1.

STEEL STRUCTURES

Chapter 1
STEEL STRUCTURES

1.1. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS WITH STEEL STRUCTURES

Construction works is the general term including both buildings (apartment

houses, offices, schools, etc.) and civil engineering works (TV towers, tanks, etc.).
In the European code EN 1990 [10] it is defined as everything that is constructed or
results from construction operations. It accords with ISO 6707-1 [35]. Structure
(Structural system) is an assemblage of load carrying structural members joined to
provide the required strength, stiffness and ductility of a construction work. EN 1990
[10] (def. 1.5.1.6) defines the structure as organised combination of connected
parts designed to carry loads and provide adequate rigidity and the structural
system as load-bearing members of a building or civil engineering works and the
way in which these members function together. In the American code ANSI/AISC
360-10 [34], the structural system is defined as an assemblage of load-carrying
components that are joined together to provide interaction or interdependence.
Cladding is the exterior covering of the structure (ANSI/AISC 360-10 [34]).
By cladding (roof + side wall) a certain volume is separated from the atmosphere.
This separation is made to create in the interior all the conditions required by a
human activity that can not be developed in open air.
Construction works with steel structures can be classified in three types, depending
on the presence or role of cladding:
1. Type S.C. (Construction work = Structure + Cladding)
This is the most general type (Fig. 1.1). This type (S.C.) of construction works
is largely represented by all kind of buildings:

one storey industrial buildings (Fig. 1.2a);

apartment houses, offices, hotels, schools, colleges etc. (Fig. 1.2b);

sport halls, theatres etc.

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Side wall

Roof

Structure

Cladding

Fig. 1.1. Type S.C. construction work

Cladding
Structure
Cladding
Structure

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1.2. Examples of type S.C. construction works

2. Type S. (Construction work = Structure only)

This type (Fig. 1.3) is represented by all kind of civil engineering works when
cladding is not necessary, like:

transmission towers (Fig. 1.3a);

pipe-lines (Fig. 1.3b) etc.

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1.3. Examples of type S. construction works

3. Type C. (Construction work = Structural cladding)

This type (Fig. 1.4) is represented by all kind of civil engineering works when
cladding is structural, like:

tanks (Fig. 1.4a);

spherical vessels (Fig. 1.4b);

chimneys (Fig. 1.4c);

silos etc.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1.4. Examples of type C. construction works

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(c)

1. STEEL STRUCTURES
1.2. DESIGN. FABRICATION. ERECTION

A steel structure results by assembling on site a number of various structural

members, like beams, columns etc. (Fig. 1.5) prefabricated in fabrication shops.
p
p

MEd

MEd

H
Truss
Beam-column

Beam

NEd

NEd

NEd

Column

MEd

MEd
VEd

VEd

VEd

Fig. 1.5. Examples of structural members

The main steps to realise a steel structure are:

design of the structure;

fabrication of structural members in fabrication shops (using plates and

profiles which are produced in steel works);

transport of structural members on site;

erection of the structure by assembling structural members on site.

All the technical activities involved, meaning design, production of shapes and
plates, fabrication of the structural members and erection must comply with
requirements contained in principles and application rules provided by the codes.

1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN

A structure shall satisfy the following requirements during its intended lifetime:
1. It must sustain with appropriate degrees of reliability all actions to occur during its
construction and intended use.
2. It must remain fit for its required use.
This usually leads to two types of requirements to be checked:

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

strength requirement in order to resist all actions to occur during its intended
lifetime;

stiffness requirement in order to remain fit for its required use (allowable
displacements).

Calculation scheme
IB

Actual
configuration

IC

IC

L
p

Effects of actions
MEd+
VEd+
+

NEd

z
x
y

Actions
y

Fig. 1.6. Main steps to create and analyse the model of a structure

The strength requirement is expressed by

Ed R d

(EN 1990 [10], rel. (6.8))

( 1.1 )

In eq. (1.1) and in figure 1.6:

Ed is the design value of that effect of actions:
NEd axial force (+ tension; compression);
MEd bending moment;
VEd shear force;
TEd torsion moment.
NEd, MEd, VEd, TEd are efforts and they are effects of external forces.
Rd is the design capacity design value of the corresponding resistance of the
structural member, for the considered effort NEd, MEd, VEd or TEd.
The stiffness requirement is generally determined by serviceability criteria
(the proper use of the structural member or structure) and it is usually
expressed by:
a

( 1.2 )

where:

the calculated deformation;

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
a the allowable deformation.
E d Cd

(EN 1990 [10], rel. (6.13))

( 1.2 )

where:
Ed the design value of the effects of actions specified in the serviceability
criterion, determined on the basis of the relevant combination;
Cd the limiting design value of the relevant serviceability criterion.

