Historical Vedic religion

BCE). Both groups were rooted in the Andronovoculture[24] in the Bactria-Margiana era, in present northern Afghanistan,[23] and related to the Indo-Iranians,
from which they split o around 1800-1600 BCE.[25]
Their roots go back further to the Sintashta culture, with
funeral sacrices which show close parallels to the sacricial funeral rites of the Rig Veda.[26]
The immigrations consisted probably of small groups of
people.[14] Jonathan Mark Kenoyer notes that there is
no archaeological or biological evidence for invasions or
mass migrations into the Indus Valley between the end of
the Harappan phase, about 1900 B.C. and the beginning
of the Early Historic period around 600 B.C.[27]
For an overview of the current relevant research, see:

Map of northern India in the late Vedic period. The location of

Vedic shakhas is labelled in green. Thar desert is in dark yellow

Michael Witzel (2001), Autochthonous Aryans?

The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts,
in Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS) 7-3, pp
1-93

The religion of the Vedic period (also known as

Vedism, ancient Hinduism, Brahmanism and Vedic
Brahmanism[note 1] ) was the religion of the Indo-Aryans
of northern India.[5] It is a historical predecessor of
modern Hinduism, though signicantly dierent from
it.[note 2]

Shereen Ratnagar (2008), The Aryan homeland debate in India, in Kohl, PL, M Kozelsky and N BenYehuda (Eds) Selective remembrances: archaeology
in the construction, commemoration, and consecration of national pasts, pp 349-378

The Vedic liturgy is conserved in the mantra portion of

the four Vedas,[6] which are compiled in Sanskrit. The
religious practices centered on a clergy administering
rites.[7] This mode of worship is largely unchanged today
within Hinduism; however, only a small fraction of conservative rautins continue the tradition of oral recitation
of hymns learned solely through the oral tradition.

Suraj Bhan (2002), Aryanization of the Indus Civilization in Panikkar, KN, Byres, TJ and Patnaik,
U (Eds), The Making of History, pp 41-55.
Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel
And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From
the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World,
Princeton University Press[note 7]

Origins

Main articles: Indo-Aryans, Indo-Aryan migration

hypothesis and Vedic period
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical
See also: Indo-European migrations, Proto-Indo- era were closely related to the hypothesised ProtoEuropean religion and Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
Indo-European religion,[32][33] and the Indo-Iranian
religion.[34] According to Anthony, the Old Indic reThe commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is ligion probably emerged among Indo-European immidated back to 2nd millennium BCE.[8] The Vedic reli- grants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River
gion was the religion of the Indo-Aryans,[9][note 3] and ex- (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[35] It
isted in northern India from c. 1750 to 500 BCE.[11][note 4] was a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new
The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-European Indo-European elements,[35] which borrowed distinclanguage family, which originated in the Kurgan cul- tive religious beliefs and practices[36] from the Bactria
ture of the Central Asian steppes.[14][note 5][note 6] bring- Margiana Culture.[36] At least 383 non-Indo-European
ing with them their language[20] and religion.[21][22] They words were borrowed from this culture, including the god
were closely related to the Indo-Aryans who founded Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[37] According to AnMitanni kingdom in northern Syria[23] (ca.1500-1300 thony,
1

3
Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god
of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became
the central deity of the developing Old Indic
culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns,
a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a
stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra)
probably borrowed from the BMAC religion.
His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of
the Old Indic speakers.[23]

CHARACTERISTICS

3.1 Rituals
Main articles: Yajurveda and yajna
The mode of worship was worship of the elements like

The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the

Rig Veda, are found not in northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni
kingdom.[38] The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne
names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for
horse-riding and chariot-driving.[38] The Old Indic term
r'ta, meaning cosmic order and truth, the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the Mitanni
kingdom.[38] And Old Indic gods, including Indra, were A rauta yajna being performed in South India.
also known in the Mitanni kingdom.[39][40][41]
re and rivers, worship of heroic gods like Indra, chanting
The Vedic religion of the later Vedic period co-existed of hymns and performance of sacrices. The priests perwith local religions, such as the Yaksha cults,[5][42][web 1] formed the solemn rituals for the noblemen (Kshatriyas)
and was itself the product of a composite of the Indo- and wealthy commoners Vaishyas. People prayed for
Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations.[43] David abundance of children, rain, cattle (wealth), long life
Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who and an afterlife in the heavenly world of the ancestors.
have emphatically demonstrated that Vedic religion is This mode of worship has been preserved even today in
partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilizations.[44] Hinduism, which involves recitations from the Vedas by a
The religion of the Indo-Aryans was further developed purohita (priest), for prosperity, wealth and general wellwhen they migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 being. However, the primacy of Vedic deities has been
BCE and became settled farmers,[15][45][46] further syn- seconded to the deities of Puranic literature.
cretising with the native cultures of northern India.[5]
Specic rituals and sacrices of the Vedic religion include, among others:[47]

