Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.16 (Aircraft Weight and Balance) PDF

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)
Module 7 - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category A/B1
Sub Module 7.16 - Aircraft Weight and Balance
MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.16
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE
ISO 9001:2008 Certified

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7/04
7.16
For Training Purpose Only

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Mar 2014

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Contents
INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
CENTER OF GRAVITY --------------------------------------------------------------- 1
CENTRE OF GRAVITY/BALANCE LIMIT CALCULATIONS -------------------- 7
MASS AND BALANCE DOCUMENTATION ------------------------------------27
WEIGHING THE AIRCRAFT -------------------------------------------------------30
PREPARATION OF AIRCRAFT FOR WEIGHING-------------------------------31

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INTRODUCTION
CENTER OF GRAVITY
Aviation has been one of the most dynamic industries since its
beginning. New aircraft are continually being developed with
improvements over previous models. Improvements in design
have, in many cases, tended to increase the importance of the
proper loading and balancing of today's airplanes.
Weight-and-balance calculations are performed according to
exact rules and specifications and must be prepared when
aircraft are manufactured and whenever they are altered,
whether the airplane is large or small. The constantly changing
conditions of modern aircraft operation present more complex
combinations of cargo, crew, fuel, passengers, and baggage.
Every particle of an object is acted on by the force of gravity.

However, in every object there is one point at which a single
force, equal in magnitude to the weight of the object and
directed upward, can keep the body at rest, that is, can keep it
in balance and prevent it from falling. This point is known as the
center of gravity (CG),
The CG might be defined as the point at which all the weight of
a body can be considered concentrated. Thus, the CG of a
perfectly round ball would be the exact center of the ball,
provided that the ball was made of homogenous material and
that there were no air or gas pockets inside (see Figure a).
The necessity of obtaining maximum efficiency for all flights has

increased the need for a precise system of controlling the
weight and balance of an aircraft.
The CG of a uniform ring would be at the center of the ring but

would not be at any point on the ring itself (see Figure b).
Included were discussions of specific gravity and balance,

together with explanations of levers. These principles form the
basis for computing weight-and-balance data for an airplane
and will be reviewed briefly here.
The CG of a cube of solid material would be equidistant from

the eight comers, as shown in Figure c. In airplanes or
helicopters, ease of control and maneuverability require that the
location of the CG be within specified limits.
Force of gravity
Every body of matter in the universe attracts every other body
with a certain force that is called gravitation. The term gravity is
used to refer to the force that tends to draw all bodies toward
the center of the earth. The weight of a body is the result of
gravitational force acting on the body.

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Location of the cg
Since the CG of a body is that point at which its weight can be
considered to be concentrated, the CG of a freely suspended
body will always be vertically beneath the point of support when
the body is supported at a single point. To locate the CG,
therefore, it is necessary only to determine the point of
intersection of vertical lines drawn downward from two separate
points of support employed one at a time.
In order to verify the results, the operation can be repeated, this

time with the object suspended from another point, called B. No
matter how many times the process is repeated, the lines
should pass through the CG; therefore, it can be shown that the
CG of the object lies at the point of intersection of these lines of
suspension. Therefore, any object behaves as if all its weight
were concentrated at its CG.
This technique is demonstrated in Figure a, which shows a flat,

square sheet of material lettered A, B, C, and D at its four
comers, suspended first from point B and then from point c. The
lines drawn vertically downward from the point of suspension in
each case intersect at the CG.
The CG of an irregular body can be determined in the same
way. If an irregular object, such as the one shown in Figure b, is
suspended from a point P in such a manner that it can turn
freely about the point of suspension, it will come to rest with its
CG directly below the point of suspension, P. If a plumb line is
dropped from the same point of suspension, the CG of the
object will coincide with some point along the plumb line; a line
drawn along the plumb line passes through this point.
Figure A
If the object is suspended from another point, which will be

called A, and another line is drawn in the direction indicated by
the plumb line, the intersection of the two lines will be at the CG.

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Figure B
The general law of the lever
In Module 2 the law of levers was explained; it will be repeated
briefly here to show how it relates to the weight and balance of
an airplane.
Therefore, if the lever is in balance, and if several different

efforts are applied to the lever, the sum of the moments of
resistance (loads) will equal the sum of the moments of effort.
Wrenches, crowbars, and scissors are levers used to gain

mechanical advantage, that is, to gain force at the expense of
distance or to gain distance at the expense of force. A lever, in
general, is essentially a rigid rod free to turn about a point called
the fulcrum.
There are three types of levers, but the study of weight and
balance is principally interested in the type known as a firstclass lever. This type has the fulcrum between the applied effort
and the resistance, as shown in Figure a.
Figure A
In Figure a, the fulcrum is marked F, the applied effort is E, and

the resistance is R (load). If the resistance, R, equals 10 Ib
[4.535 kg], and it is 2 in [5.08 cm] from the fulcrum, F, and if the
effort, E, is applied 10 in [25.4 cm] from the fulcrum, it will be
found that an effort of 2 Ib [0.907 kg] will balance the resistance,
R. In other words, when a lever is balanced, the product of the
effort and its lever arm (distance from the fulcrum) equals the
product of the resistance and its lever arm. The product of a
force and its lever arm is called the moment of the force.
The general law of the lever is as follows: If a lever is in
balance, the sum of the moments tending to turn the lever in
one direction (sense) about an axis equals the sum of the
moments tending to turn it in the opposite direction (sense).
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Moment of a force and equilibrium
M2 acts in a counterclockwise direction, with a force of 2

Ib [0.9072 kg] at a distance of 2 ft [0.6096 m], thus
producing a moment of -4 ftIb (-0.5528 kg-m].
M3 acting in a counterclockwise direction with a force of

1lb [0.4537 kg] at a distance of 1 ft [0.3048 m], produces
a moment of -I ft-Ib [-0.1383 kg-m].
M4 acts in a clockwise direction, with a force of 4 Ib

[1.814 kg] at 2 ft, which makes a moment of +8 ft-Ib
[+1.105 kg-m].
The tendency of a force to produce rotation around a given axis

is called the moment of the force with respect to that axis.
The magnitude and direction (sense) of the moment of a force
depend upon the direction of the force and its distance from the
axis. The perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of the
force is called the arm, and the moment is the product of the
force and the arm. Thus, a force of 10 Ib [4.536 kg] acting at a
distance of 2 ft [0.6096 m] from the axis exerts a turning
moment of 20 ft-Ib [2.765 kg-m].
Thus, -3- 4- 1 + 8 = 0.
In order to avoid confusion between moments tending to
produce rotation in opposite directions, those tending to
produce a clockwise rotation are called positive and those
tending to produce counterclockwise rotation are called
negative. If the sum of the positive, or clockwise, moments
equals the sum of the negative, or counterclockwise, moments,
there will be no rotation. This is usually expressed in the form
M = 0. The symbol is the Greek letter sigma, and M means
the sum of all the moments, M, both positive and negative.
The sum of the negative moments is equal to the positive

moment; therefore, there is a condition of equilibrium, and there
is no rotation about point A.
There is a total force of 8 Ib [3.629 kg] acting downward, and
unless the axis is supported by an upward force of 8 Ib, there
will be downward movement but no rotation.
Figure a, shows a moment diagram with moments about the

point A.
M1 acts in a counterclockwise direction, with a force of 1

lb [0.4536 kg] at a distance of 3 ft [0.9144 m]; therefore,
the value of M1 is -3 ftIb [-0.4148kg-m].
Figure A

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Importance of aircraft weight and balance

