedge,diptheendquicklyintowater
andmoveitaboutrapidly.Ifmuchheatisleftintheshankabovethecutting
edge,coolthispartslowlysoasnottohardentheshankandmakeitbrittle.
Thisisdonbysimplydippingonlythecuttingendandkeepingitcoolwhile
theheatintheshankaboveslowlydissipatesintotheair.
6.Whenallrednesshaslefttheshankdropthetoolintothebucketortubuntil
itisentirelycool.

Fig.268.Temperingacoldchisel.
A.Theendisheatedtocherryredbackabout3in.fromthe
cuttingedge.Thenabouthalftheheatedportioniscooledinclean
water,movingthetoolaboutrapidly,upanddownandsideways,
topreventtoosharpdemarcationbetweenthehotandcoldparts.
B.Theendisthenquicklypolishedbyvigorousrubbingwith
emeryclothorotherabrasivetoenablethecolorstobeseenas
theypassdown.Whenadarkblueappearsatthecuttingedge,the
endofthetoolandonlytheendisagaindipped,workingitup
anddownandaround,andkeepingitcoldwhileanyheatinthe
shankofthetoolisslowlygivenuptotheair.
Whenthetoolisfirstdipped,itisimportantthatitbemovedupanddowntopreventthe
formationofasharplinebetweenthehardenedandunhardenedparts,assuchalinemight
causethetooltobreakatthispointsometimelaterwheninuse.
Ifthecolorscomedowntoorapidly,thetoolmaybedippedintothewaterandoutagain
quicklytoretardtheirmovement.Whentheymovedownslowlyitiseasiertowatchthem
anddoagoodjoboftempering.
Dippingtheendatthefirstofthehardeningandtemperingprocessmakesitveryhard.The
heatleftupintheshankofthetool,however,graduallymovesdowntothecuttingendand
softensitandwhenitissoftenedtothedesireddegreeofhardness,asindicatedbythe
color,thetoolisthenquicklyquenchedtopreventanyfurthersoftening.Thevariouscolors
aresimplyindicationsofdifferenttemperatures.
Ifatoolistriedandfoundtobetoosoft,aasindicatedbydenting,itshouldberetempered
andthefinalquenchingmadebeforethecolorshavegoneoutquiteasfarastheydid
originallythatis,beforetheendhasbeensoftenedquiteasmuch.Incaseatoolprovesto
betoohardandtheedgechipsorcrumbles,itshouldberetemperedandthecolorsallowed
togooutalittlefurther.

307.TemperingPunches,ScrewDrivers,andSimilarTools.Toolslikepunches,screw
drivers,scratchawls,etc.,maybetemperedinthesamemannerasacoldchisel,butmaybe
madeharderorsofteraccordingtotherequirementsofthetool.Ascratchawlshouldbe
madesomewhatharderthanacoldchisel,arockdrillsomewhatharder,acenterpunchjust
alittleharder,apunchforliningupholessomewhatsofter,ascrewdriversomewhatsofter,
etc.
Differentgradesoftoolsteelwillhavedifferentdegreesofhardnesswhenquenchedatthe
samecolor.Therefore,itmaybenecessarytoexperimentalittlewiththefirstpieceofa
newlotofsteelinordertosecurethedesireddegreeofhardness.
308.TemperingKnives.Knivesandtoolswithdelicatepartsareusuallyhardenedand
temperedinamannerslightlydifferentfromthatusedforcoldchisels,inordertoavoidthe
dangerofoverheatingandwarpingandtoinsureuniformhardeningandtemperingofthe
cuttingedges.
Afteraknifeisforged,itshouldbeannealed.Itisthenheatedslowlyanduniformlytoa
darkred,orthecriticaltemperature.Itisthenquicklycooledbydippingedgewaysinclean
tepidwateroroil,thickedgefirst.Thismethodofdippinghelpstoinsureuniformcooling
andthereforeuniformhardeningandfreedomfromwarping.Itisthenpolishedand
reheatedbydrawingitbackandforththroughaflame,orbylayingitagainstalargepiece
ofredhotironandturningitfrequentlytoinsureuniformheating.Whenthedesiredcolor,
usuallyblue,appears,itisagainquicklycooled.
Anothermethodofheatingknivesandsimilartoolsforhardeningandtemperingistodraw
themslowlybackandforthinsideapipeintheforgefire.Thepipeshouldfirstbe
uniformlyheatedinabigfireandthenturnedfrequentlytokeepituniformlyheatedonall.
sides.Theknifeshouldnotbeallowedtotouchthepipe.
PointsonForgeandTemperingToolSteel
1.Useagood,clean,deep,cokefireforheatingtoolsteelandheatitslowly
andevenly.
2.Heatinginapoorshallowfire,orheatingtoorapidly,islikelytocause
unevenheating,whichresultsinunequalexpansion,whichinturnmaycause
internalflawsorcracks.
3.Properhammeringoftoolsteelatthepropertemperaturerefinesit,making
thegrainsizesmaller.
4.Doriothammertoolsteelunlessitisatleastatadarkredheat,andheated
uniformlyclearthrough.
5.Hammeringbelowaredheatislikelytocausecrackingandsplitting.
6.Hammeringwhennotheatedclearthroughmaycausetheouterpartsto
stretchawayfromtheinnerpartsandcauseinternalflawsorcracks.
7.Lighthammeringshouldbeavoidedevenwhenthesteeliswellheated,