Example

p
L

MEd
Fig. 1.7. Example

Strength requirement
E d = M Ed =

p L2
(calculated)
8

R d = M Rd = W

fy
M0

(calculated)

E d R d M Ed M Rd

f
p L2
W y
8
M0

Stiffness requirement
Ed = = f =

5 p L4

(calculated)
384 EI

Cd = a = f a =

L
(allowable)
300

E d C d a f fa

5 p L4
L

384 EI
300

In the above relations:

W section modulus of the cross-section;
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
R

design strength of the steel grade that is used;

fy

the yielding limit of the steel grade that is used;

M0 partial safety factor for resistance of cross-sections to excessive

yielding, including local buckling;
EI stiffness of the cross-section of the member.
The strength requirements and the stiffness ones can be found in codes of
practice as principles and application rules.
Principles comprise:

general statements and definitions for which there is no alternative;

requirements and analytical models for which no alternative is permitted.

Application rules, usually called recommendations in the codes, are recognised

rules that follow the principles and satisfy their requirements. It is allowed to use
alternative rules, different from the recommendations (application rules) given in the
codes, provided that it is proved that the alternative rules comply with the principles
and provide at least the same reliability.

1.4. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

Structural members are prefabricated in fabrication shops using a large range

of products for steel construction produced in steel works:

standard profiles (shapes)

angle

I shape (W shape)

channel

steel pipe

etc.

rolled plates.
Some built-up elements like plate girders or box sections are fabricated in

fabrication shops, usually by welding.

The main structural members can be classified with respect to the dominant efforts N
(axial force), M (bending moment), V (shear force), as follows:
1. Beam is a structural member whose primary function is to carry loads transverse
to its longitudinal axis (Fig. 1.8). The dominant effort is M (bending moment). In the

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
American code ANSI/AISC 360-10 [34] it is defined as nominally horizontal
structural member that has the primary function of resisting bending moments.
p

L
M

Fig. 1.8. Beam

Equilibrium relations
z
C

MEd0 VEd0
x

NEd=0

z
Ten

z
z
Fig. 1.9. Typical stress distribution for a beam

NEd = 0 Ten C = 0 Ten = C

( 1.3 )

MEd 0 MEd = T z MRd

( 1.4 )

where:
MEd effect of actions (bending moment produced by external forces);
MRd resistance capacity (resistant bending moment);
C

resultant of compression normal stresses on the cross-section;

Ten resultant of tension normal stresses on the cross-section.

Remark: The cross-section must be developed (Fig. 1.10) in the plane of the acting
bending moment MEd in order to increase the resistant bending moment MRd, i.e. in
the plane of the acting forces (greater h greater z greater MRd = Ten z).

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

Fig. 1.10. Typical development of the cross-section

Typical problem: The risk of lateral instability (lateral buckling) (Fig. 1.11a) or local
instability (local buckling) (Fig. 1.11b) is typical for metal (steel or aluminium alloy)
members subjected to bending moment.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1.11. Typical instability problems for metal members in bending

Depending on the practical solution adopted for a beam, the following ones are the
most commonly used cross-sections:
1.a. Rolled beam is a structural beam produced by rolling (hot rolling). The most
commonly used shapes (Fig. 1.12) for beams are the following ones:

IPE, HE, HL, HD, HP, W, UB, UC

IPN

UAP

Fig. 1.12. The most commonly used hot rolled shapes for beams
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UPN

1. STEEL STRUCTURES

1.b. Plate girder (Fig. 1.13) is a built-up structural beam, usually made of welded
rolled plates (sometimes they may be bolted or riveted, especially in the case of
aluminium alloy).