An aircraft is a dynamic device that requires a careful balance
between all of its forces to maintain safe and efficient flight. The
lift produced by the wing is concentrated at a point
approximately one-third of the way back from the leading edge,
and to provide stability, the center of gravity, or that point at
which all of the aircraft weight can be considered to be
concentrated, is located slightly ahead of this center of lift. This
location results in a moment that tries to pitch the nose of the
aircraft down, but this nose-down moment is balanced by a tail
moment, which pulls the nose up.
The magnitude of tail moment is determined by the airspeed,
and it drops off when the airplane slows down. The weight
remains constant and ahead of the center of lift, so it pulls the
nose down and the airplane will automatically regain the speed
it has lost.
If the center of gravity falls outside of the rather narrow limits
allowed by the aircraft designer, serious control problems can
result. If it is allowed to get too far aft, the stall characteristics
will be adversely affected, and if it is too far forward, there will
be difficulty in slowing the airplane for landing.
The structure of the aircraft is designed to safely accept certain
loads, but in flight through rough air and on the impact of a hard
landing, the forces due to acceleration may well overload the
structure and cause it to fail.
A part of the certification procedure for an airplane is to

determine that its weight and balance are within the allowable
limits, and this information is furnished with the aircraft as part
of its operations manual.
It is the responsibility of the pilot to know before each flight that
his aircraft is properly loaded, that it does not exceed the
allowable gross weight, and that the center of gravity is within
the allowable range.
The weight of an aircraft changes during its operational life as
equipment is added or removed and as repairs are made. All of
these changes must be monitored and the weight and balance
information used by the pilot must be kept up-to-date. This is
the responsibility of the aviation maintenance technician.
Very close track must be kept of the weight and balance of
aircraft used to carry passengers or cargo for hire, and they
must be reweighed periodically and have their center of gravity
recomputed.
Large aircraft have several rows of seats, some of which are
ahead of the center of gravity range and some behind it and
there are often both forward and aft baggage compartments.
This wide range of loading possibilities makes the use of charts
or other aids to loading a necessity for the pilot to be sure that
the center of gravity is within the allowable range.
When an aircraft is designed, limits are put on its maximum

weight, and restrictions are set up regarding the range within
which the center of this weight is allowed to vary.
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CENTRE OF GRAVITY/BALANCE LIMIT CALCULATIONS

The actual principle involved in finding the center of gravity of
an aircraft is quite simple, and it is easy to visualize when we
consider the playground seesaw, which is a practical example
of weight and balance.
When a large child and a small child get on a seesaw, the large
child must slide up close to the support, or the fulcrum, to
balance the small child who is farther away from the fulcrum.
The distance from the fulcrum to the center of gravity of the
weight is called the "arm" of the weight, and it may be measured
in such units as feet, inches, or meters. The amount of force in
this case, the weight of the child is measured in pounds, grams,
or kilograms, and is considered to be concentrated at a point
called its center of gravity.
The product of the weight and the arm is the moment of the
force and is expressed in pound-feet, pound-inches, or in gramor kilogram-meters.
And since a moment is a force that causes rotation, we must
specify the direction (sense), either clockwise or
counterclockwise, in which the force causes the weight to
rotate.

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To best understand the principles of weight and balance, let's

consider that the board we use does not have any weight of its
own, and that all of the weight is concentrated at the center of
gravity of the weights themselves.
In the illustration of Fig. a, we have a board on which two
weights are located. The weight on the left is 25 pounds, and
the one on the right is 50 pounds, and there are 12 feet
between the centers of gravity of the two weights. We want to
find the location of the fulcrum about which the two weights will
balance.
We begin by choosing the location of a datum, or a reference
line, from which we will make all of our measurements. This line
can be anywhere, as we will soon see, but for this initial
explanation, let's assume it to be located at the center of gravity
of one of the weights. In our case we will choose the weight A,
the one on the left side.

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To visualize the computations more clearly, let's make a chart

such as the one we have in Fig. b.
Since weight A is on the datum, its arm is zero and when we
multiply any number by zero, the product, or the moment, is
also zero. The arm of weight B is 12 feet, and its moment is 12
X 50, or 600 pound-feet, and its direction of rotation is
clockwise.
To find the balance point, we must divide the total moment by
the total weight. The total moment is 600 pound-feet, and the
total weight is 75 pounds; this places the balance point eight
feet to the right of the datum. In this example, there are no
counterclockwise moments and so the total moment is
clockwise.
To check our work and prove that the board is really balanced
about the point we have just discovered, we can make a chart
similar to that in Fig. a. Here we have moved the datum from
the center of gravity of weight A to the fulcrum, and we compute
all of our moments from this new location. Any counterclockwise
moment is considered to be negative, and a moment that
causes a clockwise rotation is positive.
Weight A has an arm of negative eight feet, and its moment is 200 pound-feet. The arm of weight B is positive four feet, and
when this is multiplied by its weight of 50 pounds, it gives us a
moment of +200 pound-feet. The sum of the moments is zero,
which means that the board does actually balance about the
fulcrum.
We can easily show that the datum can be placed anywhere by
working this same problem, using two different locations for the
datum.
In Fig b, we place the datum between the two weights, three
feet to the right of weight A. The arm of A is now negative three
feet, and its moment is -75 pound-feet. The arm of weight B is
positive nine feet and its moment is +450 pound feet.
Figure A
Figure B
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The total moment is +375 and the weight is 75 pounds, so the

balance point is five feet to the right of the datum, which places
it in exactly the same location we previously found, eight feet to
the right of A.
Some aircraft manufacturers place the datum a given distance
ahead of the aircraft so all of the moments will be positive and
we can see by the example of Fig. c that this does not change
the answer.
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The datum in this example is located six feet to the left of weight
A and the moment of A is +150 pound-feet. Weight B is 18 feet
from the datum, and its moment is +900 pound-feet. The total
moment is + 1,050 pound-feet and when this is divided by the
total weight of 75 pounds, the balance is found to be 14 feet to
the right of the datum. This again is the same location as we
have found it in the previous two computations, eight feet to the
right of weight A.

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We can continue with our explanation to find where we would

place a third weight to balance the board. In Fig. a, we have a
board on which weights A and B are placed. Since the moment
of weight B is greater than that of A, there will be a net force
tending to rotate the board in a clockwise direction. The moment
of this force is +550 pound-inches.
We want to balance the board by placing 50-pound weight C the
proper distance from the fulcrum. Weight C must have a
moment of 550 pound-inches, because for a board to balance
about a point, the sum of the moments about that point must
equal zero.
The moment of C is 550 pound-inches and its weight is 50
pounds, so its arm must be -11 inches, or the center of weight C
must be 11 inches to the left of the fulcrum.
In Fig. b, we see this balance proven. The sum of the two
negative moments is -1,800 pound inches, and the positive
moment is + 1,800 pound-inches, so the board balances.

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Figure A
Figure B

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It is necessary for an aircraft center of gravity to fall within a

given range, and we sometimes need to add ballast to the
aircraft to move the center of gravity into the allowable range.
We can again use our board to see the way we do this.
Let's assume that our board in Fig. a balances at a point 37.5
inches from item A, but we want to balance at a point 42.5
inches away. Weight B is 180 inches from weight A, and there is
a location 170 inches from A at which we can place our ballast
weight. Our problem is to find the amount of weight we will have
to add 170 inches from weight A in order to move the point of
balance five inches to the right.

Item B has a weight of 100 pounds and an arm of +137.5

inches, giving it a moment of + 13, 750 pound-inches. The
ballast weighs 18.82 pounds and is located at + 127.5, and so it
has a moment of + 2,400 pound-inches. The total positive
moment is + 16,150 pound-inches and the total negative
moment is -16,150 pound-inches. The sum of the moments
about the new balance point is zero, so our ballast was correct.
The formula we will use is:

Ballast = Total weight X distance needed to shift balance point
Arm of ballast--arm of desired balance point
The total weight is 480 pounds, and we need to shift the
balance point five inches. The arm of the ballast is 170 inches,
and the arm of the new balance point is 42.5 inches. When we
work the problem, we find that we must add 18.82 pounds of
ballast at 170 inches to move the balance point five inches to
the right.
We can check our computations in Fig. b. If the sum of all of the
moments about the new balance point is equal to zero, we have
added the correct amount of ballast.
Item A has a weight of 380 pounds, and it is located at an arm
of -42.5 inches. This gives it a moment of -16,150 poundinches.
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Figure A
Figure B

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Aircraft cg range and limits

The first-class lever is in balance only when the CG is at the
fulcrum. However, an aircraft can be balanced in flight
anywhere within certain specified forward and aft limits if the
pilot operates the trim tabs or elevators to exert an aerodynamic
force sufficient to overcome any static unbalance.
CG locations outside the specified limits will
unsatisfactory or even dangerous flight characteristics.
Figure b, shows typical limits for the CG location in an airplane.