Textual history

Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic

Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, but the
Brahmanas, Aranyakas and some of the older Upanishads
(Bhadrayaka, Chndogya, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana) are also placed in this period. The Vedas record
the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrices performed by the 16 or 17 rauta priests and the purohitas.
According to traditional views, the hymns of the Rigveda
and other Vedic hymns were divinely revealed to the
rishis, who were considered to be seers or hearers (ruti
means what is heard) of the Veda, rather than authors.
In addition the Vedas are said to be apaurashaya, a Sanskrit word meaning uncreated by man and which further reveals their eternal non-changing status.

Characteristics

See also: Proto-Indo-Iranian religion

The Soma rituals, which involved the extraction,

utility and consumption of Soma:
The Agnistoma or Soma sacrice
Fire rituals involving oblations (havir):
The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun
charm,
The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of
piling the re altar.
The New and Full Moon as well as the Seasonal (Cturmsya) sacrices
The royal consecration (Rajasuya) sacrice
The Ashvamedha or A Yajna dedicated to the glory,
wellbeing and prosperity of the Rashtra the nation
or empire[48]
The Purushamedha.
The rituals and charms referred to in the
Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and
healing practices.[49]

3
The Hindu rites of cremation are seen since the Rigvedic
period; while they are attested from early times in the
Cemetery H culture, there is a late Rigvedic reference
invoking forefathers both cremated (agnidagdh-) and
uncremated (nagnidagdha-)".(RV 10.15.14)[50][51]

3.2

Pantheon

Main article: Rigvedic deities

Though a large number of devatas are named in the Rig
Veda, only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth,
space and heaven.[52] The Vedic pantheon knows two
classes, Devas and Asuras. The Devas (Mitra, Varuna,
Aryaman, Bhaga, Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and
social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the
individual. The Rigveda is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic Indra, Agni the sacricial re and messenger of the gods, and Soma, the deied
sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians.[53] Also prominent is
Varuna (often paired with Mitra) and the group of Allgods, the Vishvadevas.[54]

3.3

Philosophy
See also philosophers of Vedic age

Vedic philosophy primarily begins with the later part of

the Rigveda, which was compiled before 1100 BCE.[55]
Most of the philosophy of the Rigveda is contained in the
sections Purusha sukta and Nasadiya sukta.[56]

scriptures. Asha (aa) is the Avestan language term (corresponding to Vedic language ta) for a concept of cardinal importance[61] to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine.
Conformity with ta would enable progress whereas its
violation would lead to punishment. The term Dharma
was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was
conceived as an aspect of Rta.[62]
The concept of Yajna or sacrice is also enunciated in
the Purusha sukta where reaching the Absolute itself is
considered a transcendent sacrice when viewed from the
point of view of the individual.[63]

4 Post-Vedic religions
Main articles: Indian religions and History of Hinduism
The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BC.
The period after the Vedic religion, between 800 BCE
and 200 BCE, is the formative period for Hinduism,
Jainism and Buddhism.[2][3][4][64] According to Michaels,
the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of
ascetic reformism.[65][note 8] Muesse discerns a longer
period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200
BCE, which he calls the Classical Period":
...this was a time when traditional religious
practices and beliefs were reassessed. The
brahmins and the rituals they performed no
longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in
the Vedic pariod.[67]

According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts

Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and personal
Kanva, Rishaba, Vamadeva, and Angiras.[57]
enlightenment and transformation, did not exist in the
Vedic religion, developed between 800 BCE and 200
BCE:[4][note 9]

3.4

Ethics satya and rta

See also: Asha

Indian philosophers came to regard the human as an immortal soul encased in a perishable body and bound by action, or karma, to a
cycle of endless existences.[69]

Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya

and Rta. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in
the Absolute,[58] whereas ta is the expression of Satya, The Vedic religion gradually metamorphosed into the
which further evolved into
which regulates and coordinates the operation of the uni- various schools of Hinduism,
[70]
Puranic
Hinduism.
However
aspects of the historical
[59]
verse and everything within it. Panikkar remarks:
Vedic religion survived in corners of the Indian subcontinent, such as Kerala where the Nambudiri Brahmins conta is the ultimate foundation of everytinue the ancient rauta rituals, which are considered exthing; it is the supreme, although this is not
tinct in all other parts.
to be understood in a static sense [...] It is the
expression of the primordial dynamism that is
4.1 Post-Vedic Hinduism
inherent in everything....[60]
The term is inherited from the Proto-Indo-Iranian reli- Main articles: Hinduism and History of Hinduism
gion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples prior to
the earliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) and Zoroastrian (Iranian) The Hindu samskaras

