102 - 2015 - 0 - B - Unisa

SRC2601/102/0/2015
Tutorial letter 102/0/2015
Surveying I (THEORY)
SCR2601
Year module
Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering
IMPORTANT INFORMATION:
This tutorial letter contains important information
about your module.
SRC2601/102/0/2015
As lecturer for the Theory and Practical of the subject Surveying 2, I would like to welcome all those who
have registered for this subject for 2015. I would like to extend my hand as far as possible to be always
available and being of help to you all. You must also know that I am just as demanding from you in the
sense that I expect just as mush from you as I expect from myself. I expect of you to become thinking
constructive persons. Think before you ask a question, be part of the solution not part of the problem. Think
about possible solutions and come with proposals rather than just throwing questions in the bush, hoping that
two or more solutions and answers will just pop out. I do not tolerate plain laziness, if it is clear from your
question or problem that you did not read up or understood the underlying foundation theory, I will rather
direct you to study or read up the relevant theory than giving the answer to you on a platter!
I set high standards for myself and expect nothing less from you! I will actively use MyUnisa discussion
forum and will soon open a forum for every topic of the syllabus for us to actively communicate.
I demand active participation from all of you so that we can learn from each other, but please do not use this
forum just as a private chat- or moaning room. Let us use it for any related questions, problems and even for
new discoveries and sharing survey related civil engineering practical experiences with each other.
Surveying is a service entity to the Civil Engineering field and we do not want to make surveyors from you
as civil Engineering Technicians! The intention is to make you active and able users of survey so that you
will be able to understand what the surveyor have to do to supply control or establish structures on the
ground so that we can effectively communicate and evaluate the service we are getting out of the marriage.
The full syllabus of Surveying 1 is part and parcel fully part of the survey 2 syllabus and therefore you
cannot leave it alone yet (pun - the job is not done until all the paperwork is finished!) Studying surveying
is just like building a big jigsaw puzzle. You have to complete it as a whole to be able to see the bigger
picture!
In Surveying 1 you hopefully looked at each little piece of the puzzle, turning it around, up and down, left an
right and even inside out, to be able to see how it operates within the whole and in which places it may fit in
and could be applied, but eventually find the spot where it fits best and correctly tying all together.
In Surveying 1 you have mostly done calculations on the monkey see monkey do principle. You were
not assessed on the absolute correctness and or accuracy of your answers because it mostly revolved around
mastering the formulae and applying it in a standard form of calculation.
THE STANDARD FORMS OF CALCULATION IS JUST AS IMPORTANT TO THE SURVEYING
INDUSTRY AS STANDARD BOOK KEEPING IS TO THE ACCOUNTING FRATERNITY.
Every other surveyor or user of survey data, such as civil engineers, must directly be able to identify
the calculated data and be able to assess the usability and correctness thereof.
Surveying 1 form the foundation blocks for the full picture and the extent of how good you have laid those
foundation blocks will eventually influence your ability to understand the applied applications that we will
be dealing with in Survey 2. If the foundation work is not fully grasped and understood some pieces may be
in the wrong places, meaning that you will have to adapt your picture, otherwise it will not all tie and fit in
and will most probably fall apart so that you will never see the full picture. The moral of the story is that you
have to be adaptable, open for new ideas and applications and most important avoid your own Resistance to
Change (RC) factor!
NB. Please all note:
(i) That it is really a waste of time in modern days to still note down the Sin and cosine functions in
calculations as set out in the new Surveying I study guide by HM Labuschagne! Stick to the
standard forms of calculations as set out in the according to my knowledge the official Surveying I
study guide!! (Green book by JIP Bisschoff)
(ii) The terms CWA and ACWA as used in the survey 2 study guide is commonly used in Mine
surveying but never in Engineering survey. In your survey 2 study guide it is even used wrongly
where it sometimes should have been named Circle Left (L) and Circle Right (R). Please ignore
and or scratch out those wrong terms
These notes were drafted by JN Wiesner in January 2015 and is intended only as supplementary notes to
cover and clarify topics in the official syllabus omitted in the current study guide
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(iii) It is very important that you practice neat handwriting because we cannot afford any miss
understanding in Civil Engineering! Any miss understanding may lead to injuries and or even deaths
to the public we serve in designing and constructing civil engineering structures. This serves as a very
urgent warning to you that in this course (and hopefully in all the others) you will not earn any
marks for unreadable writing (to me as lecturer and Assessor) of text and or figures. Figures must be
formed correctly so that everybody understands the same value, not making for example a 4 that
could be mistaken for a + or even a 1! Like this: 1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;0 and nothing else! Do
not try to write too small or too big, the ideal size is a 12 point size, same as the size of these notes!
(iv) Any observed and or calculated survey data must be usable in practice and that means that in survey
2 you will be assessed on the correctness and accuracy of observed data and the answers obtained in
the calculated data. You will be heavily penalised if you do not offer the calculations in the standard
forms of the calculations and where there are signs (+ or -) applicable it is worthless if not shown.
Just as a chicken hops around in any direction when its head is chopped off, we are like headless
chickens without signs to height differences, coordinates and delta Y or Delta X values!
(v) Sighs in front of these values does not say the value is positive or negative, but it indicates direction,
telling us to move up or down, left or right, North or South and East or West.
(vi) Always calculate to one decimal place more that the given decimal places of observed or calculated
data, but not more than three (3) decimal places. Carry on with one decimal place more than given
right up to the end of the calculation and only then round off to the same amount of decimal places
of the given data. The reason for not more than 3 decimal places is the fact that we very seldom work
to sub-millimetre accuracies in civil Engineering
(vii) Should you round off intermittently as you carry on with the calculation you will accumulate small
discrepancies to such an extent that the accumulated result may be too big to fall within the
required degree of accuracy as prescribed and or required.
(viii) Any constants used in calculations and or transformation of linear distances and coordinates must
however always be used with as many decimal places possible but never less than six (6) decimal
places.
(ix) We always round down for any value between 1 and 4 while up for any value between 6 and 9. If the
last digit is however on a 5 it is as close to the lower value as it is to the higher value and we have to
make an informed calculated decision. The rounding off rule in survey stipulates that if the last
digit is a five (5) we always round to the nearest even number.
Take the following cases as an example:
145,345 will be rounded off to 145,34 to two decimal places.
134,275 will be rounded off to 134,28 to two decimal places.
In this way you will note that in case 1 we throw away the 5, while in case two we add the 5, so that
according to the principle of progression of errors, we will add as many fives as we will throw away
fives in a series of involved combined calculations and therefore accumulate very little errors!
(x) In rounding off you may not use your calculator to do the rounding off for you because it is preprogrammed to always round up, which will cause this accumulation of errors. Always set your
calculator to display one more decimal place than given. You probably know that, depending on the
type and manufacturer of the calculator, they can display from six to thirteen decimal places, but
you may only look at one more decimal place than the given data. If you start at the back of a value
to say six decimal places rounding off to eventually three decimal places it boils down to the same
thing as to accumulate errors. Lets look at the following example:
In the value 1,254546 you may actually only look at the 4th decimal place to round of to 3 decimal
places and it will be rounded off as 1,254.
If you however start at the back at the 6th decimal place it will become 1,25455 rounded to 5 places.
It will then become 1,2546 to 4 decimal places which will then be rounded off as 1,255 to 3 places.
You will note that this caused this answer (1,255) to be 1 mm higher than the correct value (1,254).
Good luck and may you truly benefit from your studies in this subject
SRC2601/102/0/2015
POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS FROM SURVEYING I
Revise all Surveying I theory and practical.

SA-Co-ordinate system
Bearings and back bearings
Azimuth, also known as The True Direction of a Line at a point
Orientation
Observed and oriented directions
Joins and Polar theory
Plans and Maps

Plotting accuracy
Relation between the purpose, the scale and the accuracy of a plan
Requirements for the layout -, orientation of the grid- and compilation of a plan.
Traverse
Revision of Surveying I theory on traverse calculation and adjustment
Reduction of the field book
Reduction of the oriented directions in the fieldbook.
Traverse Calculation Standard form
Adjustment of the traverse by the Bowditch rule
Acceptability of the calculated values according to the relevant regulations of the Survey Act
Tacheometry
Revision of theory on the deduction of Tacheometric formulae and reduction of the fieldbook.
Topographic surveying
Rules for placing of traverse stations
Spot heights
Scales
Spot height accuracies
Contour intervals in relation to the scale of the plan
The Surveying telescope
Lenses
Lens errors
Chromatics aberration
Spherical aberration
Focussing
Parallax
The properties of a surveying telescope
Definition of a surveying telescope.
Resolving power
Enlargement
The clarity of the image
The size of the field
The enlargement and resolving power of the telescope are two very important properties that have to
be taken into account in the choice of purchase and use of a theodolite. Discuss!
Which one of the properties of a surveying telescope is the most important when triangulation
observations are done? Motivate your answer in full and give the formulae to calculate this property. (5)
Levelling
Reduction of the readings
Rise and fall method
Height of instrument method
Adjustment of the levelling line
Applications
Reasons for balancing of back and fore sights.
SRC2601/102/0/2015
State and discuss the important requirements that have to be complied with, when a very long line of
pegs must be levelled, and a high degree of accuracy is required.
It is now time to invest in a good calculator. Know and understand how to correctly use your calculator,
otherwise there is no way that you will be able to do all the calculations in the expected time to finish an
assessment or examination paper.
Know how to use and address the available memories on your calculator, it can save a lot of time
rather to re type the same values over and over.
Know how to set the number of decimal digits to be displayed
Know how to use the programmed conversion keys from degrees to DMS; DMS to Deg; Deg
Radians; Rad. deg.; the pre-programmed keys for polars and joins, depending on the type of
calculator [(P-R) (Polar Rectangular)]; [(R P) (Rectangular Polar)] or
P;
R.
Remember these functions are only available on the more expensive sophisticated calculators. It is preprogrammed keys and is not making it a programmable calculator, which is not permitted in some
subjects. These keys will save you a lot of calculation time!
An examination paper is mostly set out of 100 marks to be completed in 3 hours (180 minutes). Thus
you have 1,8 minutes for each mark that a question counts and you could calculate how much time you
have available to spend on any question. Where a Join and a Polar both counting 6% in an examination
paper it should not take more than (6 x 1,8) = 10,8 minutes to do a Polar with its Join check as well as
the other way around a Join with its Polar check (correct and written down). You therefore have to
practice to do a Polar with its Join check as well as the other way around a Join with its Polar check
within eleven (11) minutes maximum.
This same principle of time calculation also applies to descriptive theory questions. Theory questions
cannot always just be answered cryptically in a point wise fashion. Read the questions properly and do
what was asked. The marks allocated will specify how much time you have to spend on thinking,
constructing and writing the answer. If a question counts for instance 10 marks you have to spend
about 18 minutes otherwise you have not given enough scope to the answer!
Writing an examination paper is a skill you have to study, practice and apply:
Define means to give a definition, if possible in your own words, showing your understanding of the
topic.
Describe means to give a, preferably tabularised, description of the topic in your own words showing
insight and or understanding of the topic, with reasons for your statements.
Discuss means to identify and write notes with reasons for your statements on certain outstanding
matters such as discrepancies, mistakes, errors, strong points, weak points or any other important
matter so that again it is clear that you understand and show insight on the topic.
Evaluate means to assess the calculated or observed data in terms of identified mistakes; errors,
omitted data and accuracies achieved
In assignments you have the luxury that it can be answered open book, but this does not mean that you
may just copy verbatim from my notes or any other book or source. Remember plagiarism is an
offence. I can and have read my own notes as well as probably most of the worthwhile textbooks on
surveying. I definitely do not want to read copies over and over again. I need to be able to assess your
own work to be able to see if you understood the work. It is no use to fool yourself thinking to get
good marks by copying but not understanding anything! It serves no use either to just put some
wording in another word- or fact order, it is still copying. I also ran each suspect quotation through a
copy detection program and if any commonalities are found it will identify it. So if you get a marked
assignment back with the remark B/S you must know it is worthless, probably copied work.
Remember that the internet is a very patient source of information. Anyone may post their own
interpretation and or views on any topic, but if it is not reviewed by a trusted source it can be totally
miss-leading and wrong. So be very careful to believe and or relate to any info that you may find on
the internet or chat-rooms.
The real test of time comes when you eventually have to sit for an examination confronted with the
same type of question on the same topic and you cannot answer it, when it really matters!
SRC2601/102/0/2015
SUGGESTED WORK PROGRAM