As previously stated, these limits establish the CG range. The
CG of the airplane must fall within this range if the airplane is to
fly safely; that is, the CG must be to the rear of the forward limit
and forward of the aft limit.
cause
The allowable variation within the CG range is carefully

determined by the engineers who design an airplane. The CG
range usually extends forward and rearward from a point about
one-fourth the chord of the wing, back from the leading edge,
provided that the wing has no sweepback.
Figure A
The exact location is always shown in the Aircraft Specifications

or the Type Certificate Data Sheet. Heavy loads near the wing
location are balanced by much lighter loads at or near the nose
or tail of the airplane. In Figure a, a load of 5 Ib [2.268 kg] at A
will be balanced by a load of 1lb [0.4536 kg] at B because the
moments of the two loads are equal.
Since the CG limits constitute the range of movement that the
aircraft CG can have without making it unstable or unsafe to fly,
the CG of the loaded aircraft must be within these limits at
takeoff, in the air, and on landing. In some cases, the takeoff
limits and landing limits are not exactly the same, and the
differences are given in the specifications for the aircraft.

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Figure B

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Cg and balance in an airplane

The CG of an airplane may be defined, for the purpose of
balance computations, as an imaginary point about which the
nose-heavy (-) moments and tail-heavy (+) moments are exactly
equal in magnitude. Thus, the aircraft, if suspended from that
point (CG), would have no tendency to rotate in either direction
(nose-up or nose-down).
This condition is illustrated in Figure a. As stated previously, the
weight of the aircraft can be assumed to be concentrated at its
CG. The CG with the aircraft loaded is allowed to range fore
and aft within certain limits that are determined during the flight
tests for type certification. These limits are the most forwardand rearward loaded CG positions at which the aircraft will meet
the performance and flight characteristics required by the
authorities.
These limits may be expressed in terms of a percentage of the
mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) or in inches forward or to the
rear of the datum line. The relative positions of the CG and the
center of lift of the wing have critical effects on the flight
characteristics of the aircraft. Consequently, relating the CG
location of the chord of the wing is convenient from a design
and operations standpoint.
Normally, an aircraft will have acceptable flight characteristics if
the CG is located somewhere near the 25% average chord
point. This means the CG is located one-fourth of the total
distance back from the leading edge of the average wing
section (see Figure b).
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Such a location will place the CG forward of the aerodynamic

center for most airfoils. The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is
established by the manufacturer. If the wing has a constant
chord, the straight line distance from the leading edge to the
trailing edge (the chord) would also be the MAC.
However, if the wing is tapered, the mean aerodynamic chord is
more complicated to define. The MAC is the chord of an
imaginary airfoil, which has the same aerodynamic
characteristics as the actual airfoil. The MAC established by the
manufacturer defines its leading edge (LEMAC) and trailing
edge (TEMAC) in terms of inches from the datum.
The CG location and various limits are then expressed in
percentages of the chord. The MAC is usually given in the
aircraft's Type Certificate Data Sheet when it is required for
weight-and-balance computations; therefore the person working
on the airplane is expected to have only a general
understanding of its meaning. For simplicity purposes, most
light-aircraft manufacturers express the CG range in inches
from the datum, while transport-category aircraft are expressed
in terms of percentages of the MAC.
Before proceeding with explanations of the methods for
computing weight-and-balance problems, it is important to have
a good understanding of the words and terms used.

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Figure A
Figure B

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Terms used in weight and balance considerations
Ballast
Arm
Weight that is installed on an aircraft for the purpose of bringing

the center of gravity into the desired range. Permanent ballast
must not be removed without changing the aircraft empty-weight
center of gravity as recorded in the aircraft with and balance
records. Temporary ballast may be added, removed, or moved
within the aircraft, to being the center of gravity into the desired
range for a specific flight condition.
The arm is the horizontal distance in inches from the datum to

the center of gravity of the item. The algebraic sign is plus (+) if
measured aft of the datum and minus (-) if measured forward of
the datum (see Figure a).
Algebraic sign
Center of gravity (cg)

The plus and minus convention assigned to numbers used in
with and balance computations. The arm of a weight ahead of
the datum is a negative (-) arm and that behind the datum is a
positive (+) arm. When weight is added to the aircraft, it is a
positive (+) arm. When weight is added to the aircraft, it is a
positive (+) weight, but when weight is removed, it is negative (). A moment that causes the airplane nose to pitch down is a
negative (-) moment, while one that causes a nose to pitch up is
a positive (+) moment. When the signs of the arm and the
weight are alike, both either plus or minus, the moment will be
positive, but if the signs are different, moment will be negative.
Balance point
The point about which a body balances and the point about
which the algebraic sum of all of the moments is zero. The
balance point and the center of gravity are physically the same
point. But the location of the center of gravity is normally
measured from the datum while the location of the balance point
is measured from one of the weighing points.

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The CG is a point about which the nose-heavy and tail-heavy

moments are exactly equal in magnitude. If the aircraft were
suspended from this point it would be perfectly balanced. Its
distance from the reference datum is found by dividing the total
moment by the total weight of the airplane.
Center of gravity limits
The maximum forward and aft location allowance for the center
of gravity. These limits are established by the designer of the
aircraft and are approved by the Federal Aviation
Administration. They are furnished to the aviation maintenance
technician and to the pilot, and it is the responsibility of the pilot
to see that these limits are never exceeded in flight

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Figure A

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Center of gravity range
Empty-weight center of gravity (ewcg)
The operating CG range is the distance between the forward

and rearward limits within which the airplane must be operated.
These limits are indicated on pertinent Aircraft Type Certificate
Data Sheets (see Figure a) or in aircraft weight-and-balance
records.
The empty weight CG is the CG of the aircraft in its empty

condition and is an essential part of the weight-and-balance
record that must be kept with the permanent aircraft records.
Datum (reference datum)
The EWCG range is established so that when the EWCG falls

within this range, the aircraft-operating CG limits will not be
exceeded under standard loading conditions. The EWCG range
shown for many light airplanes is listed in the aircraft
specifications or the Type, Certificate Data Sheet and may
eliminate further calculations by technicians making equipment
changes (see Figure b).
The datum is an imaginary vertical plane or line from which all

horizontal measurements of arm are taken (see Figure a). The
datum is established by the manufacturer. Once the datum has
been selected, all moment arms must be taken with reference to
that point. The location of the datum may be found in the
aircraft's Type Certificate Data Sheet (see Figure b).
Empty-weight cg range
Fleet empty weight

Empty weight (ew)
The empty weight of an aircraft includes the weight of the
airframe, power plant, and required equipment that has a fixed
location and is normally carried in the airplane. For aircraft
certificated under FAR Part 23, the empty weight also includes
unusable fuel and full-operating fluids necessary for normal
operation of aircraft systems, such as oil and hydraulic fluid. For
older aircraft not certificated under FAR Part 23, in place of full
oil, only the undrainable oil is included in the empty weight. The
current aircraft empty weight must be kept as a part of the
permanent weight- and-balance records.

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The fleet empty weight is used by air carriers as an average

basic empty weight, which may be used for a fleet or group of
aircraft of the same model and configuration. The weight of any
fleet member cannot vary more than the tolerance established
by the applicable government regulations.
Lemac
LEMAC is the abbreviation for the leading edge of the mean
aerodynamic chord.

