Effects and hazards

i) Transport
Transport is a vital part of modern life. The freedom to travel short and long
distances opens the horizons for personal development and professional activities,
increases the options for leisure and holidays, and allows better contact and
understanding between people. Owing to its flexibility, road transport is a major
transport mode, and cars are objects of desire and pride in many societies.
Unfortunately, these positive aspects are closely associated with the hazards to the
environment and human health caused by transport, particularly road transport .
One of the leading concerns is the adverse effect on health of air pollution emitted
by transport. Research in recent decades consistently indicates that outdoor air
pollution harms health, and the evidence points to air pollution that stems from
transport as an important contributor.
A multitude of air contaminants of varying toxicity comes from road transport.
These contaminants originate from the tailpipes of vehicles with internal
combustion engines, from other vehicle components (such as brake and clutch
linings and pads, tyres and fuel tanks), and from road-surface wear and treatment
materials. Road traffic can be labelled the most important source for some
pollutants of great concern, such as nitrogen oxides, benzene and carbon monoxide.
Combustion pollution can harm us when it accumulates in the air in high enough
concentrations. Millions of Americans live in areas where urban smog, particle
pollution, and toxic pollutants pose serious health concerns. People exposed to high
enough levels of certain air pollutants may experience irritation of the eyes, nose,
and throat ,Wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and breathing difficulties,
Worsening of existing lung and heart problems, such as asthma, andIncreased risk
of heart attack In addition, long-term exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and
damage to the immune, neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems. In
extreme cases, it can even cause death.
Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids.
These acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into
the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. These acids fall to the Earth either as
wet precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation (gas and particulates).
Some are carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of miles. In the environment,
acid rain damages trees and causes soils and water bodies to acidify, making the
water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife. It also speeds the decay of
buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our national heritage. Acid rain
has damaged Massachusetts lakes, ponds, rivers, and soils, leading to damaged
wildlife and forests.
Eutrophication is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of nutrients
(such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can cause fish kills and
loss of plant and animal diversity. Although eutrophication is a natural process in the
aging of lakes and some estuaries, human activities can greatly accelerate
eutrophication by increasing the rate at which nutrients enter aquatic ecosystems.
Air emissions of nitrogen oxides from power plants, cars, trucks, and other sources
contribute to the amount of nitrogen entering aquatic ecosystems.

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II) Utility
The need for electricity generation to be clean and safe has never been more
obvious. Environmental and health consequences of electricity generation are
important issues, alongside the affordability of the power which is produced. The
burning of oil and other fossil fuels is believed to be contributing to the 'Greenhouse
Effect' or global warming. During combustion, the reaction between coal and the air produces
oxides of carbon, including carbon dioxide (CO2, an important greenhouse gas), oxides of sulfur
(mainly sulfur dioxide) (SO2), and various oxides of nitrogen (NOx). The Earth's average
temperature depends on the net input of energy from the Sun and the energy reradiated from the Earth's surface. Greenhouse here refers to the effect of certain
trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere so that long-wave radiation such as heat from
the earth's surface is trapped. A build-up of greenhouse gases, notably CO 2,
appears to be causing a warming of the climate in many parts of the world, which
will cause changes in weather patterns. Much of the greenhouse effect is due to
carbon dioxide. Global climate change.The Earth's atmosphere contains a delicate
balance of naturally occurring gases that trap some of the sun's heat near the
Earth's surface. This "greenhouse effect" keeps the Earth's temperature stable.
Unfortunately, evidence is mounting that humans have disturbed this natural
balance by producing large amounts of some of these greenhouse gases, including
carbon dioxide and methane. As a result, the Earth's atmosphere appears to be
trapping more of the sun's heat, causing the Earth's average temperature to rise - a
phenomenon known as global warming. There is also concern about rising
temperatures of the oceans and the increase in acidity due to more carbon dioxide
dissolving in the oceans. Many scientists believe that global warming could have
significant impacts on human health, agriculture, water resources, forests, wildlife,
and coastal areas.
iii) Industry
Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air. Haze
obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of what we see. Some haze-causing
pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the atmosphere by sources
such as power plants, industrial facilities, trucks and automobiles, and construction
activities. Others are formed when gases emitted to the air (such as sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides) form particles as they are carried downwind.
Effects on wildlife.Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters,
can impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans, animals can experience
health problems if they are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air toxics over
time. Studies show that air toxics are contributing to birth defects, reproductive
failure, and disease in animals. Persistent toxic air pollutants (those that break down
slowly in the environment) are of particular concern in aquatic ecosystems. These
pollutants accumulate in sediments and may biomagnify in tissues of animals at the
top of the food chain to concentrations many times higher than in the water or air.
Ozone depletion.Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's
upper atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a pollutant
that can harm human health. In the stratosphere, however, ozone forms a layer that
protects life on earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. But this "good"
ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made chemicals referred to as ozonedepleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and
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halons. These substances were formerly used and sometimes still are used in
coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol
propellants. Thinning of the protective ozone layer can cause increased amounts of
UV radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead to more cases of skin cancer,
cataracts, and impaired immune systems. UV can also damage sensitive crops, such
as soybeans, and reduce crop yields. Crop and forest damage. Air pollution can
damage crops and trees in a variety of ways.Ground-level ozone can lead to
reductions in agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and
survivability of tree seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests
and other environmental stresses (such as harsh weather). As described above,
crop and forest damage can also result from acid rain and from increased UV
radiation caused by ozone depletion.