5 SEE ALSO
...go back to a hoary antiquity. The Vedas,
the Brahmanas, the Grhyasutras, the Dharmasutras, the Smritis and other treatises describe
the rites, ceremonies and customs.[71]

The worshipping rituals developed in such a way that

A formal distinction was maintained between rauta rites (rites using the Vedic
hymns), which were necessarily performed
by priests, and Griha (domestic) rites, performed by the Aryan householder himself; but
both the latter and the former were subject
to priestly inuence. Some domestic rites became almost indistinguishable from the priestly
rauta sacrices; and, even where older ceremonies were retained, they were usually interwoven with elements of the priestly ritual.[72]
4.1.1

Vedanta

Adi Shankara interpreted Vedas as being non-dualistic

or monistic.[81] However, Arya Samaj holds the view
that the Vedic mantras tend to monotheism.[82] Even
the earlier Mandalas of Rig Veda (books 1 and 9) contains hymns which are thought to have a tendency toward
monotheism.[83] Often quoted isolated pada 1.164.46 of
the Rig Veda states (trans. Grith):
Indra mitra varuamaghnimhuratho divya sa suparo gharutmn,
eka sad vipr bahudh vadantyaghni yama mtarivnamhu
They call him Indra, Mitra, Varua, Agni, and
he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmn.
To what is One, sages give many a title they call
it Agni, Yama, Mtarivan.
Moreover, the verses of 10.129 and 10.130, deal with the
one being (kam st). The verse 10.129.7 further conrms this (trans. Grith):

Vedic religion was followed by Upanishads which gradually evolved into Vedanta, which is regarded by some
iym vsi yta babhva / ydi v dadh
as the primary institution of Hinduism. Vedanta considydi v n / y asya dhyaka param vyers itself the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas.[73]
man / s ag veda ydi v n vda
The philosophy of Vedanta (lit. The end of the Vedas),
He, the rst origin of this creation, whether he
transformed the Vedic worldview to monistic one. This
formed it all or did not, He who surveys it all
led to the development of tantric metaphysics and gave
from his highest heaven, he verily knows it, or
rise to new forms of yoga, such as jnana yoga and bhakti
perhaps even he does not
[74]
yoga. There are some conservative schools which continue portions of the historical Vedic religion largely unchanged. (see rauta, Nambudiri).[75]
4.2 Sramana tradition
Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in a newer
Main articles: Sramana, Jainism and Buddhism
sense, Jeaneane D. Fowler writes the following:
4.1.2

Bhakti

The non-Vedic Sramana traditions existed alongside

Brahmanism.[84][85][note 10][note 11][note 12] These were not
direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual inuences with Brahmanical traditions,[84] reecting
the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, preAryan upper class of northeastern India.[86] Jainism and
Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition.[87][88]

The Vedic gods declined[77] but did not disappear, and

local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-brahmanic
pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon.[78]
Deities arose that were not mentioned or barely mentioned in the Veda, especially Shiva and Vishnu,[77] and
gave rise to Shaivism and Vaishnavism.[77]
There are Jaina references to 22 pre-historic
Tirthankaras. In this view, Jainism peaked at the
Mahavira (traditionally put in the 6th Century
4.1.3 Interpretations of Vedic Mantras in Hin- time of
[89][90]
Buddhism, traditionally put from c. 500
BCE).
duism
BC, declined in India over the 5th to 12th centuries in
[91]
[92][93]
The various Hindu schools and traditions give various in- favor of Puranic Hinduism and Islam.
terpretations of the Vedic hymns.
Mimamsa philosophers argue that there was no need to
postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need
for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals.[79] Mimamsa argues that the gods named
in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras
that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the
mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.[80]

5 See also
Ahimsa
Vedas
Vedic priesthood

5
Vedic period
Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
Proto-Indo-European religion
Vedic mythology
Iranian mythology
Yoga
Ajivika
Zoroastrianism