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Figure A

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Leveling means
Leveling means are the reference points used by the aircraft
technician to insure that the aircraft is level for weight-andbalance purposes (see Figure a).
Leveling is usually accomplished along both the longitudinal and
lateral axis. Leveling means are given in the Type Certificate
Data Sheet (Figure b).
Loading envelope
The loading envelope includes those combinations of airplane
weight and center of gravity that define the limits beyond which
loading is not approved.
Main-wheel center line (mwcl)
The MWCL is a vertical line passing through the center of the
axle of the main landing-gear wheel.
Maximum gross weight
The maximum gross weight is the maximum authorized weight
of the aircraft and its contents as listed in the Type Certificate
Data Sheet (Figure b).
Maximum landing weight
Figure B

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The maximum landing weight is the maximum weight at which

the aircraft may normally be landed (see Figure b). It is usually
less than the maximum takeoff weight, because the stresses
during a landing are greater than those during takeoff.
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MAXIMUM RAMP WEIGHT

The maximum allowable weight of an aircraft while it is on the
ramp. It differs from the allowable takeoff with by the weight of
the fuel that will be consumed in taxiing to the point of take off.
Maximum takeoff weight
The maximum allowable weight for an aircraft at the beginning
of the takeoff roll.
Mean aerodynamic chord (mac)
The cord of an imaginary airfoil that has the same aerodynamic
characteristics as the actual wing.
Figure A
Minimum fuel
The minimum amount of fuel considered to be in the tanks when
computing an adverse-loaded center of gravity condition. This
is no more that the quantity of fuel necessary for one-half hour
of operation at rated maximum except takeoff (METO)
horsepower of the engines by 12 to get the number of gallons
required. Then, multiply the gallons by six to convert them into
pounds. We can go directly to pounds by simply dividing the
METO horsepower by two. This method of finding the weight of
the minimum fuel is sufficiently accurate for computing an
adverse loaded center of gravity condition.
For turbine aircraft, the minimum fuel for these computations is
specified by the aircraft manufacturer.

7.16 - 22

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Moment
The moment is the product of the weight of an item multiplied by
its arm. Moments are expressed in pound-inches (Ib-in). The
total moment of an aircraft is the weight of the aircraft multiplied
by the distance between the datum and the CG.
Moment index
The moment index is a moment divided by a constant, such as
100, 1000, or 10000. The purpose of using a moment index is to
simplify weight-and-balance computations of large aircraft
where heavy items and long arms result in large, unmanageable
numbers.
Net weight
The scale reading, less the tare weight.
Normal category
The category of aircraft certificated under FAR Part 23, which is
limited to airplanes intended for non acrobatic operation.
Payload
That portion of the useful load of an aircraft from which revenue
may be derived. It includes passengers and baggage.
Reduction factor
Figure B
7.16 - 23
The number that the moment is divided by to get the moment

index.
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Standard weights
Station
Standard weights are used for computing the weight of fuel, oil,
crew, water, and baggage. For general weight and balance
purposes, the following weights are considered standard:
A station is a location along the, airplane fuselage given in

terms of distance in inches from the reference datum. The
datum is, therefore, identified as station zero (see Figure a).
The station and arm are usually identical. An item located at
station 50 would have an arm of 50 in.
Avgas 6 pounds per gallon

Turbine fuel 6.7 pounds per gallon
Lubricating oil 7.5 pounds per gallon
Water 10 pounds per gallon
Crew & Passengers 170 pounds per person
190 pounds for utility/aerobatic aircraft
FAR 135 cover air taxi operators and commercial operators of

small aircraft. This regulation has added the following standard
weights:
Adults (summer) 170 pounds per person

Adults (winter) 175 pounds per person
Flight crew (male) 170 pounds per person
Flight crew (female) 150 pounds per person
Female flight attendants 130 pounds per person
Male flight attendants 150 pounds per person
Check-in baggage 23.5 pounds per item
Carry-on baggage 10 pound per item
Tare
The weight of all items such as chocks or blocks that are used
to hold the aircraft on the scales while it is being weighed.
Temac
TEMAC is an abbreviation for the trailing edge of the mean
aerodynamic chord.
Undrainable oil
That portion of the oil in an aircraft lubricating system that will
not drain from the engine with the aircraft in a level attitude is
called the undrainable oil. This oil is considered a part of the
empty weight of the aircraft.
Unusable fuel
Unusable fuel is the fuel that cannot be consumed by the
engine. The amount and location of the unusable fuel may be
found in the Type Certificate Data Sheet (see Figure b).
Unusable fuel is a part of the aircrafts empty weight.

7.16 - 24

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Usable fuel
Fuel available for flight planning is called usable fuel.
Useful load
The useful load is the weight of the pilot, copilot, passengers,
baggage, and usable fuel and drainable oil it is the empty
weight subtracted from the maximum weight.
Weighing point
The weighing points of an airplane are those points by which
the airplane is supported at the time it is weighed. Usually the
main landing gear and the nose or tail wheel are the weighing
points. Sometimes, however, an airplane may have jacking
points from which the weight is taken. In any event, it is
essential to define the weighing points clearly in the weight-andbalance record.
Figure A
Zero-fuel weight
The operational weight of the aircraft including the payload, but
excluding the fuel load
Basic Empty Weight + Payload = Zero Fuel Weight
Zero Fuel Weight + Usable Fuel = Ramp Weight
Ramp Weight - Fuel Used for Start, Taxi, and Engine Run-up
= Takeoff Weight
Takeoff Weight - Fuel Used During Flight = Landing Weight
7.16 - 25

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Mass and balance

The document that covers the legal requirements of an aircrafts
mass and balance is JAR-OPS 1 Subpart J. An aircraft
operator must specify in the Operations Manual the principles
and methods involved in the loading and mass balance system
used. This system must meet the legal requirements of JAROPS, and include all types of intended operations, such as
charter, cargo and scheduled flights.
The operator has to ensure that, during any phase of operation,
the loading, mass and CG of the aeroplane comply with the
limitations specified in the approved Flight Manual or the
Operations Manual if this is more restrictive.
The operator must establish the mass and CG of an aircraft by
actual weighing prior to entry into service and at specified
intervals thereafter. The accumulated effects of modifications
and repair on the mass and balance must be accounted for and
documented. If the effect of these changes cannot be
established the aircraft must be re-weighed.
The Dry Operating Mass must be established by weighing or
using standard masses. The influence items included in the Dry
Operating Mass and their position on the aircraft must also be
established, as are other mass items such as the traffic load,
fuel load and ballast.
Figure B

7.16 - 26

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Methods for calculating crew and passenger mass values are

laid down in JAR-OPS and include either weighing the individual
crew and their baggage or taking standard mass values.
Whichever method is used must be acceptable to the relevant
Authority.

MASS AND BALANCE DOCUMENTATION

The Mass and Balance documentation used by an operator
must include certain basic information, which is listed below.
Subject to the approval of the authority, some of this information
may be omitted.
Aeroplane registration and type
Flight identification number and date
Identity of the commander
Identity of the person who prepared the document
Dry operating mass and the corresponding CG of the aeroplane
Mass of the fuel at take-off and the mass of trip fuel
Mass of consumables other than fuel
Load components that include passengers, baggage, freight
and ballast
Take-off Mass, Landing Mass and Zero Fuel mass.
The load distribution
Aeroplane CG positions
Limiting mass and CG values
Any last minute changes that occur after the mass and balance
documentation has been completed should be brought to the
attention of the commander and entered on the mass and
balance documentation. The Operations Manual should specify
the maximum allowable changes to passenger numbers or hold
load. If this is exceeded a new mass and balance
documentation should be prepared.

7.16 - 27

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Computerised systems are commonly used to generate the

mass and balance documentation. These systems can only be
used once they have gained approval from the authorities. The
integrity of computerised system must be continually verified by
the operator, at intervals not exceeding six months.
Onboard mass and balance and Datalink systems can also be
used, but again if the operator wishes to use these systems as
the primary source of mass and balance documentation, he
must obtain approval.