To be successful in this subject, I honestly believe that a person should spend at least 5 notional hours per week
reading, exercising and studying the Surveying subject material. Where, when and how you fit it in is your choice!
Open Distance Learning (ODL) demands a lot of personal discipline from students and therefore you have to come
into a study rhythm as quickly as possible. I trust that you have already experienced this in Survey 1.
To be able to perform well in the practical you have to be fully prepared, knowing all the subject theory before
attending the practical. We are planning for 10practical weeks of 24 students each at the Florida campus, starting on
the 11th August 2014. Please plan your availability for practical as soon as possible and e-mail me your full particulars
and preferred week through, with any specific valid reasons why you can only attend a certain week /s, as quickly as
possible. I will schedule you in order of first come first serve, but take note that you will only get one chance if
you miss it you will have to come back next year. My e-mail address is engsur.jw@vodamail.co.za
I accept that everybody will start at the latest studying this subject in the first week of February 2015, which gives us
27 weeks to study the full syllabus before the first practical week starts. In full time studies they work on 15 weeks per
semester times 6 hours contact time per week = 15 x 6 = 90 hours contact time! If you spend 5 notional hour per week
times 27 week = 27 x 5 = 135 notional hours. Anything less will not be enough to master this subject! I therefore
suggest that you follow this suggested work plan so that everybody are able to post your questions, comments and
discussions at the same time on the discussion forum. Naturally there will be some late starters, but you will have to
accept that you will have to play catch up to get on par with the rest. The discussions on the forum will still be
available to you and you will have to consult the forum first before asking the same questions. I will only entertain
new valid questions and problems if you only join in late.
WEEK 1
02 08 Feb.
REVISION
Lo. system; Join
& polar theory
and calculations
WEEK 7
16-22 March
Writing
theory
model
answers
and Calculations
WEEK 2
09 15 Feb.
REVISION
levelling, long.& X- sections,
area & volumes
WEEK 8
23 29 March
Reconnaissance
WEEK 13
2703 May
Writing theory
model answers
and Calculations
Start working on
Assignment 2
WEEK 19
0814 June
Horizontal curve
Calculate
Geometric data
WEEK 14
0410 May
Resection
q-Point
WEEK 25
2026 July
Trigonometric
leveling
(LEVEL)
WEEK 3
16 22 Feb.
Writing
theory
model
answers
and Calculation
Exercises
WEEK 9
30 05 April
Triangulation
Intersection
Continue working
on Assignment 1
WEEK 4
23 01 March.
Revision
Theodolite
Checks
Adjustments
WEEK 10
0612 April
Observation
& fieldbook
Reduction
WEEK 5
02 08 March
Traverse
orientation &
Calculation
WEEK 15
1117 May
Writing
theory
model
answers
and Calculations
Continue working Compl. & submit
on Assignment 2 Assignment 2
WEEK 20
WEEK 21
1521 June
2228 June
Horizontal curve Horizontal curve
Setting out
Exercises
Continue working Compl. & submit
on Assignment 3 Assignment 3
WEEK 16
1824 May
Horizontal curve
Basic Geometry
Start working on
Assignment 3
WEEK 17
2531 May
Writing
theory
model
answers
and Calculations
WEEK 22
2905 July
Writing
theory
model
answers
and Calculations
WEEK 23
0612 July
REVISION
Levelling
WEEK 26
2702 August
LEVEL
WEEK 28 - 39
10 Aug04 Oct
(6 to -8) Practical
weeks
WEEK 40
END EXAM.
Revision and
exercises
WEEK 27
0309 August
Map projections
SA Map series
WEEK 6
09-15 March
Bowditch adj.
WEEK 11
13 19 April
Solving
the
triangle using the
Sin Method
Start working on
Assignment 1
WEEK 12
20 26 April
Writing
theory
model
answers
and Calculations
Compl. & submit
Assignment 1
WEEK 18
0107 June
Horizontal curve
Apply Geometry
Continue working
on Assignment 3
WEEK 24
1319 July
Reverse
&
reciprocal leveling
to
You will note that by following this programme you will be ready and fully prepared for the practical
SRC2601/102/0/2015
ADDITIONAL NOTES NOT COVERED IN THE CURRENT SURVEYING I & II STUDY GUIDE
1.
JOIN AND POLAR THEORY

In the measurement and use of Directions in calculations different instruments can be used to
determine either angles or directly directions between points on the earths surface. It is not intended
in this chapter to discuss the different instruments, but rather to investigate in which manners
directions are determined and used in calculations.
Different instruments that can be used to observe directions and angles are the Prismatic compass,
the Tache, Theodolite, Electronic Theodolite, Total Station and GPS
1.1
Definitions
1.1.1
Geographic meridian
The true or geographic meridian through a point is the line where the earth is cut by a plane that
cuts through the north and south poles as well as the point in question.
1.1.2
The magnetic direction

The magnetic direction of a line at a point is the angle measured in a horizontal plane, from the
northerly direction of the magnetic meridian, through the point, clockwise to the vertical plane,
which contains the line.
1.1.3
Magnetic declination
The magnetic declination is the angle between the directions geographic - and magnetic north. The
magnetic declination is measured East or West of True North.
Magnetic declination increases for a number of years to the one side of true north, then decreases
again towards true north and carries on increasing to a point on the other side. The maximum values
either side are not constant or even always the same because of different factors working in on the
turning of the earth round its own axis.
Magnetic declination is always indicated clearly on the side of Topo Cadastral maps with the year
it was drawn up, the direction of and average movement over a number of years up to the date of the
map.
1.2
1.2.1
Introduction to the SOUTH AFRICAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

Angles
B
A
Angle BAC
C
Figure 3.1
An angle is the difference between two directions out of the same point.
There are different types of directions such as:
Magnetic (compass) directions
True directions
Oriented directions
Oriented observed directions
Observed directions
Un-oriented observed directions
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The use of angles makes up a very large part of survey calculations and it is therefore very important
that one takes note of the following points to ensure that angles are calculated correctly:
(i)
The two lines must both pull out or both must push in on the point
(ii)
The two directions must both be of the same type

B (Un-Oriented direction xAB)
OR
E (Oriented direction xDE)
C (Un-Oriented direction xAC)

(iii)
or
F (Oriented direction xDF)
Two lines form an outer and an inner angle. Make sure that you know which one you are
calculating or need to calculate.
Inner angle
Outer Angle
(iv)
According to Azimuth the directions will always increase in value as we move clockwise
+Y
90
K
xAL = True direction AL = 45
xAK = True direction AK = 135
135
The inner Angle KAL = xAK Xal
Angle KAL = 90
+X
0
L
45
Figure 3.2
The full definition for an angle will therefore be as follows:

An angle is the difference between two directions out of the same point and is obtained by
subtracting the smaller direction from the larger, where the larger direction is always clockwise
from the smaller.
1.2.2
Directions and Back Directions

Any line between two points will have two directions, namely the forward direction and the back
direction. In a line AC in the sketch below the forward true direction is xAC and the true backward
direction xCA. The forward direction and the back direction differs by 180
+Y
90
C
xAC = True forward direction AC = 250

Angle CAP = 270 - 250
Angle CAP = 20
250
A
70
Angle APC = 90
Angle ACP = 180 (90 + 20)
L
+X
0
Figure 3.3
Angle ACP = 70 = xCA

xCA = True Back direction CA = 70
xCA = xAC 180
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1.2.3
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Construction of a grid and plotting of coordinated points.
The earth is a sphere and for mapping purposes the sphere must be projected on a flat horizontal plane.
Geographically the earth can be divided into North - South lines of longitude and East West lines of
latitude. The lines of longitude will not be straight lines when projected in a flat horizontal plane, but the
lines of longitude will be straight. These projected lines will form a graticule as shown in Figure 3.4.
Latitude
Longitude
GRATICULE
Figure 3.4
In surveying we however need straight lines to be able to measure and or plot directions and distances easy
and correctly. We use Y- and X ordinates, running North South and East West respectively,
perpendicular to each other. These projected lines will therefore form a grid as shown in Figure 3.5:
Y
X
Y
GRID
Figure 3.5
Any point plotted on this grid can thus be identified in terms of an Y-ordinate and an X-ordinate, called the
co-ordinates of that point.
In South Africa we always write the Y-ordinate first and the X-ordinate last. (Note the difference to what
you are used to in mathematics)
P
86 468,357 Y
+ 1 367 254,137 X
A coordinate without a sign means nothing. The signs do not say the value is positive or negative, it
indicates the quadrant in which the point lies and for plotting purposes tells you in which direction to move,
using the gridline values!
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1.2.4 True direction (AZIMUTH) of a line at a point in South Africa