Products that caused problems to health or environment :I) CO2

The increasing levels of carbon dioxide are causing more of the Sun's energy to be retained in
the Earth's atmosphere, which can then be transferred to land and water surfaces, hence the
global warming effect.

Most common greenhouse gasses

Carbon dioxide is a weakly acidic gas and delicate ecosystems can be affected by a lowering of
the pH e.g. the complex biodiversity of a coral reef.

As the concentration CO2 in air rises it can cause headaches, dizziness, confusion and loss of
consciousness

II) CO (Carbon Monoxide)

Healthy individuals are also affected, but only at higher levels of exposure. Exposure to
elevated CO levels is associated with visual impairment, reduced work capacity, reduced
manual dexterity, poor learning ability, and difficulty in performing complex tasks.

reducing oxygen delivery to the body's organs (like the heart and brain) and
tissues. Carbon monoxide enters the bloodstream and reduces oxygen delivery to the body's
organs and tissues.

The health threat from lower levels of CO is most serious for those who suffer
from heart disease, like angina, clogged arteries, or congestive heart failure.
For a person with heart disease, a single exposure to CO at low levels may
cause chest pain and reduce that person's ability to exercise; repeated
exposures may contribute to other cardiovascular effects.
High levels of CO can affect even healthy people. People who breathe high
levels of CO can develop vision problems, reduced ability to work or learn,
reduced manual dexterity, and difficulty performing complex tasks. At
extremely high levels, CO is poisonous and can cause death.

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CO contributes to the formation of smog, ground-level ozone, which can

trigger serious respiratory problems.
Although carbon monoxide is only a weak greenhouse gas, its influence on
climate goes beyond its own direct effects. Its presence affects
concentrations of other greenhouse gases including methane, tropospheric
ozone and carbon dioxide.

III) N2(Nitrogen)

When nitrogen concentrations are high enough to reduce the available

oxygen below 19.5 percent, the concentration can cause rapid suffocation.
Oxygen levels below 10 percent can cause sudden unconsciousness. An
oxygen deficiency produces dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting,
drowsiness, irritability and disorientation. If the situation is not remedied
quickly, it can be fatal.
In combination with oxygen, nitrogen forms nitric oxide, It also contributes to
male erections through relaxation of the muscle that controls blood flow to
the penis. Erectile dysfunction medications work in part by releasing nitric
oxide. The enzyme that produces nitric oxide, a nitric oxide synthase, is found
in abundance in the brain.
Nitrates and nitrites, ions made up of nitrogen and oxygen, can decrease the
amount of oxygen in the blood, interfere with thyroid gland function and
cause a deficiency of vitamin A. They also form nitro amines which are a
leading cause of cancer.