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Frequency of weighing
Aircraft must be weighed before entering service, to determine
the individual mass and CG position. This should be done once
all manufacturing processes have been completed. The aircraft
must also be re-weighed within four years from the date of
manufacture, if individual mass is used, or within nine years
from the date of manufacture, if fleet masses are used.
If one aircraft exceeds these specified limits, it must be removed

from the fleet calculations and individual mass restrictions will
apply.
The mass and CG position of an aircraft must be periodically reestablished. The maximum interval between one aircraft weigh
and the next, must be defined by the operator, but not exceed
the four/nine year limits.
In addition the mass and CG position should be re-established
either by weighing or calculation when the cumulative changes
in the:
Dry Operating Mass exceed 0.5%
CG position exceeds 0.5% of the MAC.
An aircraft may be transferred from one JAA operator to another
without re-weighing provided both have an approved mass
control programme.
Fleet mass and cg position
When an operator has a number of aircraft of the same type
and configuration, he may wish to use the average Dry
Operating Mass and CG position of this group of aircraft. The
use of fleet mass and CG position is controlled by strict rules to
ensure that all aircraft in the fleet stay within the specified limits.
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WEIGHING THE AIRCRAFT

The empty weight and corresponding CG of all civil aircraft is
determined at the time of certification. Furthermore, an accurate
record of changes must be maintained throughout the life of the
aircraft. A manufacturer is required to weigh one aircraft out of
each 10 produced. The remaining nine aircraft are issued a
computed weight and balance report based on the averaged
figures of aircraft that are actually weighed. The condition of the
aircraft at the time of determining the empty weight must be one
that is well defined so that loading requirements can be easily
computed. Once an aircraft is placed in service, most
equipment changes and modifications do not require aircraft
reweighing. However, they do require a change to the aircraft's
weight and balance information.
These changes are often calculated by aircraft maintenance
technicians and entered in the aircraft's permanent weight and
balance records. Since these records stay with the aircraft
forever, they must reflect current aircraft status.
Privately owned and operated aircraft are not required by
regulation to be weighed periodically because they are usually
weighed when originally certificated. In fact, about the only time
a general aviation aircraft must be weighed and a new set of
records computed is when the weight and balance records are
lost and cannot be duplicated from any source. However, after
making major alterations that affect the weight and balance,
weighing should be accomplished to ensure that the maximum
weight and CG limits are not exceeded during operation.

7.16 - 30
Over extended intervals, however, the accumulation of dirt,

miscellaneous hardware, minor repairs, and other factors will
render the basic-weight and CG data inaccurate. For this
reason, periodic aircraft weightings are desirable.
Aircraft may also be required to be weighed after they are
painted; when major modifications or repairs are made; when
the pilot reports unsatisfactory flight characteristics, such as
nose or tail heaviness; and when recorded weight-and-balance
data are suspected to be in error
Unlike privately owned aircraft, air carrier and air taxi aircraft are
required by Aviation Regulations (FARs, JARs) to be weighed
periodically. The exact interval varies from operator to operator,
but is typically done on an annual basis. Furthermore, air carrier
and air taxi aircraft (scheduled and non-scheduled) that carry
passengers or cargo are required to show that the aircraft is
loaded properly and will not exceed the authorized weight and
balance limitations during operation.
Weighing aircraft with accurately calibrated scales is the only
sure method of obtaining an accurate empty weight and CG
location. The use of weight-and-balance records in accounting
for and correcting the aircraft weight-and-balance location is
reliable over limited periods of time.

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PREPARATION OF AIRCRAFT FOR WEIGHING

The type of equipment, which is used to weigh aircraft, varies
with the aircraft size. Three types of scales are commonly used
to weigh aircraft. Each type is equally effective in obtaining
accurate results. The three types of scales are platform scales,
portable electronic weighing system using load pads, and
electronic load cells used in conjunction with jacks.
These cells are strain gauges whose resistance changes in

accordance with the pressure applied to them. A load cell is
placed between a jack and a jack point on the aircraft, with
particular attention paid to locating the cell so that no side loads
will be applied (see Figure c). When weight readings are taken,
the entire airplane weight must be supported on the load cells.
Light aircraft are often weighed on beam-type platform scales,

such as those illustrated in Figure a. Platform scales require the
use of jacks or ramps to position the aircraft on the scales.
The output of the load cells is fed to an electronic instrument

that amplifies and interprets the load-cell signals to provide
weight readings. The instrument is adjusted to provide a zero
reading from each load cell before the aircraft is weighed. After
weighing, the cells are checked again and the reading is
adjusted to compensate for any change noted.
A portable electronic weighing system makes it possible to find

the weight and balance of large and small aircraft without
jacking (see Figure b). The system consists of electronic
platform scales as necessary to weigh each wheel or pair of
wheels on the aircraft, signal amplifiers, a digital CG indicator, a
digital gross-weight indicator, and a power panel. Each scale
consists of a platform supported by strain gauge transducers,
usually no more than 3 in [7.62 cm] in height. Ramps are
supplied with the platforms so that the aircraft can easily be
towed to position on the scales. The signals from the scales
provide the information that is presented on the digital CG and
gross-weight indicators.
For larger aircraft the weighing pads may be recessed so that
they are level with the floor to facilitate locating the aircraft on
the scales.
Whichever type of system is selected, only weighing equipment

that is maintained and calibrated to acceptable standards
should be used.
Figure A
Another method used to weigh large aircraft is to use electronic

load cells.
7.16 - 31

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Figure B
Figure C

7.16 - 32

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Equipment preparation
Weighing area preparation
When preparing to weigh an aircraft, the accuracy of the scales

must be established. This can be done in accordance with
instructions provided by the manufacturer of the scales or by
testing the scales with calibrated weights. When there is nothing
on the scales, the reading should be zero.
The aircraft should be weighed inside a closed building to avoid

errors that may be caused by wind.
Note: Most electronic scales require a specified warm-up

period.
All fans, air conditioning, and ventilating systems should be

turned off.
Hangar doors and windows should be kept closed during the

weighing process. The floor should be level.
All the equipment that will be required to perform the weighing

procedures should be located prior to beginning the weight
check. The following is a list of equipment commonly used when
weighing an aircraft:
Jacks or ramps
Wheel chalks
Level
Plumb lines
Steel measuring tape
Hydrometer (for testing the specific gravity of the fuel)
Tools and gauges for strut deflation and inflation
Nitrogen bottles for strut inflation

7.16 - 33

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Aircraft preparation
Unless otherwise noted in the Type Certificate Data

Sheet, the oil system and other operating fluids should
be checked to see that they are full. Items that should be
filled to operating capacity include lubricating oil,
hydraulic fluid, APU oil, oxygen bottles, and fire
extinguishers.
The fuel should be drained from the aircraft unless other

instructions are given. Fuel should be drained with the
aircraft in the level position to make sure that the tanks
are as empty as possible. The amount of fuel remaining
in the aircraft tanks, lines, and engine is termed
unusable fuel, and its weight is included in the empty
weight of the aircraft.
In order to obtain an accurate determination of the aircraft's

weight and center of gravity, it is important that the aircraft be
properly prepared for weighing.
Specific weighing preparations and procedures will vary with the
model of the aircraft being weighed. However, the following
information will provide general guidance.
The aircraft should be clean and free from excessive

dirt, grease, moisture, or any other extraneous material
before weighing.
The aircraft should be dry before it is weighed; thus an

aircraft should never be weighed immediately after it is
washed.
All equipment to be installed in the aircraft and included

in the certificated empty weight should be in place for
weighing. Each item must be in the location that it will
occupy during flight, as shown on the aircraft equipment
list.
All equipment, such as carpets, seat belts, oxygen

masks, and so on, should be placed in their normal
location.
All tools and other working equipment must be removed

before weighing.