Azimuth or true direction of a line at a point is the angle measured in a horizontal plane from the
southerly direction of the meridian through the point, clockwise to the vertical plane, which
contains the line.
The definition will explained by the following sketch in Figure 3.6.
+Y
90
A
Meridian through A
45
Southerly direction of the Meridian through A

0
+X
0
Figure 3.6
South
1.2.4.1
Implications of the difference between surveying and mathematics direction systems

It is important that notice must be taken here between the mathematical and surveying directions and
how it will influence calculations, using trigonometry.
A circle is 360 and is divided into four rectangular quadrants of 90 each.
In mathematics the zero direction of the system is West
o
Directions increase anticlockwise
In surveying, as seen from the definition of true direction, the zero direction of the system is South
o
Directions increase clockwise.
The differences can best be demonstrated by means of a sketch.
In Figure 3.7a the surveying system will be shown and in Figure 3.7b the mathematical system.
180
2nd Quadrant
90
3rd Quadrant
2nd Quadrant
1st Quadrant
SIN
TAN
SIN
90
270
1st Quadrant
4th Quadrant
ALL
180
0
3rd Quadrant
4th Quadrant
ALL
COS
0
South
Figure 3.7a
TAN
COS
270
Figure 3.7b
Note:
Apart from directions increasing clockwise and anti clockwise it is only the first and third quadrants
that exchanged positions.
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The sign convention in the four quadrants are the same on both systems
Sin, Cos, Tan and their inverses are still positive and negative in the same quadrants in both.
All calculations using trigonometric functions stays exactly as you are used to.
It is in effect then only the directions, quadrants and Y & X ordinates that change.
1.2.5
a)
Orientation
Orientation of a plan is the turning of the plan in a horizontal plane so that corresponding lines
on the map and on the ground are parallel.
b)
Orientation of a theodolite is the adjustment of the horizontal circle so that the true direction will
be read off the circle when the instrument is pointed to a point. It also implies that if the
instrument is pointed to true South the reading on the horizontal circle will be zero (00 00 00)
An important rule when orienting is to always orient on the longest, best visible, available ray and to check
the orientation on at least two other rays. In calculations a mean orientation can be obtained by giving more
weight to a long line than to shorter rays. Will be discussed in detail in later sections!
1.2.6 The South African Coordinate System
The spheroid cannot be projected onto a flat horizontal plane without some distortion. There are three
manners in which the projection could be done namely; directly to a flat surface, or using a cylinder, or a
cone. These projections are then known as flat, cylindrical and conical projections. Under each type of
projection there are a number of projections each emphasizing or avoiding different aspects to ensure least
distortion in the projection process. Map projection is however a topic or subject on its own and we will not
dwell deeper into it here.
The important factors that must however be considered in the choice of a projection is:
o The form or shape of the earth or part thereof to be transformed
o The size of the land mass or figure
o Measurement of true directions and distances (true to scale)
The South African Coordinate System is based on the Gauss Conform projection, which is a cylindrical
projection where the cylinder is placed in a North-South position around the sphere, touching it around the
equator.
North Pole
Longitude
Equator
Latitude
South Pole
Figure 3.8
If the earth can be presented by an orange cut it in two halves and the fruit taken out, so that we only have
the two hollow halves of peel. If you should press the one halve hollow peel flat on a sheet of paper it will
form a circle. The circle will have a number of deeper or shallower tears at different places in the peel. The
smaller piece of peel pressed down will have less and more shallow tear marks as shown in figures 9a and
9b. The amount and depth of the tears is the distortion that takes place in the process of the projection.
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Figure 3.9b
Figure 3.9a
It is important that in any projection used in surveying the distortion must be kept to a minimum and is
therefore apparent that the smaller part of the earth projected at a time the less the distortion will be.
Gauss calculated that if he uses a cylindrical projection where the cylinder is placed in a North-South
position around the sphere touching it around the equator, projecting only a strip of 2 longitude wide at a
time the distortion will be a minimum and he could derive correction formulae for the distance and direction
distortions in his Gauss Conform projection. A belt of 2 strips will then look as follows:
Lo 17
18
Lo 15
16
Lo 13
14
Lo 11
12
10
Boundary Meridians
Central Meridians
Figure 3.10
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Figure 3.11 shows an enlarged single strip of 2 longitude width projected as a plane rectangular coordinate
system. The corrections for a line AB, with (A) close to the central meridian and (B) on the boundary
meridian will be indicated in a simplified way.
Lo 19
Central Meridian (CM)
20
18 Equator
0,0 Y 0,0 X
+Y
Y
Plane Distance
Spheroidal Direction (T)
Plane Direction (t)
BM
Meridian through A
0
Boundary Meridian (BM)

Spheroidal Distance
Correction for (t T)
B
+X
Correction for scale enlargement
Figure 3.11
In the Gauss Conform projection the size of the land mass or figure, the measurement of true directions and
distances are the priority.
o Strips of 2longitude width are projected separately as a Plane Rectangular Coordinate system.
o The uneven degree of longitude is the central meridian of each 2 wide strip.
o Each projected strip will be named after the degree of longitude of the central meridian for the strip, thus
LO 13, Lo 15 etc. In Figure 3.11 the Plane Rectangular Coordinate system is called Lo 19.
o The Southerly direction of the meridian through any point is the zero direction of the projection.
o Directions increase clockwise from South 0 to 360 South again
o From any point the true direction, to any other point, can fall in any one of the four quadrants of 90
around the point. The true direction to any other point can be from 0 to 360.
o Coordinates in use are Y and X
o The intersection of the central meridian (CM), for each strip, and the equator is the origin of the Plane
Rectangular Coordinate system. Thus 0,0 Y 0,0 X
o The Yordinates increase POSITIVE to the left of the (CM) and increase NEGATIVE to the right.
o The Xordinates increase POSITIVE to the South of the equator and increase NEGATIVE to the North.
Because South Africa falls in total on the Southern side of the equator our X-ordinates will always have a
POSITIVE sign on the South African Lo Coordinate System.
o The central meridian will be projected as a straight line. Directions and distances are true on the CM.
o True directions and distances true to scale can be measured on the central meridian.
o The boundary meridians (BM), both sides of the central meridian, will be projected as curved lines
converging at the poles and will always be the even numbered longitude.
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o The BMs will however be drawn as straight lines, therefore the scale will enlarge as you move to the
left and right of the central meridian, and the system makes provision for scale enlargement.
o To make things easier for surveyors in practice there is a 15 minute overlap on both sides of every
Boundary Meridian. Within the total overlap area of 30 minutes all the trigonometrical beacons
coordinates were transformed by the then Department of Surveys and Mapping, so that the coordinates
are available on both the systems.
o Lines of direction between any two points will be projected as curved lines and the curvature will
increase as you approach the boundaries. The varying small differences between the curved line and the
tangent to it, at different positions in the projection, can be corrected by the correction for (t T)
o The (t T) is mostly a very small angular correction and is only applied to the highest order of accuracy
work in practice. The (t T) correction increases the further we move away from the CM towards the
BM and it is therefore important to investigate when the Y values get bigger.
o The South African Lo Coordinate System is only applicable up to plus minus the 79 Southern Latitude
because the meridian convergence to the pole after that is so irregular and at a very fast rate that the
formulae for Scale enlargement and (t T) are not applicable anymore.
o From the 79 to 90 Southern Latitude Polar Coordinates are used.
o A Polar Coordinate in the Southern hemisphere is the angle East or West of the true or geographic
meridian (the line between the South and North Poles) (between 0 and 90) and the horizontal distance
from the South Pole, as can be seen in Figure 3.12.
North
P
Horizontal Distance = 152,3m
25 West of True North

South
Figure 3.12
The Polar Coordinate of P = 25 West of True North and 152,3 meters

The term Polar originated from the term Polar Coordinate and is therefore described further in 3.3.1
At the beginning of survey in South Africa a Base Line was measured very accurately in Port Elizabeth. The
two end points of the baseline were fixed by means of astronomic observations and that is where our system
of trigonometric beacons all over South Africa originated from. A series of triangles was extended to trig
beacons placed on high outstanding points all over the country. These trig beacons were always used by all
surveyors as the known points to start any survey operation anywhere in the country.
South Africa is covered by more or less five Lo coordinate systems, i.e. 5 by 2 wide longitude strips. Cape
Town in the West falls on Lo 31 up to Durban in the East at Lo 31.
Coordinate lists of all trig beacons in South Africa within the relevant strip and the overlap areas they fall in,
specifying the X, Y and Z ordinates are available from the Surveyor Generals (SG) offices and was generally
known as Lo Coordinates.
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Trig beacon
Figure 3.13
In modern days with the introduction of the Global Positioning System (GPS) the extensive use of trig
beacons for orientation and Control became less important, but in order to tie any survey in on the existing
control (Coordinates) the GPS receiver has to be set up at a trig point to initialize the instrument.
With satellite observations with the GPS equipment the world changed to WGS 84 Coordinates.
In the process of change we originally changed to a system where the Geoid for the WGS system referred to
PE as it was with the original Baseline. This proved to be problematic because very large distortions were
experienced as we move further away from PE, especially in the North West Province.
In 1994 the Geoids origin and dimensions was recalculated, with all the new knowledge about the worlds
dimensions. As a central location for South Africa the observatory at Hartebeeshoek near Hartebeestpoort
dam was chosen, to facilitate the least amount of distortion in the coordinates all over South Africa.
The coordinate system now in use is therefore known as the HARTEBEESHOEK 94 SYSTEM and it is
very important that one must make very sure which system coordinates are given and or required.
Geoid
Ellipsoid before 1994
The form of the world before 1994 and now
1.3
Calculations
From the field observations it is necessary to be able to orientate observed directions, calculate
coordinates from observed Polars and calculate the true direction and horizontal distance between
two coordinated points (Joins).
We will concentrate on the theory and mathematics to be able to Orientate, calculate the true
direction and horizontal distance between coordinated points (Joins) and calculate coordinates from
Polars. As a further basic application we will also look at the necessary calculations to set out points
in the horizontal plane and the solving of simple triangles.
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In Figure 3.14 below, coordinate measurements are shown.