Nitrogen dioxide/monoxide(NOx) and sulfur dioxide/monoxide(SOx)

presents in combustion process, what problems and causes to the
environment or health.

Inhalation of higher than average environmental levels of NOx and SOx (found
around congested urban roads for example) can cause respiratory problems,
particularly in sensitive individuals such as asthmatics. Short-term exposure has
been linked to wheezing, chest tightness and shortness of breath.Similar problems
are experienced by sensitive individuals such as asthmatics after inhalation of
ozone (which is formed using nitrogen dioxide). Nitrogen monoxide is also found
naturally in the body and is involved in the cardiovascular (heart and blood
circulation) and immune (disease protection) systems.
Nitrogen oxides help form acid rain. Acid rain can:

cause deforestation - global warming

acidify waterways to the detriment of aquatic life - eutrophication

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corrode building materials and paints. As well as its tricks with ozone,
nitrogen oxides dissolve in atmospheric water to make acid rain, which
corrodes stone and metal work and damages buildings

In addition, this pollutant can cause a wide range of environmental damage,

including visibility impairment. When Nox and SOx reaches the stratosphere it helps
destroy the ozone layer, resulting in higher levels of UV radiation and increasing the
risk of skin cancer and cataracts. Ironically, when N 2O is nearer to the Earths
surface it can actually make ozone, which can become smog on a still and sunny
day. Smog has been linked to respiratory problems, lung damage, increased risks of
cancer and a weakening of the immune system.
eutrophication - that is, explosive algae growth which can deplete oxygen in water
bodies. ut the problems extend further. The overuse of fertilisers on fields and of
nitrogen compounds in animal feed leads to nitrogen leaching into streams and
rivers. Algae, whose growth is usually limited by nitrogen availability, use this flood
of nitrogen to grow out of control, leading to big algal blooms. These use up all the
oxygen in the water and block out the light, suffocating aquatic life and preventing
underwater plants from photosynthesising.
Contribute to global warming. Although the concentration of nitrous oxide in the
atmosphere is considerably lower than that of carbon dioxide, the global warming
potential of nitrous oxide is over 300 times greater. So although carbon dioxide
causes climate change and its associated problems, nitrogen compounds are
arguably worse. They have a greater global warming potential, could lead to more
exaggerated climate change problems

Design or adopt a system to control or to treat or to reduce the amount of pollutants released to
the environment in this combustion process.

Catalytic Combustion Applied to Gas Turbine Technology

Catalytic combustion, that is flameless combustion promoted by a catalyst, can take
place with a variety of fuels ranging from high octane aviation spirit or propane gas
to low BTU waste gases or residue oils. Applications for this type of combustion
have been sought, and studied, at Johnson Mattheys laboratories for more than a
decade. These studies have included flameless heaters, which are used for a variety
of agricultural, industrial and recreational purposes. This designed demonstrate
that a gas
turbine may efficiently generate power when utilising a catalyst in the combustion
chamber. The major advantage of such a system is that as a direct result of the
lower combustion reaction temperature a much lower level of pollution is achieved,
compared with that from a conventional flame fired engine.

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The gas turbine catalytic combustion system developed by Johnson Matthey

consists essentially of three zones through which the gases flow in succession, as
shown in Figure I. Within these zones the principal mechanisms are :

i. The preheat burner. A small fuel-rich flame burner is used to start the combustion
process by preheating the inlet gases before they reach the catalyst. The design of
the burner ensures that the flame does not burn the fuel completely, but is
quenched by air introduced in front of the catalyst thus minimising the nitrogen
oxides that are produced by the flame.
ii. The catalyst unit. Secondary fuel is injected into the heated gas stream which
then passes through the catalyst unit. The pre-burner conditions are arranged so
that the temperature at the catalyst inlet is sufficient to promote the combustion
reaction under all operating conditions. Catalytic combustion takes place at a lower
temperature than flame fired combustion and, as this is below the temperature at
which atmospheric nitrogen reacts with oxygen, very low levels of nitrogen oxides
result.
iii. The thermal region. To obtain temperatures in excess of those at which the
catalyst support fails, the system may be modified so that the gas leaving the
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catalyst still contains some unreacted fuel. In the thermal region, combustion of this
fuel is completed by gas phase free radical chain processes, and this may be
assisted by the insertion of a bluff body to create a zone in which the gases
recirculate. Thus the final exotherm of heat is obtained after the catalyst.