becauseofdangerofdrawingtheoutersurfacewithoutaffectingtheinner
parts.
8.Neverheattoolsteelaboveabrightredorloworangeheat,andthenonly
forheavyhammering.
9.Formoderatehammering,asinfinishingandsmoothingajob,donotheat
aboveadarkred.
10.Toolsteelisruinedifitgetswhitehot.
11.Incasetoolsteelisaccidentlyoverheatedsomewhat,allowittocool
slowlyandthenreheat,beingcarefulnottooverheatitagainorheatittoa
brightredorloworangeheatandforgebyheavyhammeringtorestorethe
finegrainsize.
12.Afteratoolisforged,itshouldbeannealedbyheatingtoauniformlow
redandplacingitindryashesorsimilarmaterialtocoolslowly.
13.Inquenchingatoollikeacoldchisel,moveitaboutrapidlyupanddown
andaroundtopreventasharplineofdemarcationbetweenthehotandcold
parts.
14.Temperingcolorsshouldmoveslowlysotheymaybeeasilyseen.Ifthey
movetoofast,dipthetoolquicklyintowaterforaninstant.
15.Inthefinalquenchingofatoollikeacoldchisel,cooltheendquicklybut
dissipateany,heatleftintheshankveryslowly.Otherwisetheshankmaybe
hardandbrittle.
16.Incaseatoolisfoundtobetoohard,retemperitandallowthetemper
colorstogooutalittlefurtherbeforefinalquenching.
17.Incasethetoolistoosoft,quenchbeforethecolorsgosofar.
Questions
301.(a)Whatmaterialsmayusuallybeobtainedaboutthefarmformakingtoolslikecold
chisels,punches,andscrewdrivers?(b)Whatarethechiefdifferences,inchemical
compositionandphysicalproperties,betweentoolsteelandmildsteel?(c)Whatisthe
criticaltemperatureoftoolsteel?(d)Howmaythesmithrecognizeit?(e)Howmaytool
steelbesohammeredastorefineit?
302.(a)Whyshouldtoolsteelnotbeheatedtoorapidly?(b)Whati'sthehighestsafe
forgingheatfortoolsteel?(c)Whattroublewilloccuriftoolsteelisoverheated?(d)What
shouldbedoneincasetoolsteelisaccidentallyoverheated?
303.(a)Whattroublesmaydevelopfromhammeringtoolsteelbelowaredheat?(b)What
troublemaydevelopfromhammeringwhenitisnotuniformlyheatedthroughout,orfrom
hammeringwithveryfightblows?(c)Whatisthebestheatforheavyhammeringoftool
steel?Formoderateorfinishhammering?

