RESEARCH PAPER

2015 June

RETAINING WALLS
- Structure used to retain soil, rock or other materials in a vertical condition.
Hence they provide a lateral support to vertical slopes of soil that would
otherwise collapse into a more natural shape.
- They are used to bound soils
between
two
different
elevations often in areas of
terrain possessing undesirable
slopes or in areas where the
landscape needs to be shaped
severely and engineered for
more specific purposes like
hillside farming or roadway
overpasses.
- In some cases, the retaining
wall may also support vertical
loads.
Examples
include
basement walls and certain types of bridge abutments.
- A retaining wall needs to function properly to prevent collapsing, but for many
people the visual appeal is also important.

Most common materials used for retaining walls are:

Wood sheets;

Steel and plastic interlocking sheets;

Reinforced concrete sheets;

Precast concrete elements (crib walls and block walls);

Closely spaced in-situ soil-cement piles;

Wire-mesh boxes (gabbions);

Anchors into the soil or rock mass (soil nailing).

TYPES
I.

G RAVITY R ETAINING W ALLS

A retaining wall that relies solely on its own weight to hold the earth piled against
it. Rigid gravity walls may be constructed of stone masonry, unreinforced concrete,
or reinforced concrete. These walls can be used in both cut and fill applications.
They have relatively narrow base widths. They are generally not used when deep
foundations are required. They are most economical at low wall heights.

Figure 1. Left, Diagram of a gravity wall. Right, 19.5 ft. tall Redi-Rock gravity wall in
Independence, Kentucky

II.

C ANTILEVER R ETAINING W ALLS

Cantilevered retaining walls are made from an internal stem of steel-reinforced,
cast-in-place concrete or mortared masonry (often in the shape of an inverted T).

Figure 2. Left, Diagram of a cantilever wall. Right, Precast vertical cantilever panels during
installation

These walls cantilever loads (like a beam) to a large, structural footing, converting
horizontal pressures from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below.
Sometimes cantilevered walls are buttressed on the front, or include a counterfort
on the back, to improve their strength resisting high loads.

III.

P ILING R ETAINING W ALLS

A piling retaining wall extends long piles far below ground so that the wall is fixed
by the soil on both sides of it. If the material of which the piles are made can resist
the bending forces of the earth piled against it, this wall can take high loads.

Figure 3. Left, Diagram of a piling wall. Right, Example of a sheet pile wall

IV.

A NCHORED R ETAINING W ALLS

Anchored walls are typically composed of the same elements as non-gravity
cantilevered walls, but derive additional lateral resistance from one or more levels
of anchors.

Figure 4. Left, Diagram of an anchored. Right, Tiebacks in an anchored wall in Highway, Brazi

The anchors may be ground anchors (tiebacks) consisting of drilled holes with
grouted in prestressing steel tendons extending from the wall face to an anchor
zone located behind potential failure planes in the retained soil or rock mass.

V.

C OUNTERFORT R ETAINING W ALLS

These walls are most useful in large landscaping projects. They can be built to
heights of 25 feet and are the ideal retaining wall for hillside landscaping.
Counterfort walls are able to hold back large amounts of earth, making it one of the
best building structures for homes built on mountainous terrain or near steep
vertical drops.

Figure 5. Left, Diagram of a counterfort. Right, A short length of counterfort wall being
constructed in Penang Island, Malaysia

VI.

C RIB R ETAINING W ALLS

Crib walls are one of the oldest gravity wall systems, comprised of a series of
stacked members creating hollow cells filled with soil or rock. Crib walls are
designed as gravity retaining walls constructed from interlocking precast concrete
components, filled with free-draining material and earth backfill. This eliminates the
hazards of hydrostatic pressure building up behind walls.

Figure 6. Left, Diagram of a piling wall. Right, 10-metre crib wall at Toowoomba
School.

FAILURE MECHANISMS
I.

S LIDING F AILURE
-

Sliding is also caused by the thrust of the soil. Instead of the wall overturning, it
slides horizontally as an entire unit. Larger foundations, more massive walls, or
cantilevered foundations are some solutions that can reduce the chances of a
wall sliding. Ensure that there is a drainage system installed behind the wall to
reduce hydrostatic pressure.

Figure 7. Illustration of a Sliding Failure of a Retaining Wall

II.

O VERTURNING F AILURE
-

Caused by the force of the soil pushing a wall over when the thrust exceeds the
walls weight. Overturning can be prevented by increasing the wall mass,
enlarging the foundation, or using a cantilevered foundation. Retaining Walsh
that hold back a surcharge are more likely to fail than walls that do not retain a
surcharge.

Figure 8. Left, Illustration of an Overturning Failure of a Retaining Wall. Right, distressed

cantilever wall in Cincinnati, Ohio is tilting about 10 degrees.