Notes

[1] The term ancient Hinduism is also applied, but not

appropriate. In the 19th century the term Hinduism
was restricted to living Hinduism, with its emphasis
on Bhakti.[1] Under the inuence of the Neo-Hinduistic
reform movements, which emphasised the Vedic heritage,
and the growing awareness of the continuity of certain elements, the term ancient Hinduism has been applied
by some to the Vedic period.[1] Nevertheless, the period between 800 BCE and 200 BCE sees fundamental changes, which result in Hinduism.[2][3][4] Other incorrect terms are Brahmanism and Vedic Brahmanism. The Encyclopdia Britannica of 2005 uses all of
Vedism, Vedic Brahmanism and Brahmanism, but
reserves Vedism for the earliest stage, predating the
Brahmana period, and denes Brahmanism as religion
of ancient India that evolved out of Vedism. It takes its
name both from the predominant position of its priestly
class, the Brahmans, and from the increasing speculation
about, and importance given to, Brahman, the supreme
power.
[2] Stephanie W. Jamison and Michael Witzel, Vedic Hinduism, 1992, "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a
contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very dierent from what we generally call Hindu religion at least as
much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism.
[3] Michaels: They called themselves arya (Aryans, literally the hospitable, from the Vedic arya, homey, the
hospitable) but even in the Rgveda, arya denotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one.[10]
[4] There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the
Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and
1400 BCE.[12] Flood mentions 1500 BCE.[13]
[5] The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists[15] who migrated into
north-western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley
Civilization,[10][16][17]
[6] The Aryan migration theory has been challenged by some
researchers,[10][18] due to a lack of archaeological evidence
and signs of cultural continuity,[10] hypothesizing instead
a slow process of acculturation[10] or transformation.[16]

Nevertheless, linguistic and archaeological data clearly

show a cultural change after 1750 BCE,[10] with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with IndoEuropean languages and religion.[19] According to Singh,
The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryams came to the
subcontinent as immigrants.[18]
[7] Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India.[28][29] Edwin Bryant used the term Indo-Aryan Controversy for
an oversight of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory, and
some of its opponents.[30] These ideas are outside the academic mainstream. Mallory and Adams note that two
types of models enjoy signicant international currency,
namely the Anatolian hypothesis, and a migration out
of the Eurasian steppes.[31] According to Upinder Singh,
The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and IndoAryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists and others. The
dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly
by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to
the subcontinent.[18]
An overview of the Indigenist position can be obtained
fromBryant, Edwin F.; Patton, Laurie L., eds. (2005),
The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in
Indian history, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-7007-14634. See also Indigenous Aryans.
[8] According to Michaels, the period between 200 BCE and
1100 CE is the time of classical Hinduism, since there
is a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu
religions.[66]
[9] Although the concept of reincarnation originated during
the time of the Shramanic reforms and the composition
of the Upanishads,[4] according to Georg Feuerstein the
Rig-Vedic rishis believed in reincarnation and karma.[68]
[10] Cromwell: Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan
Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric
times.[84]
[11] Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions,
Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 81-208-08150 Page 18. There is no evidence to show that Jainism
and Buddhism ever subscribed to Vedic sacrices, vedic
deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of
India and have contributed to much to the growth of even
classical Hinduism of the present times.
[12] P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purication, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 Jainas themselves have no
memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold.
Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very nonVedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic
doctrine and atheism

7 References
[1] Stietencron 2005, p. 231.
[2] Smart 2003.

[3] Michaels 2004.

[35] Anthony 2007, p. 462.

[4] Muesse 2003.

[36] Beckwith 2009, p. 32.

[5] Samuel 2010.

[37] Anthony 2007, p. 454-455.

[6] The Four Vedas. About dot Com. Retrieved 7 November 2012.

[38] Anthony 2007, p. 49.

REFERENCES

[39] Anthony 2007, p. 50.

[7] Georey Samuel. The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic
Religions to the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge University.
p. 113.

[40] Flood 2008, p. 68.

[8] Pletcher, Kenneth (2010). The History of India. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 60.

[42] Basham 1989, p. 74-75.

[9] Singh 2008, p. 185.

[43] White 2006, p. 28.

[41] Melton & Baumann 2010, p. 1412.

[11] Michaels 2004, p. 32.

[44] White, David Gordon (2003). Kiss of the Yogini. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-226-894835.

[12] Witzel 1995, p. 3-4.

[45] Samuel 2010, p. 48-51, 61-93.

[13] Flood 1996, p. 21.

[46] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 8-10.

[14] Anthony 2007.

[47] Prasoon, (Prof.) Shrikant. Indian Scriptures. Pustak Mahal (11 August 2010). Ch.2, Vedang, Kalp. ISBN 97881-223-1007-8.

[10] Michaels 2004, p. 33.

[15] Witzel 1995.

[16] Flood 1996, p. 30-35.
[17] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 5.
[18] Singh 2008, p. 186.
[19] Flood 1996, p. 33.
[20] Samuel 2010, p. 53-56.
[21] Flood 1996, p. 30.
[22] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 5-7.
[23] Anthony 2007, p. 454.
[24] Anthony 2007, p. 410-411.