304.(a)Whatisannealing?(b)Whyshouldapieceoftoolsteelbeannealedafteritis
forged?(c)Justwhatistheprocedureforannealing?
305.(a)Howmaytoolsteelbehardened?(b)Whatdeterminesthedegreeofhardnessto
whichapieceoftoolsteelmaybehardened?(c)Whatistempering?(d)Howmaytool
steelbetempered?
306.(a)Explainandbeabletodemonstratetheprocessofhardeningandtemperingacold
chisel.(b)Namethecolorsintheorderinwhichtheyappearattheendofthechisel.(c)
Whyisitimportantthattheendofthechiselbemovedaboutrapidlyinthewateratthefirst
quenching?(d)Whyisitimportantthatonlythecuttingendbecooledquicklyatthe
secondquenching,andthattheshankbecooledslowly?(e)Whyisitdesirabletohavethe
colorsmovedownslowly?(f)Whatwouldyourecommend,ifupontrialitisfoundthata
coldchiselhasbeentemperedtoohard?Iftoosoft?
307.(a)Inwhatrespectsaretools,likepunches,scratchawls,andscrewdrivers,tempered
differentlyfromcoldchisels?(b)Howshouldthehardnessofthefollowingtoolscompare
withthatofacoldchisel?Scratchawl?Screwdriver?Rockdrill?Centerpunch?
308.(a)Whyareknivesandsimilartoolsnothardenedandtemperedinthesamemanneras
coldchisels?(b)Outline,stepbystep,agoodmethodofhardeningandtemperingaknife.
(c)Inquenchingaknife,whichpartisimmersedfirst?Why?
References
SCHWARZKOPF:"PlainandOrnamentalForging."
BURGHARDT:"MachineToolOperation."PartI.
RADFBAUGH:"RepairingFarmMachinery."
FRIESE:"FarmBlacksmithing."
HARCOURT:"ElementaryForgePractice."
Boss,DENT,andWHITE:"MechanicalTraining."
SMITH,ROBERTH.:"AgriculturalMechanics."
SELVIDGEandALLTON:"Blacksmithing."
CHAPTERXVIII__BLACKSMITHINGEQUIPMENTFORGEFIRES
CHAPTERXIX__FUNDAMENTALFORGINGOPERATIONS
CHAPTERXX__FORGINGANDTEMPERINGTOOLSTEEL
CHAPTERXXI__WELDINGPLOWSHARPENINGKINDSOFIRONANDSTEEL

CHAPTERXXI
WELDING
PLOWSHARPENING
KINDSOFIRONANDSTEEL

WELDING
309.TheWeldingFire.Agoodfireisthefirstrequirementforwelding.Itisimportantfor
anyblacksmithingwork,butforweldingitisindispensable.
Thefiremustbeclean,thatis,freefromclinkers,brass,babbitt,etc.,assuchimpurities
tendtomaketheironsslipperyinsteadofstickyattheweldingtemperature.Lotsofgood
cokeisneeded,asfreshcoalnotonlymakesasmokyfirebutmayalsointroducesome
sulphur,whichwillmakeweldingdifficult,ifnotimpossible.
Thefireshouldbedeep,withatleast4in.ofburningcokebelowtheirons.Thereshould
alsobeburningcokeonbothsidesandabovetheirons.Thusenoughheatcanbeprovided
forthoroughheatingoftheironsbeforethefireburnsdown.
Thefireshouldbecompactandwellbankedwithdampenedcoalsoastoconfine.and
concentratetheheatandtopreventtoomuchairfromgoingthroughthefireandcausing
theironstooxidizeorscaleunduly.
Thefireshouldbethoroughlycleanedabouteveryhalfhourwhilewelding.
310.ScarfingtheIrons.Endstobeweldedtogethershouldfirstbeproperlyshapedor
scarfed.Scarfedendsshouldbeshort,usuallynotover11/2timesthethicknessofthe
stockandtheyshouldhaveroundedorconvexsurfaces,sothatwhentheycometogether
anyslagorimpuritieswillbesqueezedoutratherthantrappedintheweld.Long,thin,
taperingscarfsaretobeavoidedbecausetheyareeasilyburntinthefireandbecausethey
coolandlosetheirweldingheatveryrapidlywhenremovedfromthefire,thusmaking
weldingexceedinglydifficult.
Inordertocounteractthewastingawayoftheironsbyscalingandthetendencytodraw
outfromhammeringwhentheyarewelded,theendsarecommonlyupsetbeforescarfing.
Scarfsontheendsofbarsaremadebyworkingonthefaredgeoftheanvil,striking
backinguporsemiupsettingblowswiththetoeofthehammerlowerthantheheel.(See
Art.314,page235,forinstructionsonthelinkscarf.)
311.WeldingFlux.Boraxorcleansand,oramixtureofthetwo,maybeusedasa
weldingflux.Commercialweldingflux,however,suchasmaybeboughtfromhardware
stores,isusuallymoresatisfactoryandsincebutalittleisneeded,itisprobablybesttobuy
asmallpackageforthefarmshop.
Fluxisappliedtothepiecestobeweldedaftertheyareataredorwhiteheatandjust