Fig. 1.13. Typical plate girder cross-section

1.c. Lattice girder (Fig. 1.14) is a built-up structural beam made of a triangulated
system of bars subjected to axial forces. It is able to resist forces acting in its plane.

Top chord

Web members

L
M

Bottom chord

C
h

Fig. 1.14. Example of lattice girder

MEd 0 MEd = MRd = C h (or MRd = Ten h)

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( 1.5 )

1. STEEL STRUCTURES
NEd = 0 Ten + D cos C = 0 D =

CT
cos

( 1.6 )

Truss (Fig. 1.15) is a lattice girder used in the roof framing.

Fig. 1.15. Example of truss

1.d. Cold-formed shape (Fig. 1.16) is a cross-section obtained from plates by

bending or by rolling at normal temperature. They are especially used for purlins
(secondary beams of the roof structure).

Fig. 1.16. Examples of cold-formed cross-sections used for beams

2. Column (Fig. 1.17) is a structural member whose primary function is to carry

loads acting in its longitudinal axis. The dominant effort is N. In the American code
ANSI/AISC 360-10 [34] it is defined as nominally vertical structural member that has
the primary function of resisting axial compressive force.
P

he

buckling

buckling

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1.17. Examples of columns

Remark: The fact that practically all the compressed structural members are sized by
the buckling resistance of the member is typical for steel structures. In the concrete
structures the loss of stability is an uncommon phenomenon.

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
For the column in fig 1.17a the strength requirement (1.1) turns into:
PEd PRd =
External force

2 EI
(2 h e )2

( 1.7 )

Critical force

As a result, in order to avoid buckling in any vertical plane, the cross-section

must be developed in its plane, like shown in figure 1.18.

Fig. 1.18. Examples of cross-sections for columns

3. Beam-column (Fig. 1.19) is a structural member whose primary function is to

carry both transverse to longitudinal axis and acting in its longitudinal axis forces.
The dominant efforts are M and N. In the American code ANSI/AISC 360-10 [34] it is
defined as structural member that resists both axial force and bending moment.
P
H

NEd

MEd

P
MEd = H h

Fig. 1.19. Example of beam-column

Remark: The following are typical for the cross-sections used in metal structures:

the cross-section is preferentially developed in the plane of the acting bending

moment with regard to the strong axis y-y (Fig. 1.20a);

in the situations when it is necessary, the moment of inertia (second moment of

the area) with regard to the weak axis z-z is improved (Fig. 1.20c).

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Beam

Column

z
y

Beam-column
z

lip

Iy >> Iz
Iy Iz
Iz is improved by lips
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1.20. Examples of cross-sections for beams, columns and beam-columns

4. Structural wall (Fig. 1.21) is a structural member whose primary function is to

carry both vertical and horizontal forces acting in the plane of the wall.
P
H

Fig. 1.21. Example of structural wall

4.a. Vertical bracing (Fig. 1.22) is a structural wall made of a triangulated system of
bars subjected to axial forces.
P
H

P
H

Fig. 1.22. Example of vertical bracing

1.5. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

1.5.1. Structural philosophy

The concept of steel structural system is largely influenced by some

particularities of structural steel as a material and of the behaviour of the structural
members. As a result, steel design is based on its own structural philosophy, which
presents some particularities in comparison with the concept of structural systems in
reinforced concrete, brick or timber.

1.5.2. Structures with a single column

1.5.2.1. Structural philosophy

Problem 1 (Fig. 1.23)

Lead to ground (Fig. 1.23a) a vertical force P (gravitational) acting at the level
h from the ground in the plane xOy.
x

point A

NEd = P

(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.23. Leading a vertical force to the ground

Solution
Use a vertical bar on the acting line of the force P to connect the point A to the
point B on the ground (Fig. 1.23b).
Remarks

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
1. This solution is the most economical, thanks to the following:

the path AB is the shortest one to carry the force P to the ground;

only the force P is to carry on the load path AB (according to a principle of

structural mechanics, a force translates on its acting line by its value).