[48] Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Grith, The Texts of the White

Yajurveda. Translated with a Popular Commentary
(1899), 1987 reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New
Delhi, ISBN 81-215-0047-8.
[49] Bloomeld Maurice. Hymns of the Atharva Veda.
Kessinger Publishing (1 June 2004). P. 1-8. ISBN
1419125087.
[50] Dudi, Amar Singh. Ancient India History. Neha Publishers and Distributors (10 January 2012). Ch. 9. Vedic
Religion, Rituals. ISBN 978-93-80318-16-5.
[51] Sabir, N. Heaven Hell OR??. Publisher: Xlibris (7 October 2010). P. 155. ISBN 1453550119.

[26] Anthony 2007, p. 375, 408-411.

[52] Singhal, K. C; Gupta, Roshan. The Ancient History of

India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 8126902868. P. 150.

[27] Kenoyer, M., 1998. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley

Civilization. 174 Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[53] Botany of Haoma, from Encyclopdia Iranica. Accessed 15 June 2012

[28] Bryant 2001.

[54] Renou, Louis. L'Inde Classique, vol. 1, p. 328, Librairie

d'Ameriqe et d'Orient. Paris 1947, reprinted 1985. ISBN
2-7200-1035-9.

[25] Anthony 2007, p. 408.

[29] Bryant, Edwin. The Indo-Aryan Controversy. 342

[30] Bryant 2005.
[31] Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 460-461.
[32] B. S. Ahloowalia (2009). Invasion of the Genes Genetic
Heritage of India. Strategic Book Publishing. ISBN 9781-60860-691-7.
[33] Roger D. Woodard (18 August 2006). Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. University of Illinois
Press. pp. 242. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4.
[34] Beckwith 2009.

[55] Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the

youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a terminus post
quem of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Oberlies
(p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range
of 17001100
[56] Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious and
Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 1819.
[57] P. 285 Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary By
S. Devadas Pillai

[58] Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious and

Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 21
[59] Holdrege (2004:215)

[84] S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West
(1972)

[60] Panikkar 2001:350351

[85] Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit

Bharti Academy, Jaipur

[61] Duchesne-Guillemin 1963, p. 46.

[86] Zimmer 1989, p. 217.

[62] Day, Terence P. (1982). The Conception of Punishment in

Early Indian Literature. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. P. 42-45. ISBN 0-919812-15-5.

[87] Jain, Arun. 2008. Faith & philosophy of Jainism. p. 210.

[63] The Purusha Sukta in Daily Invocations by Swami Krishnananda

[64] Flood 1996, p. 82, 22449.
[65] Michaels 2004, p. 36.
[66] Michaels 2004, p. 38.
[67] Muesse 2011, p. 115.
[68] (Page 169) The Yoga Tradition By Georg Feuerstein
[69] Muesse 2003, p. 14.
[70] Swami Krishnananda, A Short History of Religious and
Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 42
[71] Pandey, Rajbali, Hindu Samskaras (Motilal Banarasidass Publ., 1969)
[72] Hopkins, Thomas J., The Hindu Religious Tradition (Belmont: Dickenson Publications, 1971), 15
[73] Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of
Religions at the Union Theological Seminary, wrote
in Random House's The American College Dictionary
(1966): It [Vednta] is concerned with the end of the
Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically.
[74] Patanjalis Yoga Darsana The Hatha Yoga Tradition,
InfoRefuge.
[75] Kelkar, Siddharth. UNESCOs leg-up for city Veda research. Express India. Retrieved 16 June 2012.
[76] P. 46 Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism By Jeaneane D. Fowler
[77] Michaels 2004, p. 40.
[78] Michaels 2004, p. 39.
[79] Neville, Robert. Religious ruth. p. 51.
[80] Coward, Harold. The perfectibility of human nature in
eastern and western thought. p. 114.
[81] Sharma, Chandradhar (1962). Chronological Summary
of History of Indian Philosophy. Indian Philosophy: A
Critical Survey. New York: Barnes & Noble. p. vi.

[88] Svarghese, Alexander P. 2008. India : History, Religion,

Vision And Contribution To The World. p. 259-60.
[89] Helmuth von Glasenapp,Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. Thus not only
nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point
of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism
was established by Parsva around 800 BCE, but it is rather
conrmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life
of that period.
[90] Dundas, Paul. 2002. The Jains. P.17. Jainism, then, was
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culture that ourished in the Ganges basin from around
the eighth or seventh centuries BCE.
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