beforetheweldingheatistobetaken.Itcoverstheironsandcausestheoxidetomeltata
lowertemperature.Theoxidemustbemeltedbeforetheironscanbewelded.
Fluxisnotneededinweldingwroughtiron,asitmaybeheatedabovethemelting
temperatureoftheoxidewithoutdangerofburning.Althoughitispossibletoweldmild
steelwithoutflux,itismucheasiertodoagoodjobwithit.Toolsteelcannotbewelded
withoutflux.
312.HeatingtheIrons.Theironsshouldbeheatedslowlyatfirst,sotheywillheat
thoroughlyanduniformlythroughout.Theironsshouldbeturnedoveronceortwice
duringtheheatingtoinsureequalheatingofallsidesandparts.
Aftertheironsreachabrightredheat,removethemanddipthescarfedendsintoflux,or
sprinklethefluxonthemwiththefingers.Replacetheironsinthefireandcontinuetoheat,
beingcarefulnottobrushthefluxofftheironsbeforeitmelts.Pullafewlumpsofcokeon
topoftheironsandraisethecokeoccasionallywiththepokertoseehowtheheatingis
progressing.
Caremustbetakentoseethatbothironsreachtheweldingheatatthesametime.Ifone
heatsfaster,pullitbackintotheedgeofthefireforafewseconds.Duringthelastpartof
theheating,havethescarfedsidesoftheironsdownsotheywillbefullyashotastheother
partsofthepieces.
313.TheWeldingHeat.Whentheironsreachtheweldingtemperature,theywillbea
brilliant,dazzlingwhitetheirsurfaceswillappearmolten,muchlikeameltingsnowball
andafewexplosivesparkswillbegivenoff.Whenthesparksstarttocomefromthefirea
littlemoreviolently,itistimetoremovethemandweldthemtogether.
314.WeldingaLinkorRing.Tomakealinkorring,thestockisfirstheatedandbent
intoahorseshoeorUshape.Theendsarethenscarfedbyplacingontheanvil,withone
enddiagonallyacrosstheshoulderbetweentheanvilfaceandthechippingblock,andwith
theotherendagainsttheverticalsideoftheanvil.Aseriesofthreeorfourmediumorlight
blowsarestruckontheendontheshoulder,swingingthetongsalittlebetweeneach
blow.InthismannertheendoftheUisgivenashort,blunt,anglingtaperwithaslightly
roughenedsurface.Thepieceisthenturnedoverandtheotherendscarfedinthesame
manner.Thescarfsmaybefinishedbystrikinglightlywiththecrosspeenofthehammer.

Fig.269.Stepsinmakingalink.
ThelegsoftheUarenextbentoverthehorn,lappedtogether,andhammeredshut.Itis
importantthatthelinkorringbesomewhateggshapedatthisstagenotround.Theends
shouldcrosseachotheratanangleofabout90deg.Thisinsuresplentyofmaterialatthe
jointforfinishingthelinkandpreventsathin,weaksectionattheweld.

Fig.270.Agoodmethodofscarfinglinks.
Thelinkisthenplacedinagoodweldingfireandheated,fluxbeingappliedafteraredheat
isreached.Thelinkmayneedtobeturnedoverinthefireatimeortwoinordertoinsure
evenheating.

Fig.271Stepsinmakingaring.
A.Bendtohorseshoeshape.B.Scarfsameaschainlink.C.Bendeggshaped
andweld.
Whentheweldingheatisreached,theworkisquicklyremovedfromthefire,givenaquick
rapovertheanviltoshakeoffanyslagorimpurities,andthenputinplaceonthefaceof
theanvilandtheendshammeredtogether.Thelinkisstrucktwoorthreequick,medium
blowsononeside,thenturnedoverandstruckontheotherside.
Mediumblowsareusedbecausetheironatweldingheatissoft,andheavyblowswould
mashitoutofshape.Forcingthepartsfirmlytogetherisallthatisrequired.Itisessentialto
workfastbeforetheironlosestheweldingheat.Asecondorevenathirdweldingheatmay
betakenifnecessarytocompletelyweldtheendsdown.
Aftertheendsareweldedtogether,thelinkisfinishedbyrollingitslowlyonthehorn(by
twistingorswingingthetongsbackandforth)whilehammeringrapidlywithlightblows.
Incaseofalargering,theweldcanbestbefinishedbymakingthestocksquare,theneight
sidedandfinallyroundasindrawingroundrods.

Fig.272.Theweldonalinkorringshouldbefinishedbyrolling
itslowlyonthehornwhilehammeringwithaseriesofrapid,light
blows.Largeringsmaybefinishedbymakingthestocksquare,
theneightsided,andfinallyround.
315.WeldingRodsorBars.Toweldrodsorbars,itisbesttoupsettheendssomewhat
beforescarfing.Thescarfsshouldbeshortandthickandwithroundedconvexsurfaces
(seeFig.273).Theironsarefluxedandbroughtuptotheweldingheatintheusualmanner.
Whentheyreachtheweldingheat,theyareremovedfromthefire,struckquicklyoverthe
edgeoftheanviltoshakeoffanyslagorimpurities,putinplaceontheanviland
hammeredtogetherfirstononesideandthentheotherwithlightormediumblows,
followedbyheavierones.Afterthefirstblowortwotosticktheirons,theendsofthe
scarfsshouldbeweldeddownnextbecausetheyarethinandlosetheirwelding
temperaturerapidly.