7.16 - 34
NOTE: In special cases the aircraft may be weighed with full

fuel in the tanks, provided that a definite means is available for
determining the exact weight of the fuel.
If equipped with a water and waste system the water

tank(s) and the waste tank(s) must be drained

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Positioning the airplane

The aircraft should be placed in the weighing area. The aircraft's
exterior should be checked to see that there is no interference
with work stands and other equipment. If the main wheels are
used as reaction points, the brakes should not be set because
the resultant side loads on the scales or weighing units may
cause erroneous readings.
The aircraft should be positioned securely on the scales.
If the wheels are used as weighing points, it is advisable to use
chocks on the scales both fore and aft so that the aircraft does
not roll during the weighing procedure. Remember that items
such as chocks and tail stands that are placed on top of the
scales during weighing are considered tare weight; Tare weight
must be subtracted from the scale readings. Tare weight items
are generally weighed on different scales because aircraft
scales are likely to be inaccurate in the lower range readings.
An airplane must be level to obtain accurate weighing
information. Leveling is usually accomplished along both the
longitudinal and the lateral axis. The leveling means are given in
the Type Certificate Data Sheet. The leveling means are the
reference points used by the aircraft technician to insure that
the aircraft is level for weight-and-balance purposes.
This same basic procedure is accomplished in some aircraft by

the installation of two nut plates on the side of the fuselage.
Screws can be placed in these nut plates and longitudinal level
is determined when a spirit level placed on the extended screws
is level, as shown in Figure a.
Some aircraft use a plumb bob an a target to establish the level
on both axes. In the DC-10 airplane, an inclinometer consisting
of a plumb bob and grid plate is provided in the right wheel well,
and brackets for spirit levels are located in the nose-gear wheel
well. In Figure b, locations of the leveling means for the DC-l0
are shown.
The inclinometer indicates degrees of roll or pitch. The plumb
bob is suspended by a cord and is secured in a stowage clip
when not in use. During leveling operations, the plumb bob is
released from the clip and is suspended by its cord over the grid
plate. The level attitude of the airplane is established by the
location of the plumb bob in relation to the grid-plate markings.
When a higher degree of leveling accuracy is required, spirit
levels are used. The two sets of brackets provided in the nosegear wheel well are used to support the levels in both
longitudinal and lateral axes.
One method used on many light aircraft is to set a spirit level on

a longitudinal structural member to establish the longitudinal
level position and another level across a lateral structural
member to establish the lateral level position.

7.16 - 35

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Figure a
Figure B

7.16 - 36

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Aircraft weighing
The scale reading should be given a period of a few minutes to
stabilize. The weights of the weighing points should be recorded
to provide information needed for the CG determination. Several
readings are taken for each reaction point, and the average
reading is entered on the aircraft weighing form.
After marking the crosses for the two main gear points, a
chalked string is stretched between them. The string is then
snapped to the floor, leaving a chalk line between the main
reaction points. The nose or tail reaction point is projected to the
hangar floor in a similar manner, as is shown in Figure a.
With the aircraft in the level position, it is necessary to measure

and record the weigh point locations on the weighing form. On
some aircraft the exact location of the weigh points will be
provided in the aircraft flight manual or maintenance manual. If
the location of weighing points is not provided, the exact
location of the weighing points must be accurately measured
while the aircraft is in the level position and then recorded for
use in the weight-and-balance computation.
After these points are projected to the floor, it is a simple matter

to measure the required dimensions. When measuring these
distances, the tape must be parallel to the centerline of the
aircraft. Measurements made from the main reaction points are
taken perpendicular to the chalk line joining these two points.
When fuselage and wing jack points are used as reaction points
in weighing the aircraft, it is unnecessary to measure
dimensions. These points will remain fixed and their moment
arms may be found in the aircraft records. Care must be taken
to use the fixed reaction points indicated in the records for the
particular aircraft being measured. Because of manufacturing
tolerances and minor model changes, the fixed reaction points
are not necessarily identical for all aircraft of a particular type.
The location of the datum is provided in the Type Certificate

Data Sheet. For aircraft where the datum passes through the
aircraft, a plumb bob is dropped from that point to the floor. For
aircraft where the datum is located ahead of the aircraft, a
reference point should be located on the aircraft from which a
plumb bob can be dropped to locate the datum. Once the datum
is located on the floor, the plumb bob is suspended from each of
the weighing points. The technician can measure these
distances by projecting the required points to the hangar floor.
To project these points to the hangar floor, a plumb bob may be
suspended so that it is approximately one-half inch above the
floor. When the swing of the plumb bob dampens, a cross mark
is made on the floor directly under the tip of the plumb bob. The
main reaction points are projected to the floor in the same
manner.
7.16 - 37
The weight of the tare should be recorded either before or after

weighing the aircraft, and the tare weight should then be
subtracted from the total weight obtained from the scales.
When data for comparison are available, an attempt should be
made to verify the results obtained from each weighing.
Verification may be made by comparing results with a previous
weighing of an aircraft of the same model.

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.
Figure a

7.16 - 38

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Computing cg location
After the necessary dimensions and weights have been
obtained, the empty weight and the empty weight CG can be
calculated. Empty weight is the total of the three scale readings
after subtracting the weight of tare items, plus or minus
calibration errors. This weight is important for subsequent
calculation of maximum weight and also is a necessary factor in
the determination of the CG.
Following the multiplication step, additional care must be taken

when adding wheel moments to obtain the total moment and
when dividing the total moment by the total weight to obtain the
CG. In all these mathematical operations, the algebraic sign
must be observed.
.
Center-of-gravity computations may be figured by several

methods. The formulas used in computing the center of gravity
are varied. Whenever possible, the manufacturer's weight-andbalance formulas and diagrams should be used, as shown in
Figure a. Although most manufacturers use similar formulas,
they use different letter designations for different items. If these
formulas are not available, a standard formula may be used for
the EWCG computation.
Fundamentally, the CG is the point at which all the weights of
the aircraft can be considered to be concentrated. The average
location of these weights can, therefore, be obtained by dividing
the total moment (weight X arm) by the total weight. The
process then involves multiplying each measured weight by its
arm to obtain a moment and then adding the moments.
Extra care must be taken in these types of empty-weight
calculations if one or more of the arms are located ahead of the
datum. In this event, the algebraic sign of the arm and moment
will be negative. It should be remembered that a positive
number (the weight) times a negative number (the arm) results
in a negative number (the moment).
7.16 - 39

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7.16 - 40


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A set of formulas used quite extensively today is contained in

the FAA Advisory Circular 43.13.1A and is shown in figure A.
The user selects one of these formulas, depending upon the
weighing points and the datum location in reference to the
weighing points. These formulas simplify the calculations in
several ways. In effect, the datum is mathematically moved to
the main gear by this process, resulting in relatively small
moments, which are easy to handle in weight-and-balance
calculations. A major benefit of the use of these formulas is the
elimination of multiplication steps that involve negative arms
and negative moments.

The fourth diagram shows a condition where the CG is positive

from the MWCL but negative from the datum line. The datum to
the MWCL is a negative distance, and the CG from the MWCL
is a positive distance. Therefore, the EWCG from the datum line
is the difference between the two distances and, in this case,
carries a negative sign.
In the first diagram of Figure a, the datum is at the nose of the

airplane, and since the airplane is of the tricycle-gear type, the
CG must be forward of the MWCL. The part of the formula F X L
/ W gives the distance of the CG forward of the MWCL. This
distance must then be subtracted from the distance D to find the
distance of the CG from the datum.
In the second diagram, the airplane is of conventional tail-wheel
type, and so the CG must be to the rear of the MWCL. With the
datum at the nose of the airplane, it is necessary to add the
datum-line distance, D, to the R X L / W distance to find the
EWCG from the datum line.
In the third diagram, the CG and the MWCL is both forward of
the datum line; therefore, both distances are negative. For this
reason the CG distance from the MWCL and the datum
distance from the MWCL are added together, and the total is
given a negative sign.