2. This solution, corresponding to the case of a vertical force, can also be applied in
the case of an inclined force P.

Problem 2 (Fig. 1.24)

Lead to the ground a horizontal force H (wind, seismic action, etc.) parallel to
the ground, acting at the level h.
x

H
point A
h

Fig. 1.24. Leading a horizontal force to the ground

General remark
In accordance with a principle of structural mechanics, a force H displaces
parallel to itself by its value H and a bending moment M. As a result, it is much more
expensive to carry a horizontal force to the ground than to carry a vertical one.

Solution a (Fig. 1.25)

Use a bar transverse to the acting line of the force H to connect the point A to
the point B on the ground.

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
H
A

VEd = H
h
MEd = H h

B
Fig. 1.25. Solution a for leading a horizontal force to the ground

Remark a
Using this solution, the required area of material to carry a horizontal force H
could be 5 to 10 times (in some cases even more) greater than the required area to
carry the same force acting vertically P = H.
Solution b (Fig. 1.26)
Use a vertical bracing; the simplest one is a triangulated system.
H
Ten

C = Ten
C cos + Ten cos = H
H
C = Ten =
2 cos

a
Fig. 1.26. Solution b for leading a horizontal force to the ground

Remark b
This solution is more economical, because the force H is carried to the ground
by axial forces. For instance, if the force H = P the steel consumption is 2 to 3 times
greater than for the same force P acting vertically, depending on the distance a

26

1. STEEL STRUCTURES
between the supports. The greater the distance a is, the arm lever increases and, as
a result, the forces diminish.

Problem 3 (Fig. 1.27)

Lead to the ground a vertical force P and a horizontal force H parallel to the
ground, acting at the level h from the ground, in the plane xOy.
P

x
H

point A
h

Fig. 1.27. Leading a horizontal force and a vertical force to the ground
Solutions (Fig. 1.28)
Four possible solutions are presented, based on the previously discussed ones:

(a) cantilever;

(b) structural wall (solved as a vertical bracing);

(c) a triangulated system;

(d) guyed tower.

The solution (d) represents a combination between (a) and (c). The cables must be
in tension in any loading case so they need to be pretensioned. As a result, the initial
tension in the cables Teninit must be greater than the highest compression CH
produced by the force H. This solution is generally required by high rise TV towers.
P

P
H

P
H

P
H

Ten

Compressed bar

Pretensioned
cables
Teninit > CH
(a)

(b)

(c)

27

(d)

1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Fig. 1.28. Solutions for leading a horizontal force and a vertical force to the ground

1.5.2.2. Structural systems

Some structural systems based on the solutions presented in figure 1.28 are
shown in figure 1.29. These solutions are developed in order to realise spatial
structures, required both by stability requirements and by the effects of horizontal
forces H acting on any direction.

22

44

33

11

Fig. 1.29. Structural systems with a single column

1.5.3. Structures with a number of columns in a line

Figure 1.30 shows a steel structure designed to support a pipe-line.

A

P
H

L
C

B
VB
C

A
AA
Fig. 1.30. Steel structure for sustaining a pipe-line

This solution is typical for steel structures and it consists of:

28

1. STEEL STRUCTURES

cantilever columns (C) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist the vertical forces P and the
horizontal forces H transverse to the line of columns; they also provide the
required stiffness in the transverse plane (each column resists its own P and H
forces); for this reason, their cross-sections are developed in the plane of the
acting bending moment produced by the transverse forces H;

a vertical bracing (VB) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist all the horizontal forces L
acting in the longitudinal direction and to provide the required strength and
stiffness in the longitudinal direction;

two continuous beams (B) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist the vertical loads P acting
between columns and to transmit them to the columns; at the same time, the
beams connect the columns in the longitudinal direction.

Remarks
The vertical bracing is typical for a steel structure. It is located in the middle of the
structure, to allow a good behaviour of the structure to the effects of temperature
variations. Built-up cross-sections able to resist bending moments in two planes like
those ones in figure 1.31 are to be avoided due to their high cost of fabrication.

Fig. 1.31. Cross-sections that are not very common for steel columns

1.5.4. Structures with a number of orthogonal column lines

1.5.4.1. Structural philosophy

Problem 4
Lead to the ground vertical (P), horizontal (H) and inclined (I) forces acting on
the roof or on the floor of a building (Fig. 1.32).
H

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Fig. 1.32. Leading to the ground forces acting on the roof

Solutions
Figure 1.33 shows three possible solutions, which are compared in table 1.1
from the point of view of their strength, stiffness and ductility properties.
Strength

resistance to the forces S (NEd, MEd, VEd, TEd produced by the loads.