Fig.273.A.Roundrodsupset,scarfed,andinpositionfor
welding.B.Flatbarupsetandscarfedforwelding.
GettingIronsinPlaceonAnvil.Theironsareputinplaceontheanvilfacewiththe
scarfedsurfacestogether,andwiththelefthandpieceontop.Thepiecescanthusbeheld
togetherwithonlyonehand,leavingtherighthandfreetousethehammer.Steadyingthe
piecesovertheedgesoftheanvilwillhelpgetthemaccuratelyandquicklyplacedtogether
(seeFig.275).

Fig.274.Applyweldingfluxwithironsataredheat,andjust
beforetheweldingheatistaken.

Fig.275.Placingironstogetherandwelding.Steadytheirons
overtheedgesoftheanvil,theoneinthelefthandbeingontop,
asatA.Graduallyraisethehandsuntiltheironinthelefthand
holdstheotheroneagainsttheanvil,asatB,whiletherighthand
strikeswiththehammer.
Itisagoodplanforthebeginnertopracticebringingtheironsoutofthefireandplacing
themtogetherafewtimesbeforetakingtheweldingheat.Piecesthatarelongenoughtobe
heldinthehandswithouttongsaremoreeasilyhandledthanshortpieces.
FinishingtheWeld.Ifitisnotpossibletogetallpartsweldeddownatthefirstheat,then
fluxisreappliedandanotherheattaken.Oncethepiecesarestuckwellenoughtohold

together,however,theyaremuchmoreeasilyhandled.Inweldingsmallpieces,itis
frequentlynecessarytotaketwoextraheats,oneoneachsideoftheirons.Intakingan
extraheattowelddownalap,thelapshouldbeontheundersideinthefirejustbefore
removing.Thisinsuresthoroughheating.
Aftertheweldiscompletedinaroundrod,theweldedsectionshouldthenbesmoothed
andbroughttosizebyfirstmakingthesectionsquare,asindrawingroundrods,and
keepingitsquareuntildrawndowntosize.Itisthenfinishedbymakingiteightsided,and
finallyroundbyrollingitslowlyontheanvilwhilestrikingaseriesoflight,rapidblows.
316.InCaseofFailure.Iftheironsdonotstickatthefirstattempt,donotcontinue
hammeringbutreshapethescarfsandtryagain,beingsurethatthefireiscleanandthatitis
deepandcompact.Ironswillnotstickifthereisclinkerinthefire,orifithasburntlowand
hollow.Besure,also,thattheironsarebroughtwelluptotheweldingtemperature.Itis
generallynotpossibletomakeironsstickaftertwoorthreeunsuccessfulattemptsbecause
theywillmostlikelybeburntsomewhat,andburntironsaredifficultorimpossibletoweld.
Insuchcasestheendsshouldbecutoffandrescarfed.
317.WeldinganEyebolt.Tomakeaweldedeyebolt,ashort,blunt,squarepointedscarf
ismadeasshowninFig.276.Theweldingheatistakenintheusualmanner,havingthe
scarfedenddowninthefirejustbeforeremovingandhammering.Bydoingthehammering
overthehorninsteadoftheflatsurfaceoftheanvil,therewillbelessdangerofmarringand
drawingthestemoftheboltnexttotheeyeandthusmakingitweakatthispoint.

Fig.276.Stepsinscarfingandpreparingtoweldaneyeonthe
endofarod.

PointsonWelding
1.Useaclean,deep,compactcokefire.
2.Cleanthefireeveryhalfhour.
3.Makethescarfsshortandthick,ratherthanlongandthin.Scarfsshouldnot
belongerthan11/2timesthethicknessofthestock.

4.Roundthesurfacesofscarfssoslagwillbesqueezedoutratherthantrapped
intheweld.
5.Heattheironstoagoodweldingheat,yetdonotburnthem.
6.Bringbothironsuptotheweldingheatatthesametime.
7.Havethescarfedsidesoftheironsdowninthefirejustbeforeremoving
them,
8.Beforeweldingtheironstogether,shakeoffanyslagorimpuritiesby
quicklyrappingthetongsagainsttheedgeoftheanvil.
9.Steadyingthepiecesovertheedgesoftheanvilwillhelpgetthem
accuratelyandquicklyplaced.
10.Strikelightormediumblowswhenironsareattheweldingheat.Simply
forcingthepartstogetherisallthatisnecessary.Heavyblowsmashtheirons.
11.Workfastkeepthehammerontheanvilwithineasyreach.
12.Incaseoffailuretostick,donotcontinuehammering.Refluxandtry
again,beingsurethefireisingoodshape,andthatyouheattheironshot
enough.