90 + Y
Given:
Coordinates of A = +YA
+XA
Coordinates of B = +YB
+XB
+XA
Horizontal Distance line AB = S
True direction of line AB = xAB =
A
+YA = Y-ordinate of A
+XB
+XA = X-ordinate of A
+YB = Y-ordinate of B
S
X
+XB = X-ordinate of B
Y = Increase / decrease in Y-ordinates
X = Increase / decrease in X-ordinates
S = Horizontal Distance line AB
B
P
= True direction of line AB
Y
+YA
Figure 3.14 represents a case where points
+YB
+ X A and B lies in the first quadrant (+, +)
0
Figure 3.14
The line AB lies in the first quadrant and the true direction xAB = degrees
From triangle APB in Figure 3.14, all the basic formulae necessary in polar and join calculations can
be derived using the trigonometric functions Sin, Cos, Tan and Cot plus basic adding and subtraction.
Y = [+YB (+YA)]
X = [+XB (+XA)]
Y = S Sin xAB = S Sin

X = S Cos xAB = S Cos
Y
S=
Sin
X
S=
Cos
Y
= Tan
X
X
= Cot
Y
Table 3.1
It is always important in all calculations to visualize the sketch and remember the trigonometric functions!
180
First quadrant
Third quadrant
YX
YX
Sin (0 + ) = + Sin
Sin (180 + ) = - Sin
+-Cos (0 + ) = + Cos
Cos (180 + ) = - Cos
2nd
3rd
Tan (0 + ) = + Tan
Tan (180 + ) = + Tan
90
Sin
Tan
270
Note quadrants 1 & 3 use function for the function
Second quadrant
Fourth quadrant
+Y
YX
YX
-Y
Sin (90 + ) = + Cos
Sin (270 + ) = - Cos
++
-+
st
th
1
4
Cos (90 + ) = - Sin
Cos (270 + ) = + Sin
All
Cos
Tan (90 + ) = - Cot
Tan (270 + ) = - Cot
0 + X
Note quadrants 2 & 4 use co-function for the function
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Although the sophisticated calculators used nowadays are preprogrammed to directly use the trigonometric
function correctly in any quadrant, you still have to know all the basic mathematics to be able to write your
own programmes for the calculator. At the same time if you do not want to become a slave of the calculator,
accepting any answer as if it is always correct, you always have to be a step ahead to be able to question the
answers.
Looking at the sign convention in the first quadrant:
90 + Y
+XA
A
+XB
P
Y
+YA
+YB
+X
0
Figure 3.15
In Figure 3.15:
AP = [+XB (+XA)] is Positive because XB & XA are both positive and XB bigger positive than XA
PB = [+YB (+YA)] is Positive because YB & YA are both positive and YB bigger positive than YA
Sin = (YB-YA)/S = +/+ = Positive
Sin is Positive in the 1st Quadrant.
Cos = (XB-XA)/S = +/+ = Positive
Cos is Positive in the 1st Quadrant.
Tan = (YB-YA)/ (XB-XA) = +/+ = Positive
Tan is Positive in the 1st Quadrant.
The True direction is (0 + )

Looking at the sign convention in the second quadrant:
+YB
180
Y
B
-X
P
X
S
-XB
A
+YA
-XA
90 + Y
Figure 3.16
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In Figure 3.16:
AP = [-XB (-XA)] is Negative because XB & XA are both Negative and XB bigger Negative than XA
PB = [+YB (+YA)] is Positive because YB & YA are both positive and YB bigger positive than YA
Sin = (YB-YA)/S = +/+ = Positive
Sin is Positive in the 2nd Quadrant.
Cos = (XB-XA)/S = -/+ = Negative
Cos is Negative in the 2nd Quadrant.
Tan = (YB-YA)/ (XB-XA) = +/- = Negative Tan is Negative in the 2nd Quadrant.
Looking at the sign convention in the third quadrant:
180
-YB
Y
-X
P
Figure 3.17
-XB
A
-XA
-YA
-Y
270
In Figure 3.17:
AP = [-XB (-XA)] is Negative because XB & XA are both Negative and XB bigger Negative than XA
PB = [-YB (-YA)] is Negative because YB & YA are both Negative and YB bigger Negative than YA
Sin = (YB-YA)/S = -/+ = Negative
Sin is Negative in the 3rd Quadrant.
Cos = (XB-XA)/S = -/+ = Negative
Cos is Negative in the 3rd Quadrant.
Tan = (YB-YA)/ (XB-XA) = -/- = Positive
Tan is Positive in the 3rd Quadrant.
Looking at the sign convention in the fourth quadrant:
90
-Y
+XA
-YA
A
+XB
X
P
+X
B
+YB
360
Figure 3.18
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In Figure 3.18:
AP = [+XB (+XA)] is Positive because XB & XA are both positive and XB bigger positive than XA
PB = [-YB (-YA)] is Negative because YB & YA are both Negative and YB bigger Negative than YA
Sin = (YB-YA)/S = -/+ = Negative
Sin is Negative in the 4th Quadrant.
Cos = (XB-XA)/S = +/+ = Positive
Cos is Positive in the 4th Quadrant.
Tan = (YB-YA)/ (XB-XA) = -/+ = Negative
Tan is Negative in the 4th Quadrant.

NB: Did you notice that according to the definition of AZIMUTH the directions increase clockwise and are
always written in the different quadrants as (0+); (90+); (180+) and (270+).
In survey we never use (180) or 360) although it is mathematically correct.
1.3.1
The Polar
A Polar is the determination of the true direction and horizontal distance of a line between two points in
order to calculate coordinates of unknown points.
The Polar problem and calculation
Coordinates of A = +YA
+XA
Calculate the Coordinates of B?
Equations and in table 3.1 can be re-written to make YB and XB the subject of the equations.
Y = [+YB (+YA)]
X = [+XB (+XA)]
YB = (+YA) + (Y)
XB = (+XA) + (X)
Equation Y = S Sin xAB = S Sin
Equation X = S Cos xAB = S Cos
Then: YB = (+YA) + (S Sin xAB)

Then: XB = (+XA) + (S Cos xAB)
3.3.1.1 Standard tabulated form of calculation of the Polar
A
+YA
+XA
Y = S Sin xAB
X = S Cos xAB
: YB = +YA + S Sin xAB)
XB = +XA + S Cos xAB)
Note: Directions are always observed and or given in dd mm ss and must be decimalized before it can be
used in calculations! On the other hand all angles calculated on the calculator will be displayed as a
decimal degree and must be transformed to dd mm ss before the answer can be noted down.
1.3.1.2 Worked example of a Polar calculation in standard form
A
xAB = 125 34 25 = 125,573611
S = 4 567,897
+7 987,344
+ 89 657,433
+ 3 715,385
- 2 657,367
+11 702,729
+ 87 000,066
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1.3.1.3
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Further single polar exercises

A + 87 987,344 + 1 489 657,433
a)
xAC = 205 43 52 and AC = 3 546,789m
b)
xAD = 25 27 29 and AD = 7 563,479m
c)
xAE = 287 54 37 and AE = 6 427,865m
1.3.1.4
Checking the Polar calculation
It is a known fact that in surveying one must always check your work, preferably by means of an
independent check, so that your results will be free from mistakes and errors. There are two checks that
could be done on the polar calculation namely the Auxiliary angle check for the polar and using a Join.
The Auxiliary Angle Check for the polar uses a different direction in the check and is therefore an
independent check, while the Join must give the same direction and distance as a check. The problem that
can make the Join check not so reliable is the fact that Y and X must be calculated from the polar
calculated coordinates to be able to calculate the direction and distance as a check. Persons with lots of
confidence and a strong belief that they do not make mistakes often use the same deltas as calculated in the
polar (without re-calculating them). If you are one of those you are bluffing yourself, because you are not
checking the calculation in full.
Because The Auxiliary Angle Check for the polar is not commonly used in modern days, mostly because the
Join is much easier and quicker to calculate, we will not discuss it any further!
1.3.2 The Join
A Join is the calculation to determine the true direction and horizontal distance of a line between two
coordinated points.
From the definition it will be noted that the join is just the reverse of a polar. It must also be noted that the
computer will give back any angle as a decimal degree and to be able to use the direction in observations
with a theodolite it must now inversely be transformed to dd mmss
90
Given:
Coordinates of A = +YA +XA
Coordinates of B = +YB +XA
+Y
+XA
A
Asked:
+XB
X=(XB-XA)
P
Y=(YB-YA)
Calculate the true direction xAB and

the horizontal distance AB = S
Solution:
Y
X
and Cot
Tan
X
Y
Tan 1
+YA
+YB
+X
S=
Y
X
and Cot 1
X
Y
2
X 2
0
It is important to note that:
Y
X
and Cot 1
X
Y
It is convenient to choose to use only Tan because it saves time in the number of calculator keys to be
pressed in comparison with Cot.
could be calculated from either of the two equations Tan 1
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Y
(first and third quadrants)
X
X
If the signs of Y and X are +,- or -,+ use Tan 1
(second and fourth quadrants)
Y
in this solution is not the direction yet, because in a rectangular triangle it will always be an angle
smaller than 90. Look at the signs and add the quadrant factor
If the signs of Y and X are +,+ or -,- use Tan 1
DIRECTION = ( + 0)
DIRECTION = ( + 90)
DIRECTION = ( + 180)
DIRECTION = ( + 270)
Join formulae
1.3.2.1
Tan 1
Y
if +,+ or -,X
Tan 1
X
if +,- or -,+
Y
S=
X 2
Standard tabulated form of calculation of the Join
+ YA
+ XA
xAB = Tan 1
Y
if +,+ or -,- (plus 0 or 180)
X
or xAB = Tan 1
YB
XB
Y=(YB-YA)
X=(XB-XA)
1.3.2.2
Note:
AB = S =
X
if +,- or -,+ (plus 90 or 270)
Y
X 2
Worked example of a Polar calculation in standard form