7.16 - 41

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Figure A

7.16 - 42

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Computing the cg for a tricycle gear airplane
Expressing the cg as a percentage or the mac
In Figure a, a tricycle-gear airplane is weighed, and it is found

that the nose-wheel weight is 320 Ib [145.1 kg], the right-wheel
weight is 816 Ib [370.1 kg], and the left-wheel weight is 810 Ib
[367.4 kg] .The datum, which is located at the nose of the
airplane, is 40 in [101.6 cm] forward of the nose-wheel center
line and 115 in [292.1 cm] forward of the MWCL. The horizontal
distance between the weighing points is 75 in [190.5 cm].
The center of gravity may be expressed in terms of inches

forward or to the rear of the datum line or as percentage of the
mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). The CG location and various
limits are then expressed in percentages of the chord. (Figure b)
Problem 7-16-1 shows how EWCG can be computed from

these figures.
PROBLEM 7-16-1
The center of gravity is expressed as a percentage and is

located aft of LEMAC, as is shown in Figure c. Assume that the
center of gravity for a particular aircraft has been calculated to
be located at 130 in aft of the datum. The LEMAC is at station
100, and the TEMAC is at station 250; therefore, the length of
the MAC is 250 in -100 in, or 150 inches in length, as is shown
in Figure c.
To calculate the CG as a percentage of the MAC, the following
formula can be used:
Then; +199790 = +102.67 in

1946
Care must be taken to ensure that the proper sign is applied to
each quantity expressed in a weight-and-balance computation.

7.16 - 43

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Figure C
Figure b

7.16 - 44

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Empty-weight center of gravity range
Loaded center of gravity range
Some of the smaller aircraft, whose fuel tanks are located in the
wing and whose two seats are side-by-side with a small
baggage compartment immediately behind the seats, have such
a limited movement of the center of gravity that the
manufacturer includes an empty-weight center of gravity range
in the Specifications Sheets.
Larger aircraft having several rows of seats and with both

forward and aft baggage compartments do not have an emptyweight center of gravity range, but on their Type Certificate Data
Sheets they have a center of gravity graph, such is the one in
Fig. b. above the graph are the figures from which the graph
was made.
In Fig. A, we see that the empty-weight center of gravity range

is inside the loaded center of gravity range. If the empty-weight
center of gravity of the aircraft falls within the empty-weight
center of gravity range, the aircraft cannot be legally loaded in
such a way that its center of gravity in flight will fall outside of
the loaded center of gravity range. If the empty-weight center of
gravity does not fall within the allowable empty-weight range,
the technician must compute an adverse-loaded center of
gravity condition, and if the aircraft can be made to fall outside
of the loaded center of gravity range, it must be placarded to
prevent loading the aircraft improperly.
Up to a gross weight of 5,150 pounds, the forward center of

gravity limit is + 128 inches, and the aft limit is + 139.2 inches.
At the gross weight of 6, 725 pounds, the forward limit is +
134.2 inches and the aft limit is still + 139.2. The forward limit
moves back in a straight line between the two weights. Using
the graph, we see, for example, that at a gross weight of 6,400
pounds the forward limit is + 133.0 inches, and the aft limit is
+139.2 inches.
You will notice in the information that this graph applies to the
aircraft with the landing gear extended. When it is retracted
there is a moment change of +857 pound-inches. If the center of
gravity at 6,400 pounds is + 135 inches with the landing gear
down, we must add a moment of +857 pound-inches when we
retract the landing gear. When we divide the total weight (still
6,400 pounds) into the new moment, we find that the center of
gravity has moved back to +135.134 inches.
This aircraft has a ramp weight of 6,819 pounds and a gross
allowable takeoff-and-landing weight of 6, 725 pounds. This
means that he aircraft can be loaded with 15.7 gallons of fuel
above the allowable gross weight. This is only 7.8 gallons per
engine, which will be used by the time the aircraft taxies out to
the takeoff position.

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Figure b

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Shifting the center of gravity
To determine the amount of ballast needed, use this formula:
Ballast
Ballast weight =
It is possible to load most modern airplanes so the center of

gravity shifts outside of the allowable limits When the CG of an
aircraft falls outside of the limits, it can usually be brought back
by using ballast If ballast is needed, it should be installed with
as long an arm as possible so the weight will be minimum. The
aircraft structure to which the ballast is attached must be strong
enough to support the weight under all flight conditions.
Permanent ballast
If an aircraft has been altered in such a way that its center of
gravity is outside of its allowable range, it may be brought back
into range by adding permanent ballast. Usually, permanent
ballast is made of blocks of lead painted red and marked
"Permanent Ballast - Do Not Remove." It should be attached to
the structure so that it does not interfere with any control action,
and attached rigidly enough that it cannot be dislodged by any
flight maneuvers or rough landing.
Two things must first be known to determine the amount of
ballast needed to bring the CG within limits: the amount the CG
is out of limits, and the distance between the location of the
ballast and the limit that is affected.
Aircraft weight X distance out of limits

Distance between ballast and desired CG
In order to move the center of gravity from A22 inches to + 24

inches, we must install a weight of 11.1 pounds on the tail post.
If an airplane with an empty weight of 1,876 pounds has been
altered so its EWCG is +32.2, and the CG range for weights up
to 2,250 pounds is +33.0 to +46.0, permanent ballast must be
installed to move the EWCG from + 32.2 to +33.0. There is a
bulkhead at fuselage station 228 strong enough to support the
ballast.
Ballast = 1,876 x 0.8
228 - 33
=
1,500.8
195
= 7.7 pounds
A block of lead weighing 7.7 pounds attached to the bulkhead at
fuselage station 228 will move the EWCG back to its proper
forward limit of +33. This block should be painted red and
marked "Permanent Ballast - Do Not Remove."
In Fig. a, we have an example of a small two place airplane that

has had a power plant alteration performed which moved its
center of gravity two inches ahead of the forward empty-weight
center of gravity limit. In order to bring the center of gravity back
within limits, a bar of lead may be attached to the tail post.
7.16 - 47

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Figure a
Figure b
7.16 - 48

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Temporary ballast
For certain flight conditions it may be necessary to carry
temporary ballast to keep the aircraft within the allowable center
of gravity limits, Temporary ballast, in the form of lead bars or
heavy canvas bags of sand or lead shot, is often carried in the
baggage compartments to adjust the balance for certain flight
conditions.
The loaded weight of the aircraft is 1.045 pounds and the

loaded CG is + 10 inches. The center of the baggage
compartment is 36 inches behind the forward center of gravity
limit. When we work this problem, we find that a weight of 58
pounds must be carried in the baggage compartment to get the
CG back in range.
The bags are marked "Ballast XX Pounds Removal Requires

Weight and Balance Check." Temporary ballast must be
secured so it cannot shift its location in flight, and the structural
limits of the baggage compartment must not be exceeded. All
temporary ballast must be removed before the aircraft is
weighed.
Shifting weight
Large aircraft having several rows of seats and more than one
baggage compartment may be kept in balance without adding
ballast, by shifting some of the weight that is carried. For
example, in Fig. b, we have a large aircraft with a baggage
compartment at station 26 and one at station 246.
Temporary Ballast Formula

To determine the amount of temporary ballast needed, use this
formula:
Ballast weight needed =
Total weight x Distance needed to shift CG
Distance between ballast location and desired CG
Ex- Some tandem-seat trainers must be flown solo from the rear
seat because, with one occupant in the front seat and a full tank
of fuel ahead of the front seat, the center of gravity will be
ahead of the forward limit. If a pilot wants to fly solo from the
front seat, he must carry enough ballast in the baggage
compartment behind the rear seat to bring the loaded center of
gravity into range.
7.16 - 49
We need to find the amount of weight we must shift to bring the

center of gravity back 1.5 inches.
The ratio of amount of weight shifted to the total weight of the
aircraft is proportional to the ratio of the change in center of
gravity required to the distance the weight is shifted. Using the
formula in Fig. b, we find that by shifting 55.9 pounds of
baggage from the front to the rear baggage compartment, we
will shift the center of gravity aft by 1.5 inches.