PLOWSHARPENING
318.DrawingandShapingSteelShares.Steelplowsharesaresharpenedbyheatingand
drawingtheedge.Theshareshouldbeplacedinthefiresothatonlytheportiontobe
drawnisheated.Thisisbestdonebyplacingtheshareflatwiththeedgeoverthecenterof
thefire,andbybankingupunderthesharewithgreencoal.Theshareshouldnotbeplaced
inaverticalpositionwiththeedgedown.
Theshareshouldbehammeredontop,beginningatthepointandworkingbacktowardthe
heel,beatingandhammeringonlyasmallsectionatatime.Theshareshouldnotbeheated
aboveacherryred,andcareshouldbeexercisednottodentthetopsideofthesharewith
hammermarksanymorethannecessary.
Itisimportantinsharpeningasharetogetthepointshapedsothatitwillhavetheproper
suction.Itshouldslopedownwarduntilthetipendisabout1/4to3/8in.belowthelower
edgeofthelandside.Thepointshouldalsobebentouttowardthelandslightly,usually
about1/8to1/4in.,togivetheplowwhatisknownaslandsuction.Incaseofawalking
plow,theoutercornerorwingoftheshareshouldhaveasmallflatsurfacethatbearsonthe
groundandhelpstosupporttheoutersideoftheplow.Sulkyortractorplowsharesrequire
littleornosuchwingbearing.
319.HardeningtheShare.Asoftcentersteelsharemaybehardenedbyheatingabout2
in.alongthecuttingedgetoadullredandthendippingitinwater,cuttingedgestraight
down.Somesmithsheatthewholesharetoadullredbeforedipping.

Solidcruciblesteelsharesshouldbehardenedverylittleifatall.Thereisdangerof
breakingduringhardening.Also,itiseasytogetthemtoohardandbrittle,whichmay
resultinbreakageinuse.
320.SharpeningChilledShares.Chilledironsharescannotbeforged.Theymustbe
sharpenedbygrindingorchippingonthetopside.Chilledironsharesarecomparatively
cheapandarecommonlydiscardedaftertheyaresharpenedonceortwice.
321.SharpeningHarrowTeeth.Spiketoothharrowteeththathavesharppointsand
sharpsquareedgesaremuchmoreeffectivethanteeththathavebecomebluntandrounded
fromlonguse.Harrowteethareeasilysharpenedbyforgingatacherryredheat.
Theywillstaysharplongerifhardenedbyheatingthepointsbackfrom1to3in.toadull
redanddippinginwater.Thereissomedanger,however,ofmakingthemsohardand
brittlethattheymaybreakinuse.

KINDSOFIRONANDSTEEL
Therearemanydifferentkindsandgradesofironandsteelusedinimplementsandother
farmequipment.Tobebetterenabledtorepairsuchequipment,amechanicshouldknow
somethingaboutthedifferentkindsofironandsteelandtheirpropertiesanduses.
322.PigIron.Thefirststepinthemanufactureofironandsteelistoextracttheironfrom
theironore,whichisminedinvariouspartsoftheworld.Thisisdonebymeansofthe
modernblastfurnace.Themoltenironaccumulatesatthebottomofthefurnaceandis
drawnoffintosandmoldsandallowedtocoolandformshort,thickbarsknownaspig
iron.Pigironisthenusedasthesourcefromwhichotherkindsofironandsteelaremade.
323.CastIron.Tomakecastings,thepigironisremelted,togetherwithsmallamountsof
scrapiron,andpouredintomoldsofthedesiredshapeandthenallowedtosolidify.Cast
ironisusedextensivelybecauseitischeapandcanbereadilymoldedintocomplicated
shapes.Itishardandbrittleandcannotbebent.Itcannotbeforgedorweldedintheforge
fire,butitcanbeweldedwiththeoxyacetylenetorch.Itcrumbleswhenitisheatedtoa
brightredorwhiteheat.Itcanbedrilledandsawedeasilyandalsofiledeasilyafterthe
hardoutershellisremoved.Thequalityofcastironcanbecontrolledbyvaryingthe
amountsofscrapironandsteelmixedwithpigironwhenitismelted.
324.ChilledIron.Chilledironiscastironthathasbeenmadeinspecialmolds,sometimes
watercooledmolds,thatcooltheouterportionsofthecastingrapidly,thusmakingthe
surfaceofthecastingveryhardandwearresistant.Chilledironisusedforbearingson
certainfarmmachinesandforsharesandmoldboardsofplowsthataretobeusedin
gravellyorstonysoils.
325.MalleableIron.Malleableironiscastironofspecialcompositionthathasbeen
treated,aftercasting,byheatingforalongperiod.Thisprolongedheatingremovessomeof
thecarbonfromthesurfaceofthecastingandreducesitsbrittleness.Malleablecastingsare
softerandtougherthanplaincastingsandcanbebentacertainamountwithoutbreaking.
Theyarealsomoreshockresistant.