A
+7 987,344
+ 89 657,433
35,573611 + 90 = 125 34 25
+11 702,729
+ 87 000,066
AB = 4 567,897
+ 3 715,385
- 2 657,367
Y is always the lower Y- minus the top Y- value

X is always the lower X- minus the top X- value
The signs of Y and X are + , - which means the true direction will lie in the 2nd quadrant
Therefore we have to divide /X/ by /Y/ with Tan-1 and add 90 as the quadrant factor.
Always calculate to one decimal place more than the given values, but not more than 3 places!
Now look back at the worked example of the polar in 3.3.1.2 and you will see that this Join confirmed that
the coordinates calculated for B was in fact correct, because we have calculated a direction and distance that
corresponds with the originally given direction and distance of the line AB!
Therefore we will use the Polar Calculation to check a Join calculation and inversely use a Join calculation
to check a Polar calculation.
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The combined standard form for the Join and its Polar check will be as follows:
JOIN
POLAR CHECK
A
+7 987,344
+ 89 657,433
125 34 25
+11 702,729
+ 87 000,066
4 567,897
+ 3 715,385
- 2 657,367
+ 89 657,433
+ 3 715,385
- 2 657,367
+11 702,729
+ 87 000,066
+7 987,344
The combined standard form for the Polar and its Join check will be as follows:
POLAR
JOIN CHECK
A
125 34 25
4 567,897
+7 987,344
+ 89 657,433
+ 3 715,385
- 2 657,367
+7 987,344
+ 89 657,433
125 34 25
+11 702,729
+ 87 000,066
+11 702,729
+ 87 000,066
4 567,897
+ 3 715,385
- 2 657,367
Without the tick marks () it will be assumed that you have only re-written the values and did not really
check.
1.4
Further Join exercises
1.4.1
Calculate and check the Joins AC, AD, AE, CD, CE and DE.
A
C
D
E
+ 7 987,344
+ 12 323,427
+ 3 174,361
+ 4 534,725
+ 89 657,433
+ 92 479,185
+ 83 316,386
+ 85 547,937
1.4.2 Combined problems with calculations on joins and polars with orientation; setting out of points and
solving triangles
1.4.2.1 The coordinates of a two points P and Q is as follows:
P
8 417,42
+ 5 672,56
Q
- 2 941,75
+ 2 815,92
a)
Calculate the Join PQ
b)
If the oriented direction xPR = 131 16 50 and the reduced horizontal distance PR = 847,95m,
calculate checked coordinates for R
(8)
1.4.2.2(a)
i)
ii)
iii)
(b)
(c)
N
P
(8)
Explain the following terms briefly

An Angle
Observed angles of direction
Oriented directions
(2)
(2)
(2)
Calculate the Join from the coordinates of two points M and N

(8)
M
9 723,41
+ 7 164,98
N
- 12 098,67 + 11 546,72
Use the true direction calculated in (b) to orientate the following observed directions at M in
tabulated form as given below:
(2)
Observed directions
@M
297 14 03
46 27 37
Orientation Correction
Oriented Directions
23
(d)
(e)
(f)
SRC2601/102/0/2015
The oriented direction from N to a point Q is 123 50 10 and the distance NQ = 347,67 meters.
Calculate the coordinates for Q?
(8)
Would you accept the coordinates of Q for further calculations? If not why not?
(3)
What further fieldwork and or calculations would you consider necessary before these
calculated coordinates of Q may be accepted as correct?
(4)
1.4.2.3 Coordinates of A and B on Lo are:

Constants: - 80 000,00 + 1 600 000,00
A
7 462,35
+
15 819,59
B
- 12 317,69 +
15 306,71
Observed un-oriented directions:
@A
B
P
Distances:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
@B
253 48 02
01 44 16
A
P
AP = 3 155,97
93 58 12
66 49 03
BP = 6 579,38
Explain what is meant by the coordinates are on Lo (3)

Calculate the distance and direction AB
(8)
Use the true direction calculated in (b) to orientate the observed directions at A and B in tabulated form. (4)
Calculate fully checked coordinates for P?
(8)
1.4.2.4 Coordinates of A and B on Lo are:

Constants: - 90 000,00 + 2 100 000,00
A
6 415,96
+
9 724,07
B
- 9 172,93
+
7 324,81
Observed directions @A
B 158 58 14
C 311 23 54
Horizontal Distance AC = 542,47
Calculate the coordinates of C?
(10)
1.4.2.5 Points A, B and C are inter-visible. The oriented direction AC = xAC = 97 10 40 and the
horizontal distance AC = 1 893,52 meters.
Coordinates of A and B on Lo are:
Constants: - 70 000,00 + 1 470 000,00
A
8 272,13
+
7 311,20
B
- 21 438,17 +
12 194,10
(a) Calculate the direction and distance AB
(8)
(b) Calculate coordinates for C
(8)
(c) Would you accept the coordinates of Q for further calculations or setting out? If not why not? (3)
1.4.2.6 From the given data below:
(a) Calculate the Join EF
(b) Orientate the observations @ F to obtain the oriented direction FP
(c) Calculate the two polars FP and EP as a check on each other
(d) Calculate the area of the triangle PFE from coordinates
Coordinates
Distances
E 8 441,37
+
28 885,70
EP = 4 740,08
F - 10 108,35 +
20 086,39
FP = 4 757,48
Observations @ F
E
200 44 40
P
181 20 10
(8)
(2)
(8)
(4)
Oriented directions
xEP = 210 12 35
24
1.4.2.7(a)
(b)
SRC2601/102/0/2015
Calculate the Join from the coordinates of two points M and N

(8)
M
16 169,33 + 3 497,67
N
- 14 998,70 + 4 668,30
The point P lies directly East of N so that NP = 1 170,63 meters.
Without the use of your calculator or any calculations, write down the answers to the
following questions with reasons for each?
(i) The coordinates of P?
(3)
(ii) The distance MP?
(3)
(iii) The angle MPN?
(3)
(iv) The direction PM?
(3)
1.4.2.8
Point C lies on the western side of line AB. The Coordinates of A and B are:
A
+ 9 643,84 +
18 217,19
Angle BAC = 71 23 47
B
+ 16 675,74 +
9 640,92
(a) Calculate the direction and distance AB
(8)
(b) Calculate the oriented direction of the line AC?
(4)
(c) Describe fully how you would manipulate a Tacheometer which has been setup at A so that oriented
directions can be read off with it?
(8)
1.4.3(a) The oriented direction from point A to point B is 150 41 10 and the distance AB after it has been
corrected for Slope and Temperature is 1 095,46 meters.
The Coordinates of A are: A - 25 265,64
+ 24 945,67
Calculate coordinates for B?
(8)
(b) Coordinates of C and D are:
C 23 456,91
+ 23 986,53
D 25 869,25
+ 27 514,63
The following observations were taken with a Theodolite and a steel tape.
@C
D
340 49 25
B
285 21 50
Measured distance CB = 1 274,26 at a slope of + 03 15 and a temperature of 29 C
The tape is standard at 16 C and its coefficient of expansion is 0,000012 / C
Calculate coordinates for B again. If there are no mistakes in the observations and or
calculations the coordinates should be the same as those calculated in (a) above.
(20)
1.4.4
Point C lies on the western side of line AB. The Coordinates of A and B are:
A
- 1 230,93
+
1 524,82
B
- 7 459,08
+
9 459,32
Angle BAC = 60 14 10 and D is a point on line AB, perpendicular from C onto AB
Distance CD = 746,93
(a) Calculate coordinates for C
(20)
(b) Calculate the area of the triangle ACD
(5)
1.4.5
Coordinates of A and C are:

A
- 1 426,84
+
9 495,23
C
- 2 113,07
+
9 368,49
Measured distances:
Line
Measured
Temperature
Temperature
distances
Measured C
Standard C
AB
416,99
29
15
BC
393,19
29
15
Coefficient of
expansion /C
0,000011
0,000011
Slope
+ 03 20
- 04 51
25
Observed Directions
@A
@C
@B
C
209 32 10
A
79 32 30
A
80 14 40
B
180 14 40
B
110 51 50
C
320 51 30
C
209 32 10
A
79 32 10
A
80 14 50
Calculate the Join AC
Calculate the horizontal distances AB and BC
Calculate the oriented directions xAB and xCB (Use all three setups observations)
Calculate Coordinates of B that are fully checked!
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
2.
SRC2601/102/0/2015
(8)
(10)
(8)
(8)
ADDITIONAL NOTES NOT COVERED IN THE CURRENT SURVEYING II STUDY GUIDE
2.1
TRIANGULATION
2.1.1 Reconnaissance
The value of proper reconniasance is underestimated to a large extent. Reconniasance forms the basis for
planning and excecution of measurements in order to comply with the reqiurements of the task. Therefore it is
important that in surveys of a larger extent, such as triangulation networks, more time and attention should be
applied to reconniasance
Reconniasance can be devided into four phases:
Determine the purpose of the survey.
Determine the required accuracy of the survey, as prescribed in the contract spesifications or the purpose of
the task
Decide on the instruments and method/s that will be used.
Decide where and when checks must be carried out in order to ensure that the work will comply to the
required accuracy. Identify problem areas where mistakes and/ or errors are most likely to occur and plan
how independent and the most efficient checks can be carried out that will show up mistakes and errors
The purpose of the survey determines the scale and the scale determines the accuracy of the measurements.
The accuracy prescribes which methods and instrumentation will be the most effective under the specific
circumstances, and eventually determines the cost and time spent on a project.
Reconniasance is not limited to triangulation work. Reconnaissance must be done before any survey task can
be done. Existing topographical maps and or arial photos must be used where possible. On the one hand this
will ease your work and save time, but on the other hand this prevents advance knowledge about strategic
surveys, that could lead to unfounded objections and property speculation.
Because reconniasance forms the basis of all further measurements, the basic principles of surveying must be
applied at all times, ie:
Work from the whole to the part
Economy of accuracy;
Independent checks.
2.1.1.1
TRIANGULATION RECONNIASANCE
Through reconniasance the best suitable positions for control, given the circumstances, are determined by
taking the following important points into account:
Collect all information relevant to the survey such as specifications; existing topographic maps; 1:50 000
topo-cadastral maps; co-ordinate lists; arial photographs etc.
Mark the proposed control points on the maps. Visit the terrain and determine whether the chosen
positions are suitable and feasable.
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Avoid angles smaller than 30 or any vacant area larger than 120 where no control can be observed, to
ensure a stable network..
Chosen control points must, as far as possible, be inter-visible to further strengthen the network stability.
Place control points at the centres of gravity of the figures formed by the known points.
Avoid grazing rays in order to eliminate the detrimental effect of refraction as far as possible.
In resection be aware of the danger circle.
2.1.2 Triangulation sketch
The triangulation sketch is a well constructed planning tool to be able to see the relative relationship
between the positions of knowns and unknowns as well as the lengths of the rays.
2.1.2.1 DRAWING UP THE TRIANGULATIN SKETCH, PLOTTING AND AREA
The following coordinates of the beacons of a property is known
CO-ORDINATES
Lo 17
Constants: 0,00Y + 1 200 000,00X
E 8 441,37 + 11 885,70
F - 11 499,76
+
9 321,84
G - 10 108,35 +
86,39
H - 25 765,88 + 11 987,65
(a)
Plot the points first on an A4 sheet, using a scale that will optimally fit the sheet
(b)
Calculate the area of the closed figure EFGHE by coordinates using the given data.
Give your answer in hectare and show all calculations. (22)
You have to read the questions properly and do as asked
Answer:
(a)
To be able to use an A4 sheet optimally you have to know the dimensions of an A4 sheet, which can be turned
either in the PORTRAIT or LANDSCAPE positions.
297mm
210mm
297mm
210mm
Step 1: write down the minimum and maximum Y and X values, with the constants added, rounded to the nearest
1000m and determine the maximum Y and X movements, which will have to fit on the paper size.
MAX
MIN
Y
- 26 000,00
- 8 000,00
18 000,00
X
+ 1 212 000,00
+ 1 200 000,00
12 000,00
Step 2: The Y movement is bigger than the X and therefore the paper will have to be turned landscape!
297mm
210
Step 3: determine the preliminary scale
297 mm = 18000 x 1000mm

1 mm =
1: 60 600
210mm = 12000 x 1000mm

1mm =
1: 57 100
Step 4: choose the nearest available smallest natural scale of the two. Thus 1:75 000
Step 5: determine the Grid Interval (GI) and Grid Value (GV)
In drawing the grid interval (GI) must be one tenth of the scale, thus 75 000 / 10 = 7500 m
The grid values (GV) must be continuous multiples of one tenth of the scale = 7500 m
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Step 6: Now choose new min and max values rounded to values exactly dividable by 7500
MAX
MIN
- 30 000,00
- 7 500,00
22 500,00
297 mm = 22500 x 1000 mm
1 mm =
1: 75 750
+ 1 215 000,00
+ 1 200 000,00
15 000,00
210mm = 15 000 x 1000 mm
1mm = 15 000 000/210
1: 71 429
Thus a scale of 1: 75 000 is the smallest available scale of the two that will fit.
If not yet fitting you will have to repeat as much iteration as is necessary to find the largest possible scale
Thus a scale of 1: 75 000 will fit the A4 sheet maximally (optimally) placed landscape
- 22 500,0Y
- 0,00Y
Step 7: Now draw the gridlines according to your chosen maximum and minimum Y and X values for a
scale of 1: 75 000. Write in the grid values on the appropriate grid lines with the four corners fully
specified including the constants
Step 8: Using the grid line values and the coordinates of the points plot every point on the plan
(Triangulation sketch)
100mm
+1 200 000 X
100mm
TN
+ 7 500X
F
E
NB
+ 1 215 000X
Scale: 1: 75 000
This is the central meridian of the 17 Lo strip

Note this is a reduced scale illustration only to show how your A4 sheet will look like
Step 9: Draw in the True north ray to be able to orientate the plan and write in the scale
(b) Calculate the area of the closed figure EFGHE by coordinates using the given data
NB: Note down the coordinates starting at any point clockwise and ending on the same point, eg.
CO-ORDINATES
Constants: -
Lo 17
0,00Y + 1 200 000,00X
8 441,37
11 885,70
- 10 108,35
86,39
- 25 765,88
11 987,65
- 11 499,76
9 321,84
11 885,70
8 441,37
NOW USE THE FORMULAE IN YOUR SURVEYING I STUDY GUIDE TO CALCULATE THE AREA
OF THE FIGURE EGHFE FROM COORDINATES
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2.1.3 The Triangulation Fieldbook

With triangulation the angles between stations are observed as accurate as possible. A few important rules
must be kept in mind during the observation procedure to ensure the best possible observed directions.
The reference object (RO), the beacon on which the observing is started, is very important because it
must be observed repeatedly to show up and eliminate observational reading and instrument errors.
Choose the best visible clear identifiable beacon as the (RO). This implies that it will not necessarily
always be the absolute longest ray.
Normally we start with the instrument in the circle left (L) position sighted on the RO. The chosen
beacons are then observed one after the other in strict clockwise order up to the RO again to close the
circle and in so doing will show up instrument and observational errors to be eliminated
The L observations are booked from top to bottom below each other in the fieldbook.
Take care to move the instrument slowly and at a constant tempo in the horizontal plane in observing
the points one after the other.
Take care not to oversight. With this term we mean that you may not move past a point having to turn
the instrument any amount back anti-clockwise to eventually observe the beacon.
The Theodolite normally has a constant forward movement of the horizontal circle, together with the
turning of the instrument, called circle slip.
With the movements of circle right and left in opposite directions the circle slip must naturally always
have opposite signs, if not there were probably oversight present
The purpose with the observation procedure is to ensure that during observation of L and R the
circle slip of only one rotation of the circle, from RO to RO, has built up.
If backward movement is necessary, circle slip of more than one rotation will be build up and it cannot
be eliminated by taking the means in the reduction process.
For high degree of accuracy work the set of observations will have to be rejected when you have over
sighted and the set will have to be re-observed in total right from the start.
Observations only in L are not acceptable. A full set L and R must be observed.
After the completion reading, L on the RO was taken the instrument is transited and again pointed to
the RO. The R reading on the RO must differ by 180 with the L reading.
The same beacons are then observed in strict anti-clockwise order, one after the other up to and
including the RO to close the circle.
Resultantly the R observations will be booked from the bottom to the top, while one at the same time
must look out whether the readings show more or less the same difference as on the RO.
The more sets of observations that are read the better and more reliable the mean observed directions
will be that are eventually obtained from the reduced fieldbook, for use in the direction sheet for
orientation.
For accurate work at least three sets must be observed.
Every protractor in different instruments have a internal calibration (manufacturing) or systematic error
and the observation procedure must make provision that this error can also be eliminated. Every set of
observations must therefore not be observed at the same spot on the protractor. By reading on different
positions on the circle the calibration errors is distributed over the full circle in order to be eliminated.
Decide in advance during the planning phase (reconnaissance) how many sets will be observed for the
project. Divide 360 by the Chosen number of sets to determine by estimate how much the protractor
must be turned forward after each set. If for example three sets are going to be observed the protractor
must be advanced 120 between sets.
Make sure that the nonius / vernier is also adjusted so that the minutes and seconds of the individual
readings will also change. It is very important to eliminate the possible remembering factor where what
is remembered from the previous set is noted instead of what should actually be read off.
29
2.1.4
(a)
(b)
SRC2601/102/0/2015
Reduction of the Fieldbook

There are two methods to reduce the fieldbook and it is important that students should be able to
do anyone of the two as specified in an assessment or examination
Reduction by taking the mean of circle left and right readings to eliminate instrument and
observational errors as far as possible! The differences between circle left and circle right
directions enables us to evaluate the set as a whole for acceptability or not
By booking the observed directions with a line spacing in between every two observed directions
it is possible to determine the angles between every two rays. The means of the angles are then
determined to eliminate instrument and observational errors as far as possible! The differences or
comparison between circle left and circle right angles gives a better check and enables us to
evaluate the set as a whole for acceptability or not
The following two worked examples of the same two sets of observations in both methods will show
how both are done and the difference between the two.
2.1.4.1 Method 1: Reduction of the triangulation fieldbook by taking the mean of circle left and right
readings
In determining the difference between circle left and right readings we first check that they differ by
180 and then note down only the minutes and seconds that they do not differ by exactly 180 00 00.
In high order accuracy observations the differences in every set between circle left and right reading
should be very close to the same, but very important that the differences should right through be
constantly bigger or smaller to the same side. I will use a (+) if the circle right reading is bigger than
circle left and a (-) the other way round.
Because collimation error is normally the biggest of any errors we commonly speak about the
difference as an indication of the collimation error of the instrument used. It is however common
knowledge that the collimation error of the instrument is a constant for that instrument at that
specific moment in time. The signs and magnitude of the differences must therefore be the same
and if not it is a direct indication of poor observations and or may be due to bad weather conditions.
Very short rays in comparison to long rays may also cause the signs to change.
L
Cap
JHB
Laagte
Aero
Iscor
RO
Cap
JHB
Laagte
Aero
Iscor
RO
@ Skop
277 24 04
357 58 22
23 27 10
29 20 39
31 30 54
277 24 12
Diff = +08
L
37 34 00
118 08 17
143 36 51
149 30 42
151 40 49
37 34 05
Diff = +05
SET I
Diff.
+ 11
+ 07
- 03
+ 05
+ 07
- 06
Avg = +3,5
SET II
Diff.
+ 22
+ 17
+ 25
+ 11
+ 23
+ 04
Avg = +17
Mean I
Mean II + *
Mean
Adj.
10
26
06
44
58
08
Diff 02
+00
+00
+01
+01
+02
+02
+239 49 59
10
97 24 15
26
177 58 29
08
203 27 07
42
209 20 44
58
211 31 01
09
97 24 06
Diff = - 11 Diff 01
R
11
217 34 22
26
298 08 34
323 37 16 37 04
48
329 30 53
331 41 12 41 00
07
217 34 09
Diff = -13 Diff 04
10
25
03
47
59
06
Diff 04
Final adjusted
observed
directions
277 24 10
357 58 26
23 27 07
29 20 45
31 31 00
277 24 10
*We have to add a swing of 239 49 59 to the 1st

reading set II to make it exactly the same as the
mean Set I on the first reading (277 24 10)
Rewrite mean II plus the swing calculated
above next to set I. In applying the swing (*)
between mean I and mean II you have to check
dd mm ss for each ray
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Evaluation of the observed two sets