Stiffness

is the resistance to the deformations , , produced by the loads.

Ductility

is the capacity to dissipate energy by large plastic deformations.

Solution 1: M.R.F. = Moment Resisting Frame

1
plastic hinge

Solution 2: C.B.F. = Concentrically Braced Frame

buckling

Solution 3: E.B.F. = Eccentrically Braced Frame

1
plastic zone

Fig. 1.33. Possible solutions for leading forces acting on the roof

Table 1.1. Comparison among possible solutions

Strength

Stiffness

Ductility

M.R.F.

good

poor

very good

C.B.F.

good

very good

poor

E.B.F.

good

good

good

1.5.4.2. Single storey buildings

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

Figure 1.34 shows a typical structure of a single storey industrial building,

based on the structural philosophy discussed above.
H
L

CRG

PH
crane

VB

HTB

Pr

CRG

TRANSVERSE SECTION

SIDE VIEW
PLAN VIEW
VB

HLB

Pr

RHB
MRF
HTB
Fig. 1.34. A typical steel structure for a single storey industrial building

The structure is composed of:

transverse MRF, sized to resist vertical (P) and horizontal (H) forces and to
provide the required strength and stiffness in the transverse plane; each MRF
resists its own P and H forces and their cross-sections are developed in the plane
of the acting bending moment MEd produced by the transverse forces H;

vertical bracing VB, sized to resist all longitudinal forces L acting in the
longitudinal direction and to provide the required strength and stiffness in the
longitudinal direction;

roof framing, consisting of roof horizontal bracing RHB, composed of horizontal

transverse bracing HTB and horizontal longitudinal bracing HLB, in order to
provide torsional rigidity of the structure and purlins Pr to resist vertical forces
acting on the roof and to transmit them to the MRF;

crane runway girders CRG, to resist the forces produced by cranes and to
transmit their P and H forces to the MRF and L forces to the VB.

Remark:

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Trusses are often used instead of girders for long span buildings. In this case
MRF is composed of columns and trusses, usually pin connected, like in figure 1.35.

Purlin (Pr)

Truss (T)

Column (C)

Crane runway
girder (CRG)

Fig. 1.35. A steel structure for a single storey industrial building using trusses

Specific terms:
crab crucior
hoist palan
corrugated plate tabl cutat (ondulat)

1.5.4.3. Multi-storey buildings

Figure 1.36 shows a modern concept of a multi-storey steel structure

composed of two systems:

a frame system (F), resisting both vertical (P) and horizontal (H and L) forces; this
could be a moment resisting frame (MRF), a concentrically braced frame (CBF)
or an eccentrically braced frame (EBF);

a gravitational system, resisting only vertical forces (P).

Rigid diaphragm floors and side frame systems provide the torsional rigidity of the
whole building, which is fundamental for the good behaviour of the structure when
subjected to horizontal loads.
Figure 1.37 shows three very well-known present-day performances in highrise skyscrapers construction.

32

1. STEEL STRUCTURES
PLAN
1

Frame system (F)

Gravitational system (G)
SECTION 1 1
MRF

CBF

EBF

Fig. 1.36. A modern concept of a multi-storey steel structure

Petronas Towers

Sears Tower

Empire State

452m 88 floors 1998

442m 108 floors 1974

381m 1931

Fig. 1.37. Present-day performances in skyscrapers

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

Figure 1.38a shows one of the tallest building in the world, Taipei 101,
situated in Taipei, Taiwan. Present day (2015) tallest building in the world is Burj
Khalifa (Fig. 1.38b), previously known as Burj Dubai, placed in Dubai. It was built
between September 21st 2004 and January 4th 2010.It is 828 m high and it has 163
floors; the total built surface is 334000 m2 (source Council of Tall Buildings and
Urban Habitat (www.ctbuh.org)).

Taipei 101

Burj Khalifa

509m 101 floors 2004

828m 163 floors 2010

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1.38. Present-day tallest buildings in the world

34