326.WroughtIron.Wroughtironispracticallypureironwithonlyverysmallamountsof
carbonorimpurities.Itismadebyremovingthecarbonandimpuritiesfrompigiron.The
bestgradeofwroughtironcomesfromNorwayandSwedenwherethepurestironoresare
mined.Wroughtironwasformerlyusedextensivelybyblacksmiths,but,becauseofits
highprice,itsuseatpresentisquitelimited.Wroughtironhasabout0.04percentcarbon.
327.MildSteel.Mildsteel,alsoknownvariouslyasmachinesteel,lowcarbonsteel,soft
steel,andblacksmithiron,isthecommonmaterialusedbyblacksmiths.Itismadeby
removingpractically,butnotquite,allthecarbonfrompigiron.Toremoveitallwouldbe
muchmoreexpensive.Itcontainsfromabout0.1to0.3percentcarbon,notenoughto
enableittobehardenedtoanyappreciableextentbyheatingandquenchinginwater.Itcan
bebentandhammeredcoldtosomeextentandcanbeforgedandweldedintheforge.Itis
alittlemoredifficulttoweldthanwroughtiron.
328.ToolSteel.Toolsteelismadefrompigironbyfirstremovingallthecarbonand
practicallyalltheimpuritiesandthenaddingadefinite,knownamountofcarbon.Toolsteel
containsfromabout0.5toabout1.5percentcarbon.Itisgranularinstructureinsteadof
fibrousorstringy.Itmustnotbeheatedhigherthanabrightredorloworangeheat,orit
willbecomehoneycombedandthereforeweakandbrittle.Thehigherthepercentageof
carbontheharderthesteelmaybetempered,anthemoredifficultitistoweld.Blacksmiths'
tools,suchashammersandcoldchisels,arecommonlymadeofsteelhavingfrom0.5to
0.9percentcarbon.Tapsanddiesandsuchtoolsaremadeofsteelhaving1to1.25per
centcarbon.Thecarboncontentofironandsteelisdesignatedbypoints,onepointbeing
onehundredthof1percentofcarbon.Thusa50pointcarbonsteelcontains50/100orone
halfof1percentofcarbon.
329.DistinguishingbetweenGradesofSteel.Agoodwaytodistinguishbetweenthe
variousgradesofsteelistogrindthemonagrindingwheelandnotethesparksthatare
givenoff.Sparksfromwroughtironarelightyelloworredandfollowstraightlines.Sparks
frommildsteelaresimilarbutmoreexplosiveorsprangled.Toolsteelgivesoffsparksthat
arelighterincolorandstillmoreexplosive.Thehigherthepercentageofcarboninsteelthe
brighterandmoreexplosivearethesparks.
330.Softcentersteelconsistsofalayerofmildsteelweldedbetweentwolayersofhigh
carbonsteel.Theoutsidesurfacescanthereforebehardened,whilethecenterremains
comparativelysoftandtough.Itisusedinmoldboardsofplowsandincultivatorshovels
whereitisdesiredtohaveaveryhardouterwearingsurfacecombinedwithtoughnessand
strength.
331.AlloySteels.Smallamountsofoneormoreothermetals,suchastungsten,nickel,
chromium,silicon,vanadium,etc.,arecommonlymixedwithsteeltoformalloysteels.
Thesemetalsareusedinsteeltogivecertaindesirableproperties,suchasgreatstrength,
resistancetocorrosion,toughness,andresistancetoshock.