A simplified method of evaluation of the observations is to decide on the acceptable standard deviation
according to the required accuracy. Let us for example say that the acceptable standard deviation is 03
seconds required for this task.
A standard deviation of 03 seconds means we are allowed a difference spread of 6 seconds,

between +3 and -3.
Now look at the comparison between the average difference for SET I (+3,5) and every individual
difference.
o +11 differs from +3,5 by 7,5 lying outside the acceptable 6 seconds
o +07 differs from +3,5 by 0,5 lying within the acceptable 6 seconds
o -03 differs from +3,5 by 6,5 lying outside the acceptable 6 seconds
o -06 differs from +3,5 by 9,5 lying outside the acceptable 6 seconds
Now look at the comparison between the average difference for SET II (+17) and every individual
difference.
o +22 differs from +17 by 05 lying within the acceptable 6 seconds
o +25 differs from +17 by 08 lying outside the acceptable 6 seconds
o +04 differs from +17 by 13 lying outside the acceptable 6 seconds
Evaluation decisions on the two sets observed
In set I the signs of the differences vary + and and therefore it shows possible poor observations
by the observer and in practice you will directly in the field reject this set, redoing it directly!
In Set I the magnitude of the differences are not the nearly the same varying from +11 to -03 giving
a spread of 14 seconds. Again reason to reject the full set!
In Set I comparing the differences with the standard deviation it is obvious that 3 of the rays do not
fall within the acceptable 6 seconds. Again reason to reject the full set!
In SET II the signs of the differences are still positive (+) but the magnitude of the differences are
suddenly much bigger (Average +17). This in itself does not make the set un-acceptable because
there may be other reasons for it to differ by a bigger margin. It could have been that Set II was
observed on another day, by another observer and even using another instrument!
It is therefore very important that these facts be noted in the remark columns and page headings
with proper date indications, otherwise it is impossible to do proper evaluation
In SET II the signs of the differences are all positive (+) making it a much more acceptable set of
observations
In Set II comparing the differences with the standard deviation it is obvious that 2 of the rays do not
fall within the acceptable 6 seconds. Giving reason to reject the full set!
In Set II the magnitude of the differences are not very bad except the last on the RO which is
suddenly very small (+04), varying from +25 to +04 giving a spread of 21 seconds. Again reason to
reject the full set!
You will notice that the differences between the RO and starting reading in circle right and left, in
both SET I and SET II do have opposite signs (Set I = +08; -11) and (Set II = +05; -13). It shows
that there was no obvious oversight in the observation process but it is worrying that the magnitude
of the circle slip between the circle right and left observations is differing too much. Again reason
to reject the full set!
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As a whole it is obvious that both sets should be rejected in practice and re-observed. As an example we will
however continue to do the rest of the reduction.
Please take note that if you were asked to comment or discuss any two sets of observations this
same modus operandi will have to be followed to find points to write comments on or discuss.
2.1.4.2 Method 2: Reduction of the triangulation fieldbook by taking the mean of circle left and right angles
L
Cap
JHB
Laagte
Aero
Iscor
RO
@ Skop
277 24 04
80 34 18
357 58 22
25 28 48
23 27 10
05 53 29
29 20 39
02 10 15
31 30 54
245 53 18
277 24 12
360 00 08
SET I
Diff.
- 04
- 10
+ 08
+02
- 13
Avg 2,8
Mean I
Mean II
Mean
Adjust Final adjusted

observed directions
97 24 15
80 34 14
177 58 29
25 28 38
203 27 07
05 53 37
209 20 44
02 10 17
211 31 01
245 53 05
97 24 06
359 59 51
16
14
15
+ 00
43
38
40
+ 00
33
44
38
+ 00
16
13
14
+ 00
12
53 06
09
+ 04
360 00 00
359 59 55
359 59 56 +04
280 30 50
80 34 15
01 05 05
25 28 40
26 33 45
05 53 38
32 27 23
02 10 14
34 37 37
245 53 13
280 30 50
= 360 00 00
NB: Proportional adjustment = missclosure/360

L
Cap
JHB
Laagte
Aero
Iscor
RO
37 34 00
80 34 17
118 08 17
25 28 34
143 36 51
05 53 51
149 30 42
02 10 07
151 40 49
245 53 16
37 34 05
360 00 05
SET II
Diff.
- 05
+ 08
- 14
+ 12
- 19
Avg 03
R
217 34 22
80 34 12
298 08 34
25 28 42
323 37 16
05 53 37
329 30 53
02 10 19
331 41 12
245 52 57
217 34 09
359 59 47
Mean II
14
38
44
13
53 06
359 59 55
Multiplied with each angle

4/360 x each angle =3,1x10-6x each angle
= 3,086 x 10-6 x each angle
Once the final adjusted angles are

calculated in the far right column at
SET I the directions must again be
calculated from them.
It is now possible to directly
determine the oriented directions if
the Joins from Skop to all the
knowns are calculated. Let us
assume the join direction Skop to
Cap = 280 30 50. Then write this
direction in the last column against
Cap and continuously add the
angles.
The same evaluation pointers can be used to see that the sets of observations are in fact un-acceptable!
2.1.5 Orientation of directions for triangulation
Saving time in calculations we will in this course only concentrate on orienting the observed rays
directly in the fieldbook.
We will add extra columns to our fieldbook page to accommodate incoming rays, correction and
oriented outgoing rays.
After reducing the fieldbook to find the final adjusted observed directions it is necessary to calculate
one or more Joins, or use the join directions given plus calculate any additional joins that may be
necessary. You need true directions to all the known points observed from any known point!
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Use the same worked example from method 1 and firstly calculate the following joins:
Skop - Cap
280 30 50
Cap Skop
Back direction of Join Skop - Cap
Skop - JHB
01 05 09
Cap - Aero
80 44 28
Skop - Aero
32 27 28
Cap - Iscor
84 37 44
Skop - Iscor
34 37 43
L
Cap
JHB
Laagte
Aero
Iscor
RO
Cap
JHB
Laagte
Aero
Iscor
RO
@ Skop
277 24 04
357 58 22
23 27 10
29 20 39
31 30 54
277 24 12
Diff = +08
L
37 34 00
118 08 17
143 36 51
149 30 42
151 40 49
37 34 05
Diff = +05
SET I
Diff.
+ 11
+ 07
- 03
+ 05
+ 07
- 06
Avg = +3,5
SET II
Diff.
+ 22
+ 17
+ 25
+ 11
+ 23
+ 04
Avg = +17
Mean I
Mean II + *
Mean
Adj.
+239 49 59
97 24 15
10
26
177 58 29
08
203 27 07
42
209 20 44
58
211 31 01
09
97 24 06
Diff = - 11 Diff 01
Final adjusted
observed
directions
Incomming ray
corrections
10
10
+00
277 24 10
+03 06 40
25
03
47
59
06
Diff 04
26
06
44
58
08
Diff 02
+00
+01
+01
+02
+02
357 58 26
23 27 07
29 20 45
31 31 00
277 24 10
+03 06 44
Oriented
directions
280 30 50
01 05 09
26 33 50
+03 06 45
32 27 28
+03 06 43
34 37 43
Mean = +03 06 43
R
11
217 34 22
26
298 08 34
323 37 16 37 04
48
329 30 53
41
00
331 41 12
07
217 34 09
Diff = -13 Diff 04
These notes were drafted by JN Wiesner in January 2015 and is intended only as supplementary notes to cover and clarify topics in the official
syllabus omitted in the current study guide
33
SET I
Diff.
Mean I
SRC2601/102/0/2015
Mean II + *
Mean
Adj.
+239 49 59
Final adjusted
observed
directions
Incoming ray
corrections
Oriented
directions
@ Cap
Skop
97 24 50
+03 06 00
Aero
Laagte
Iscor
RO
77 38 26
62 39 33
81 31 40
+03 06 02
100 30 50
80 44 28
65 45 35
+03 06 04
84 37 44
Mean = +03 06 02
@ Laagte
Cap
Skop
Aero
Iscor
RO
242 40 25
203 28 44
42 15 25
60 56 34
245 45 35 +03 05 10
206 33 50 +03 05 06
245 45 33
206 33 52
45 20 33
64 01 42
Mean = +03 05 08
To determine the true directions from Laagte to all the knowns observed you have to take the mean of the incoming and outgoing rays where
applicable. If there are no incoming rays the outgoing rays are used as is.
@ Laagte
Cap
Skop
Aero
Iscor
Incoming Ray Outgoing Ray