III.

B EARING C APACITY F AILURE

-

The normal pressure between the base of the wall and the soil beneath can
cause a bearing failure of the soil, if the ultimate bearing capacity is exceeded.
Usually the allowable bearing pressure will be one-third of the ultimate value.
Note that the pressure distribution across the base is not constant.

Figure 9. Illustration of a Bearing Capacity Failure of a Retaining Wall

IV.

S HALLOW
-

SHEAR

F AILURE

Shallow shear failure in soil below the base of a retaining wall takes place along
a cylindrical surface abc passing through the heel, as shown in figure 7.15a. The
center of the arc of the circle abc is located at O, which is found by trial and
error (corresponds to the minimum factor of safety). This type of failure can
occur as the result of excessive induced shear stress along the cylindrical
surface in soil. In general, the factor of safety against horizontal sliding is lower
than the factor of safety obtained by shallow shear failure, if Fs (sliding) is
greater than about 1.5, shallow shear failure under the base may not occur.

Figure 10. Illustration of a Shallow Shear Failure of a Retaining Wall

V.

D EEP
-

SHEAR

F AILURE

Deep shear failure can occur along a cylindrical surface abc as shown in figure,
as the result of the existence of a weak layer of soil underneath the wall at a
depth of about 1.5 times the width of the retaining wall. In such cases, the critical
cylindrical failure surface abc has to be determined by trial and error with
various centers, such as O. The failure surface along which the minimum factor
of safety is obtained is the critical surface of sliding. For the backfill slope with
less than about 10, the critical failure circle apparently passes through the
edge of the heel slab. In this situation, the minimum factor of safety also has to
be determined by trial and error by changing the center of the trial circle.

Figure 11. Illustration of a Deep Shear Failure of a Retaining Wall

DESIGN STANDARDS
-

Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral earth and water pressures. The
effect of surcharge loads, the self-weight of the wall and in special cases, earthquake
loads in accordance with the general principles specified

Retaining walls shall be designed for a service life based on consideration of the
potential long-term effects of material deterioration on each of the material
components comprising the wall.

Permanent retaining walls should be designed for a minimum service life of 50 years.

Temporary retaining walls should be designed for a minimum service life of 5 years.

The quality of in-service performance is an important consideration in the design of

permanent retaining walls.

Permanent walls shall be designed to retain an aesthetically pleasing appearance, and

be essentially maintenance free throughout their design service life.

The Service Load Design Method shall be used for the design of retaining walls except
where noted otherwise.

Some retaining wall design standards can also be found in NSCP Section 414 (Walls):
o

Section 14.2.2 Cantilever Retaining walls are designed according to flexural

design provisions of Section 410 with minimum horizontal reinforcements
according to Section 414.4.3

Section 414.3.6 Walls shall be anchored to intersecting elements such as floors

or roofs; or to columns, buttresses, and intersecting walls: and to footings

Section 414.4 Minimum Reinforcement

Design consideration:
-

Overturning of the wall does not occur

Forward sliding does not occur

Materials used are suitable

The subsoil is not overloaded

REFERENCES
-

MODULE 7 (LECTURE 25) RETAINING WALLS

Nptel - Advanced Foundation Engineering-1

MODULE 7 (LECTURE 24 TO 28) RETAINING WALLS

Nptel - Advanced Foundation Engineering-1

TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

Foundation Engineering L. Prieto-Portar 2008

SECTION 5 - RETAINING WALLS

Caltrans Bridge Design Specifications, August 2004

FOUR COMMON TYPES OF RIGID, MONOLITHIC CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS

http://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/poured_concrete_retaining_walls/four_typ
es.htm

GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS

http://www.allanblock.com/retaining-walls/gravity-wall-engineering.aspx

RETAINING WALLS
https://kshitija.wordpress.com/2006/06/23/retaining-walls/

CHAPTER 11: RETAINING WALLS

http://www.globalspec.com/reference/61891/203279/chapter-11-retaining-walls

MODES OF FAILURE OF RETAINING WALLS

http://www.slideshare.net/riteshac1/modes-of-failure-of-retaining-walls

THE 2011 ROCKY AWARDS

http://www.redi-rock.com/best-retaining-walls-of-2011-commercial-residential-water.html

CRIB WALL RETAINING SYSTEMS FROM CONCRIB

http://www.spec-net.com.au/press/1210/con_151210.htm

ANCHORED WALL
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anchored_wall.jpg

WALL FAILURE
http://www.fao.org/docrep/s1250e/s1250e0g.htm

STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS

https://retainingwalldesign.wordpress.com/2012/04/27/stability-of-retaining-walls/