Fig.277.Differentgradesofironandsteelmaybedistinguished
bythesparksproducedwhengroundonagrindingwheel.The
higherthecarboncontentofthesteel,thebrighterandmore
explosivearethesparks.
Questions
309.(a)Whyshouldtheweldingfirebedeep,clean,andcompact?(b)Howoftenshould
thefirebecleanedwhenwelding?
310.(a)Whatismeantbyscarfing?(b)Whatarethecharacteristicsofagoodscarff?(c)
Whyarelongthinpieceshardtoweld?(d)Whyareironsusuallyupsetbeforescarfing?
311.(a)Whatmaterialsmaybeusedforweldingflux?(b)Whenandhowisitapplied?(c)
Justhowdoesafluxassistinwelding?(d)Whatkindsofironandsteel,ifany,maybe
weldedwithoutflux?
312.(a)Whatprecautionsshouldbeobservedinheatingironsforwelding?(b)What
shouldbedoneincaseoneironheatsfasterthantheother?(c)Whyshouldthescarfsbe
downinsteadofupjustbeforetheironsareremovedfromthefireforwelding?
313.Howmaytheweldingheatberecognized?
314.(a)Outlinetheprocessofmakingaweldedchainlinkoraring.(b)Whatisthegeneral
shapeofthelinkscarf?(c)Whyisitimportanttohavetheendslappedatabout90deg.
whentheyarebeingwelded?(d)Whyisthelinkgivenasharprapovertheedgeofthe
anviljustafteritistakenfromthefireandbeforetheendsareweldedtogether?(e)Why
shouldtheweldbestartedwithonlymediumandnotheavyblows?(f)Howmaythe
weldedpartofalinkoraringbeneatlyandsmoothlyfinished?
315.(a)Explainandbeabletodemonstratehowtoquicklytaketwoironsoutofthefire
andplacethemaccuratelyontheanvilforwelding.(b)Shouldthethinedgesofthescarfs
beweldeddownfirstorlast,oratsomeothertime?Why?(c)Afteraweldiscompletedin
aroundrod,justhowshouldtheweldedsectionbeneatlysmoothedandbroughttosize?
316.(a)Whatarecommoncausesoffailureinwelding?(b)Whatprocedurewouldyou
recommendincaseironsdonotstickatthefirstattempttoweld?Atthesecondorthird
attempt?
317.(a)Justhowwouldyouproceedtomakeaweldedeyebolt?(b)Howmaytheworkbe

donetopreventmarringanddrawingthestemnexttotheeye?
318.(a)Justhowshouldasteel.plowsharebeplacedinthefireforheating?,(b)How
muchoftheshareshouldbeheatedatatime?(c)Whatistheproperforgingheatforsteel
plowshares?(d)Shouldthesharebehammeredonthetoporonthebottomside?(e)What
importantpointsshouldbeobservedinshapingtheshare?
319.(a)Howmayplowsharesbehardened?(b)Whatkindofsharesshouldbehardened
verylittleifatall?Why?
320.Howarechilledironsharessharpened?
321.(a)Howarespiketoothharrowteethsharpened?(b)Shouldtheybehardened?Ifso,
how?
322.(a)Whatispigiron?(b)Howisitmade?(c)Forwhatisitused?
323.(a)Howarecastingsmade?(b)Whataresomeoftheimportantpropertiesor
characteristicsofcastiron?
324.(a)Whatischillediron,andhowisitmade?(b)Whatarethemainusesofchillediron
infarmmachines?
325.(a)Whatspecialpropertydoesmalleableironhave?(b)Howaremalleablecastings
made?
326.(a)Whatiswroughtiron?(b)Howisitmade?
327.(a)Howismildsteelmade?(b)Bywhatothernamesismildsteelcommonlyknown?
(c)Whatareitsimportantpropertiesorcharacteristics?
328.(a)Howistoolsteelmade?(b)Whatarethechiefdifferencesbetweentoolsteeland
mildsteel?(c)Howistheamountofcarbonintoolsteelcommonlydesignated?(d)How
muchcarboniscontainedinsteelusedformakingblacksmithingtoolslikehammersand
coldchisels?
329.Justhowmayonedistinguishbetweenthevariousgradesofsteel?
330.(a)Whatissoftcentersteel,andhowisitmade?(b)Whatareitsparticularadvantages
overotherkindsofsteel?(c)Inwhatpartsoffarmmachinesisitcommonlyused?
331.(a)Whatisanalloysteel?(b)Whatmaterialsormetalsarecommonlyusedinmaking
alloysteels?(c)Inwhatrespectsmayallowsteelsbebetterthanplainsteels?
References
SCHWARZKOPF:"PlainandOrnamentalForging."
RADERAUGH:"RepairingFarmMachinery."
FRIESE:"FarmBlacksmithing."

HARCOURT:"ElementaryForgePractice."
Boss,DENT,andWHITE:"MechanicalTraining.
SMITH,ROBERTH.:"AgriculturalMechanics."
SELVIDGEandALLTON:"Blacksmithing."
CHAPTERXVIII__BLACKSMITHINGEQUIPMENTFORGEFIRES
CHAPTERXIX__FUNDAMENTALFORGINGOPERATIONS
CHAPTERXX__FORGINGANDTEMPERINGTOOLSTEEL
CHAPTERXXI__WELDINGPLOWSHARPENINGKINDSOFIRONANDSTEEL

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