245 45 35 245 45 36
206 33 50 205 33 49
45 20 33
64 01 42
Final oriented Ray

245 45 34
206 33 51
45 20 33
64 01 42
These final oriented directions will now be used to calculate the triangles for preliminary coordinates of the unknown point Laagte
These notes were drafted by JN Wiesner in January 2015 and is intended only as supplementary notes to cover and clarify topics in the official
syllabus omitted in the current study guide
34
SRC2601/102/0/2015
2.1.6 Intersection
An intersection is the fixing of the coordiates of an unknown point by setting up at at least two known points
as well as at the unknown.
With the setups at the knowns at least three other known points must be observed plus the
unknown.
Three knowns are necessary to be able to orientate and check the orientation.
If only two are used and the correction shows differences that are too big, how will you know which
one is wrong? The third one is necessary as an arbitrator to say which two belongs together and
which one is the outlier.
The known points must be distributed in the full circle around the point and not just in one sector, to
ensure proper distribution of possible errors in the coordinates of the knowns.
With the setup at the unknown the two known point from which it was observed must preferably
both be observed plus at least one othe known point.
The three knowns must also be distributed in the full circle around the unknown, preferably in the
so called ideal Y form
The rays from the unknown to the knowns must as far as possible be of more or less the same length
From the rest of the notes that will follow you will notice that we will now apply all our knowledge
gained up to now about angles and directions; directions and back directions; joins and polars;
swing adjustment and orientation; Sin rule; corrections to measured distances and even geometry
and area calculations.
This is now that we will see how well we have built our foundation in Survey I, studied and looked
at each puzzle piece and know where it will fit into the bigger picture
2.1.6.1 Important points to take into account when triangulation calculations are done
The best position to place an unknown point between a selection of known points is at the centre of
gravity of the figure formed by the known points.
If the fixing rays are of equal length they will all be of equal importance in the fixing of the point
and will carry the same so called weight.
Two rays forming a triangle will be used to solve the preliminary coordinates for the first time.
The third ray will give a check on the preliminary coordinate, calculated from the first triangle.
The best triangle to use is an isossilese triangle, next in line an equalatiral triangle but it is of the
utmost importance that the intersection angle at the unknown point may never be a very sharp or
blunt angle.
The triangle may not have any internal angle smaller than 30 or bigger than 120. The reason being
that the Sin rule will be used to solve the lengths of the sides of the triangle and Sin is inaccurate for
angles smaller than 30.
For very small angles the Sin incremental change per single second is very big and uncertain,
making it unreliable and in-acuurate for use in surveying.
No two rays may form anywhere close to a straight line, because it will in fact eliminate the
possibility to show any discrepansies in calculated coordinates when the second ray is used
Every triangle sollution starts with the calculation of a Join and if the calculation is not absolutely
and honnestly fully checked the results will be disastrous. Using a wrong Join direcction and or
distance will still give a checked coordinate for an unknown somewhere else except the one you had
to calculate.
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Dont fool yourself, if you do not want to check joins properly you are waisting your time. You will
get answers but get no marks in an examination and most probably fail the subject.
2.1.6.2 Solving the triangle
A
B
Angle BAC =
Angle ABC =
Angle APB =
(++) = 180 00 00
2.1.7 Sinus Method of solving the triangle

2.1.7.1 Example
2.1.7.2 Problem exercises
2.5.1
2.5.2
Surveying Act and Regulations

Accuracy of a fix
2.6.1
Further exercises
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Triangulation
Worked example
Calculate coordinates of point C from the following data:
B
A + 1 427,226 + 2 695,200
Horizontal distance AB = 474,249 m
B + 1 263,210 + 2 250,216
Direction xAB = 200 14 00
Angle BAC = 30 40 16 Angle BCA = 51 01 11 Angle ABC = 98 18 33
Check Angles
Angle BAC=30 40 16
Angle ABC=98 18 33
Angle BCA=51 01 11
A
inner Angles= 180 00 00
Firstly check if the given or calculated inner angles of the triangle sums up to exactly 180 00 00 as shown on
the left of the sketch above! Thus inner Angles= 180 00 00
True Direction xAB = 200 14 00 (Given in this case but could also be expected to calculate from a Jion)
Note: To calculate the direction of any line you always have to consider standing at that point.
Now standing at A you will notice that the line AC lies clockwise from the line AB, therefore the
angle BAC must be added to the true direction xAB to find the true direction xAC.
Standing at B you will notice that (in terms of the given internal angle ABC) C lies anti-clockwise
from the line BA, therefore the angle ABC must be subtracted from the true direction xBA to find the
True direction xBC
As a check you can now stand at C. The line CA lies anti-clockwise from the line CB.
Thus:
True direction xCA = xCB Angle BCA and should differ exactly 180 00 00 from the previously
calculated xAC.
In surveying it is unacceptable to do a lot of loose standing sommetjies, because one can easily get lost
and use the wrong values in the wrong follow up calculations. All users of surveying data must be able to
directly identify the calculated or observed data and therefore we always used standard forms of tabularised
calculations, keeping together what belongs together!
Line AC
True direction:
xAC = XAB + Angle BAC
= 200 14 00 + 30 40 16
xAC = 230 54 16
Line BC
True direction:
xBC = (XAB 180 00 00) Angle ABC
= (200 14 00 180 00 00) 98 18 33
= 20 14 00 +360 00 00) 98 18 33
= 380 14 00 98 18 33
xBC = 281 55 27
Distance
BC =
Distance
AC =
=
AC = 603.670
BC = 311,205
POLARS
A
230 54 16
603,670
+ 1 427,226
- 468,505
+958,721
+ 2 695,200
- 380,684
+ 2 314,516
B
281 55 27
311,205
+ 1 263,210
- 304,490
+ 958,720
+ 2 250,216
+ 64,300
+ 2 314,516
Coordinates of C are + 958,720 + 2 314,516
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RESECTION
SOLVING THE ORIENTATION PROBLEM
RESECTION COLLINS q-POINT OREINTATION CALCULATION
PROFORMA SETTING OUT THE FORM OF CALCULATION
CALCULATE ANGLES:
= .................................................................
A
= .............................
B
= ..................................................................
= .............................
= ..................................................................
=..............................
C
JOIN
= ..................................................................
= .............................
CHECK ANGLES
= ..............................
= ..............................
= ..............................
= ..............................
ANGLES = ...............................
= 180 ( + )
= ...............................
POLAR CHECK
SOLVING TRIANGLE ABq

DIRECTIONS
x............ to q = ...................................................
...............................................................
DISTANCES (Sin Rule)
x............to q = ...................................................
...............................................................
POLARS
These notes were drawn up by JN WIESNER, updated January 2015. It will eventually form part of
the new survey I and II study guides to be drawn up by me and may only be used for study purposes
- 38 -
JOIN
SRC2601/102/0/2015
POLAR CHECK
ORIENTATION
OBSERVED DIRECTIONS
@R
...........
...........
...........
...........
..........
ORIENTATION CORRECTION
ORIENTED DIRECTIONS
SOLVING TRIANGLES
POLARS
R1
R1
JOIN
POLAR CHECK
POLARS
R2
R2
- 39 -
JOIN
SRC2601/102/0/2015
POLAR CHECK
POLARS
R3
R3
JOIN POLAR CHECK
POLARS
R4
R4
- 40 -
JOIN
SRC2601/102/0/2015
POLAR CHECK
POLARS
R5
R5
FINAL COORDINATE
R1 = .........................................................................
R2 = .........................................................................
R3 = .........................................................................
R4 = .........................................................................
R5 = .........................................................................
RFINAL = ............................................................................................
- 41 -
SRC2601/102/0/2015
Question bank
1
2
3.1
3.2
4.
State and discuss the important factors to be taken into account during reconniasance when a
number of points are to be fixed in a horizontal network.
Discuss: Orientation adjustment on the final adjusted observed directions.
(3)
The enlargement and resolving power of the telescope are properties, that have to be taken into
account for the choice of and use of a theodolite
Which one of these properties is the most important during triangulation observations? Fully
motivate your answer and give the formulae used to calculate the relevant property.
In areas where much development has not taken place, control points are reasonably scarce and
thinly distributed. Most of the times those that are available are up to 20 kilometres away from the
measuring area. How is this sighting problem solved in better instruments with lines getting longer
and longer?
Resection problems
5
The following observations at a point PIKE were obtained from a reduced field book.
(a) Calculate the orientation correction by Collins q-point method.
(b) The preliminary co-ordinates.
CO-ORDINATE LIST
Lo 13
OBSERVED DIRECTIONS
CONSTANTS - 100 000,00Y + 1 200 000,00X

ALE
@ PIKE
2 497,59
1 898,31
ROCK
CHANA -
3 151,20
2 211,63
ALE
DROS
1 860,26
4 356,78
DROS
ROCK
301,00
2 164,62
CHANA
292 36 41
59 13 18
188 08 29
87 57 42

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SRC2601/102/0/2015

Tutorial letter 102/0/2015

Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS FROM SURVEYING I

Revise all Surveying I theory and practical.

Joins and Polar theory

Plans and Maps

Revision of Surveying I theory on traverse calculation and adjustment

Reduction of the field book

Reduction of the oriented directions in the fieldbook.

Traverse Calculation Standard form

Adjustment of the traverse by the Bowditch rule

Rules for placing of traverse stations

Spot height accuracies

Contour intervals in relation to the scale of the plan

The Surveying telescope

The properties of a surveying telescope

Definition of a surveying telescope.

The clarity of the image

The size of the field

SUGGESTED WORK PROGRAM

JOIN AND POLAR THEORY

The magnetic direction

Introduction to the SOUTH AFRICAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

The two directions must both be of the same type

E (Oriented direction xDE)

C (Un-Oriented direction xAC)

F (Oriented direction xDF)

The inner Angle KAL = xAK Xal

The full definition for an angle will therefore be as follows:

Directions and Back Directions

xAC = True forward direction AC = 250

Angle ACP = 70 = xCA

xCA = xAC 180

Construction of a grid and plotting of coordinated points.

1.2.4 True direction (AZIMUTH) of a line at a point in South Africa

Southerly direction of the Meridian through A

Implications of the difference between surveying and mathematics direction systems

Boundary Meridian (BM)

Horizontal Distance = 152,3m

25 West of True North

The Polar Coordinate of P = 25 West of True North and 152,3 meters

In Figure 3.14 below, coordinate measurements are shown.

Y = S Sin xAB = S Sin

Sin is Positive in the 1st Quadrant.

Cos = (XB-XA)/S = +/+ = Positive

Cos is Positive in the 1st Quadrant.

Tan = (YB-YA)/ (XB-XA) = +/+ = Positive

Tan is Positive in the 1st Quadrant.

The True direction is (0 + )

Sin is Negative in the 4th Quadrant.

Cos = (XB-XA)/S = +/+ = Positive

Cos is Positive in the 4th Quadrant.

Tan = (YB-YA)/ (XB-XA) = -/+ = Negative

Tan is Negative in the 4th Quadrant.

The True direction is (270 + )

Equation Y = S Sin xAB = S Sin

Equation X = S Cos xAB = S Cos

Then: YB = (+YA) + (S Sin xAB)

: YB = +YA + S Sin xAB)

XB = +XA + S Cos xAB)

Further single polar exercises

xAC = 205 43 52 and AC = 3 546,789m