The simple gas turbine cycle comprises compression of the working fluid, the
addition of energy at a constant pressure and then the expansion of the working
fluid. Energy losses in the system must include compression and expansion
inefficiencies and pressure losses and above atmospheric pressure work lost in the
exhaust:
Efficiency : Expansion work - compression work
Energy supplied

Areas of Application
Applications for catalytic combustion systems arise from two of the major demands
of industry, the requirement for energy and the need to avoid atmospheric pollution.
Conventional gas turbine generators produce noxious emissions as they convert
chemical energy into electricity, but this does not occur with catalytic combustors. It
will therefore be possible to site such generators in populated areas, where the
electricity is required, thus avoiding a substantial part of the cost of power
transmission. As a wide range of fuels can be combusted by catalytic means,
including some which are very difficult to combust thermally, it seems probable that
electrical energy will in future be generated from chemical fuels which are not
considered suitable for this purpose at present.
Conclusion
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The use of catalytic combustion in gas turbines reduces considerably the level of
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides emissions, compared with
those produced during traditional flame fired combustion. This is a result of the
lower temperature of combustion, which eliminates the nitrogen oxides formation,
and the surface catalysed free radical chain mechanism for the combustion, which
lowers the levels of all the pollutants. The metal supported catalyst systems
specially developed for this study have the advantages of low pressure drop, high
temperature stability and high surface to
volume ratios. A wide variety of problems concerned with energy conversion and
pollution control are
likely to be solved, or reduced, using metal supported platinum catalyst
combustors. It is emphasised that the catalytic combustion system within the
turbine must be designed for each particular model engine. Simply to place a
catalyst within the combustor is not the best way to getting efficient
catalytic combustion.

How pollution by combustion in transport, utility and industry can be

reduced to conserve the environment for our future generations.

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1.

Reduce the amount of fossil fuels we burn in power stations, but the international community
is struggles to come to an agreement over this issue and the huge, and fast growing economies
of India and China are demanding the building of large numbers of fossil fuel power stations

2.

'Green' alternative renewable energy resources can be more exploited, but not without
problems e.g.

wind turbines - weather dependant

wave power - subject to storm damage

hydroelectric power -

damming the exit from a valley or canyon,

a large tidal barrage across a river estuary,

photovoltaic cells - depends on intensity of sunlight and varies from country to country,
through the day and the seasons

solar power panels in roofs etc.

all reduce acid rain pollution and CO2 production by using less fossil fuels.

Many are good for domestic and small communities but only nuclear power and
large scale hydroelectric power schemes are suitable for large scale energy
production for the highly populated countries with large industrial economies.

3. Nuclear power is another option that does not produce carbon

dioxide and is suitable for large scale power generation, but there are real
public fears about the safety of nuclear power generation 'fuelled' by the
consequences of the nuclear power plant accident at Chernobyl, in the
Ukraine in 1986. It is extremely costly to build nuclear power stations and
there are added extra long term costs in decommissioning nuclear power
stations, safely processing the waste and safely storing the residual
radioactive waste for hundreds to thousands of years.

4.

Use less electricity and heat energy from fuel combustion by being careful of its use e.g.
increase home insulation and more efficient electrical appliances like 'low energy' light bulbs.

5. Using alternative fuels like hydrogen (no CO 2 formed) and carbon neutral
fuels based on biomass like ethanol, biodiesel etc.
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6.

Developing 'greener' less polluting public transport systems to reduce the number of private cars
on the roads, particularly in cities and other busy urban areas.

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