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Modifications
During the lifetime of many aircraft, it is often desirable to
change the type of equipment that is installed. The owner of an
airplane may wish to install new radio equipment, an autopilot,
an auxiliary fuel tank, or various other items to make the
airplane more serviceable. For each such change, it is
necessary to figure the effect on weight and balance.
The manufacturer is required to provide documents, which show
the certified empty weight and the CG for each new aircraft. The
continued validity of weight-and-balance records during the life
of the aircraft depends upon maintaining a series of similar
documents showing the calculations for each successive weight
change. It is essential that whenever equipment is added or
removed from the aircraft, an entry be made in the airplane's
equipment list and permanent weight-and-balance records.
Many manufacturers provide a form, such as the one shown in
Figure a, which provides for a record of the equipment added or
removed as well as a running total of the weight and balance.
The weight of an airplane is always positive (+). Also, the weight

of any item installed in the airplane is positive. The weight of
any item removed from the airplane is negative (-). According to
the standard rules of algebra, the product of two positive
numbers is positive, the product of two negative numbers is
positive, and the product of a positive number and a negative
number is negative. This can also be stated: The product of
numbers with like signs is positive; the product of numbers with
unlike signs is negative.
The formula used to compute the new EWCG after the addition
or subtraction of equipment is
CG = TOTALMOMENT
TOTALWEIGH
In calculating the new EWCG when adding or removing
equipment, it is essential that the correct algebraic sign be
used.

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When items of aircraft equipment are added or removed, four

combinations are possible. These are as follows:
o
When items are added forward of the datum line, the

signs are (+) weight X (-) arm = (-) moment.
When items are added to the rear of the datum line, the
signs are (+) weight x (+) arm = (+) moment.
When items are removed forward of the datum line, the

signs are (-) weight X (-) arm = (+) moment.
When items are removed to the rear of the datum line,

the signs are (-) weight X (+) arm = (-) moment
A simple diagram will aid in determining the effect of changes in

aircraft equipment. In Figure a, a straight line represents the
airplane. The nose of the airplane is shown to the left, this being
the conventional method for representing aircraft in weight-andbalance diagrams. Using the CG location as a reference, note
that any item installed forward of the CG produces a negative
moment and causes the CG to move forward. Items added to
the rear of the CG produce a positive moment and move the CG
rearward. Items removed have an effect opposite to that of
items installed.
Observe that the curved arrows shown around the CG location
indicate the effects of positive and negative moments. Positive
moments are clockwise and cause a tail-heavy force, while
negative moments are counterclockwise and because a noseheavy force.

7.16 - 53

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Weight-and-balance report
After the weight-and-balance calculations are complete, it is
important that they be properly recorded and placed in the
aircraft weight-and-balance records (a sample form is shown in
Figure). When a new weight-and-balance report is prepared for
an aircraft, the previous report should be marked superseded,
and the date of the new document should be referenced. The
series of weight-and-balance documents should start with the
manufacturer's data and continue in a chronological order to the
latest weight-andbalance report.

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Loading of the airplane
Effects of improper loading
The aircraft operator should develop a procedure by which it

can be shown that the aircraft is properly loaded and will not
exceed authorized weight and balance limitations during
operation.
Improper loading reduces the efficiency of an airplane from the

viewpoint of ceiling, maneuverability, rate of climb, and speed.
This is the least of the harm that it can cause. The greatest
danger is that improper loading may cause the destruction of life
and property, even before the flight is well started, because of
the stresses imposed upon the aircraft structure or because of
altered flying characteristics. Some of the effects of improper
loading are illustrated in Figure.
Operators of large aircraft must also account for all probable

loading conditions, which may be experienced in flight and
develop a loading schedule, which will provide satisfactory
weight-and-balance control.
Overloading
Loading schedules may be applied to individual aircraft or to a
complete fleet of similar aircraft.
Center-of-gravity travel during flight
On transport-category aircraft the flight manual should provide
procedures, which fully account for the extreme variations in CG
travel during flight caused by any combination of the following
variables:
The movement of passengers and cabin attendants from

their normal seat position in the aircraft to other seats or
the lavatory.
The loss of weight due to fuel bum.
The effect of landing-gear retraction

7.16 - 55
Excessive weight reduces the flying ability of an airplane in

almost every respect. The most important performance
deficiencies of an overweight airplane are
Lowered structural safety

Reduced maneuverability
Increased takeoff run
Lowered angle and rate of climb
Lowered ceiling
Increased fuel consumption
Overstressed tires
Increased stalling speed
Increased landing roll
Lower cruise speed and range

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Effects of adverse balance

Adverse and abnormal balance conditions affect the flying
ability of an airplane with respect to the same flight
characteristics as those mentioned for an excess weight
condition. In addition, there are two essential airplane attributes,
which may be seriously reduced by improper balance; these are
stability and control.
If a rising air current should cause the nose to pitch up, the
airplane will slow down and the downward force on the tail will
decrease. The weight concentrated at the CG will pull the nose
back down. If the nose should drop in flight, the airspeed will
increase and the increased downward tail load will bring the
nose back up to level flight.
An adversely loaded airplane can become particularly difficult to

control during flap operation because of the shift in the center of
lift.
As long as the CG is maintained within the allowable limits for

its weight, the airplane will have adequate longitudinal stability
and control. If the CG is too far aft, it will be too near the center
of lift and the airplane will be unstable, and difficult to recover
from a stall. [Figure b] If the unstable airplane should ever enter
a spin, the spin could become flat and recovery would be
difficult or impossible.
Balance control refers to the location of the CG of an aircraft.

This is of primary importance to aircraft stability, which
determines safety in flight.
The CG is the point at which the total weight of the aircraft is
assumed to be concentrated, and the CG must be located
within specific limits for safe flight. Both lateral and longitudinal
balance are important, but the prime concern is longitudinal
balance; that is, the location of the CG along the longitudinal or
lengthwise axis.
An airplane is designed to have stability that allows it to be
trimmed so it will maintain straight and level flight with hands off
of the controls. Longitudinal stability is maintained by ensuring
the CG is slightly ahead of the center of lift. This produces a
fixed nose-down force independent of the airspeed. This is
balanced by a variable nose-up force, which is produced by a
downward aerodynamic force on the horizontal tail surfaces that
varies directly with airspeed. Figure a.
7.16 - 57
If the CG is too far forward, the downward tail load will have to
be increased to maintain level flight. This increased tail load has
the same effect as carrying additional weight the aircraft will
have to fly at a higher angle of attack, and drag will increase.
A more serious problem caused by the CG being too far forward
is the lack of sufficient elevator authority. At slow takeoff
speeds, the elevator might not produce enough nose-up force to
rotate and on landing there may not be enough elevator force to
flare the airplane. [Figure c] Both takeoff and landing runs will
be lengthened if the CG is too far forward.

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The basic aircraft design assumes that lateral symmetry exists.

For each item of weight added to the left of the centerline of the
aircraft (also known as buttock line zero, or BL-O), there is
generally an equal weight at a corresponding location on the
right.
The lateral balance can be upset by uneven fuel loading or burn
off. The position of the lateral CG is not normally computed for
an airplane, but the pilot must be aware of the adverse effects
that will result from a laterally unbalanced condition. [Figure a]
This is corrected by using the aileron trim tab until enough fuel
has been used from the tank on the heavy side to balance the
airplane. The deflected trim tab deflects the aileron to produce
additional lift on the heavy side, but it also produces additional
drag, and the airplane flies inefficiently.

In order to determine whether the loaded CG falls within the

approved limits, it is necessary to make two computations, one
for most forward loading and one for most rearward loading.
These adverse-Loading checks are a deliberate attempt to load
an aircraft in a manner that will create the most critical balance
condition while still remaining within the maximum gross weight
of the aircraft.
It should be noted that when the EWCG falls within the EWCG
range (if one is given), it is unnecessary to perform a forward or
rearward weight-and-balance check. In other words, it is
impossible to load the aircraft to exceed the CG limits, provided
standard loading and seating arrangement are used.
Swept wing airplanes are more critical due to fuel imbalance

because as the fuel is used from the outboard tanks the CG
shifts forward and as it is used from the inboard tanks the CG
shifts aft. [Figure b] For this reason, fuel-use scheduling in highspeed jet aircraft operation is critical.
Aircraft can perform safely and achieve their designed efficiency
only when they are operated and maintained in the way their
designers intended. This safety and efficiency is determined to
a large degree by holding the aircraft's weight and balance
parameters within the limits specified for its design. The
remainder of this book describes the way in which this is done.
We have already explained that every aircraft has an approved
CG range within which the CG must lie if the aircraft is to be
operated safely.
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