Math 1314

Rational Functions
Rational Functions
A rational function is the algebraic equivalent of a rational number. Recall that a rational number
is one that can be expressed as a ratio of integers: p/q.
Examples:

2/3,

-23 ( = -23/1),

0.005 ( = 5/1000)

A rational function, by analogy, is a function that can be expressed as a ratio of polynomials:

Examples:

f ( x)

1
, f ( x)
x

3x 2 7 x 2
, g ( x)
x2 x 1

x2 1
, g ( x)
x

x
x

Domains and Ranges

Notice that the domains of most rational functions must be restricted to values of x that will not
make the denominator of the function equal to zero. In order to find the values of x to exclude
from the domain, set the denominator equal to zero and solve for x.
Example:

f ( x)

x
x

Do this:

x2 - 4

(x - 2)(x + 2) 0
x-2 0 x+2 0
x 2
x -2
Therefore, the domain of f(x) is all real numbers, except for x = 2 and x = -2.
The range of a rational function is sometimes easier to find by first finding the inverse of the
function and determining its domain (remember that the range of a function is equal to the
domain of its inverse). If this doesnt work, the best strategy is to graph the rational function.
To do that, you have to locate all asymptotes, as described below.

Asymptotes
In general, an asymptote is a line (or a curve) that the graph of a function gets close to
but does not touch. There are three main types of asymptotes:

1. Vertical Asymptotes
The vertical line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f(x), if f(x) gets infinitely
large or infinitely small as x gets close to c. The graph of f(x) can never cross or touch the
asymptote, x = c.
i.e. as x c, f(x)
or f(x) - .
Finding Vertical Asymptote(s)
A rational function reduced to lowest terms (all factors common to both numerator and
denominator cancelled out) will have a vertical asymptote at every value of x that would
make the denominator equal zero. One function may have many vertical asymptotes.
Another way of looking at vertical asymptotes is that they are the restrictions of the
domain of a reduced rational function.
Refer to the domain example above,
x = 2 and x = -2 would be the vertical asymptotes of

f ( x)

x
x

Special Case: Holes

The factors that are cancelled when a rational function is reduced represent holes in the
graph of f(x).
x 2 3x 2 ( x 1) ( x 2) x 2
Example: f ( x)
x 2 4 x 3 ( x 1) ( x 3) x 3
Instead of having two vertical asymptotes at x = 1 and x = 3, this rational function has
one hole at x = 1 and one vertical asymptote at x = 3.
2. Horizontal Asymptotes
The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of f(x), if f(x) gets close b as x gets
really large or really small.
i.e. as x
, f(x)
b
Note that f(x) can approach its horizontal asymptote from either above or below, and the
graph of f(x) may actually cross or intersect its horizontal asymptote at some central point.
Finding Horizontal Asymptote
A given rational function will either have only one horizontal asymptote or no horizontal
asymptote.
Case 1: If the degree of the numerator of f(x) is less than the degree of the denominator,
i.e. f(x) is a proper rational function, the x-axis (y = 0) will be the horizontal asymptote.
Case 2: If the degree of the numerator of f(x) equals the degree of the denominator, there
will be a horizontal asymptote at the line y = b, where the constant b is determined by
dividing the leading coefficient in the numerator by the leading coefficient of the
denominator.
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Examples:

(a) f ( x)

3x 2 7 x 4
2x 4 5

Horizontal asymptote at y = 0

1
x 2
Horizontal asymptote at y =
2
2x 7
3. Oblique Asymptotes (a.k.a. diagonal or slant)
The line y = mx + b is an oblique asymptote for the graph of f(x), if f(x) gets close to
mx + b as x gets really large or really small.
(b)

f ( x)

i.e. as x

, f(x)

mx + b

Note that f(x) can approach its oblique asymptote from either above or below, and the
graph of f(x) may cross or intersect its oblique asymptote at a (usually) central point.
Finding Oblique Asymptote
A given rational function will either have only one oblique asymptote or no oblique
asymptote.
If a rational function has a horizontal asymptote, it will not have an oblique asymptote.
Oblique asymptotes only occur when the numerator of f(x) has a degree that is one higher
than the degree of the denominator.
When you have this situation, simply divide the numerator by the denominator, using
polynomial long division or synthetic division. The quotient (set equal to y) will be the
oblique asymptote. Note that the remainder is ignored.
Example:

f ( x)

8 x 2 3x 1
x 2

Using polynomial long division:

x 2 8x

8 x 13
3x 1

Quotient

8 x 2 16 x
13x 1
13x 26
27

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Alternatively, using synthetic division:

28

-3

16 26

Quotient

13 |27

So, f(x) has an oblique asymptote at y = 8x + 13

Some Steps to Follow in Graphing Rational Functions
1. Find all asymptotes and plot them.
2. Find x-intercept(s) by setting the numerator equal to 0 and solving for x.
3. Find y-intercept by evaluating f(0).
4. If there is a horizontal asymptote y = b, determine whether the graph intersects this
asymptote by solving f(x) = b. If x can be solved, the intersection is located at this xvalue. If there is no solution for x, f(x) does not intersect the horizontal asymptote.
5. Use the vertical asymptotes and x-intercepts to divide the x-axis into intervals. Then
determine whether f(x) is positive or negative on each of these intervals by using test
points.
6. Determine the behavior of f(x) as x gets really large or really small (x
). If there
is a horizontal or oblique asymptote, f(x) will approach the asymptote. Use the results
in step 5 to determine whether the graph approaches from above or below.
7. If there is no horizontal or oblique asymptote, the highest degree term takes over. If
you form the ratio of the numerators leading term to the denominators leading term
and reduce this ratio to its lowest terms, f(x) will look very much like this function
when x is very small or very large (note that this ratio will have degree 2 or greater
when there is no horizontal or oblique asymptote).
3x 4 4
x 1
3x 4
3x3
Form ratio
x
So, f(x) will be similar to the function y = 3x3 when x

Example: f ( x)

8. Determine the behavior of f(x) as x approaches each vertical asymptote, both from the
left side and from the right side. The function has to either get really big (
) or
really small (
), and the results from step 5 will tell you which.
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9. You may be able to make use of y-axis and origin symmetries -- check to see.
10. Connect all pieces and points with a smooth curve, plotting any additional test points
you need for clarity.
An Example of Graphing a Rational Function
x
Example: f ( x)
2
x 4

f(x)

x= - 2

x= 2

Asymptotes
1. Vertical:
x = 2, x = -2
2. Horizontal: y = 0
3. Oblique: none
Intercepts
x-intercept = y-intercept = (0,0)
Note that this is also the point where f(x) intersects its horizontal asymptote.
Interval

Interval
Notation

Test
x-value

Sign
of f(x)

- < x < -2

(- , -2)

-3

f(-3) = -3/5
= negative

as x
as x

-2 < x < 0

(-2, 0)

-1

f(-1) = 1/3
= positive

as x -2 from the right, f(x)

f(x) passes through the point (0,0)

0<x<2

(0, 2)

f(1) = -1/3
= negative

as x

2 from the left, f(x)

2<x<

(2, )

f(3) = 3/5
= positive

as x
as x

2 from the right, f(x)

, f(x) 0 from above

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Behavior of f(x)
at asymptotes
, f(x) 0 from below
-2 from the left, f(x)
-

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Determining Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Reduce the rational function to its lowest terms
When numerator and denominator have factor(s) in
common there is a hole at that zero(s)
Arrange both the numerator and denominator in
descending order by degree

ax m
bx n

Vertical Asymptotes
Set bx n 0

x1 , x

x2 ,

There may be one or more or

none

Other Asymptotes
a) If m < n, then y = 0 (horizontal)
b) If m = n, then y

a
(horizontal)
b

c) If m = n + 1, divide the rational

function and the quotient represents an
oblique asymptote in the form of
y = mx + b

There may be no vertical, horizontal

or oblique asymptotes.
A function cannot have both
horizontal & oblique asymptotes.

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Last Updated April 13, 2011

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